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Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

A Preliminary Report on The Effectiveness of a ComputerAssisted Instruction Software for Music Appreciation for Non-Music Majors Ang Yaw Feng1, Pan Kok Chang2
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Cultural Centre, University of Malaya ABSTRACT

This research is undertaken to study the effects of application of a self-developed musical element computer-assisted instruction (CAI) program (with combined audio and visual elements) in the teaching of musical appreciation subject for non music majors in TAR College. In this study any significant impact on students' achievement as demonstrated by written post-test results after using CAI will be elucidated. Data for this study was collected using two samples of 39 students, divided into the Treatment (N=17) and Control (N=22) Groups, respectively. A pretest was on musical elements was given prior to lectures and tutorials following which students in the Treatment Group were instructed to use the CAI program while the students in the Control Group were assigned non computer based tasks. After the completion of each session of tutorials, the students were evaluated by a written post-test based on eight elements of music. During the study, uniform standards and performances were maintained by the use of similar handout and materials. Preliminary results showed that three out of eight quizzes from the third tutorial indicated that students who received CAI software treatment performed significantly better compared to those on the posttest tests. On the other hand, all the subjects displayed positively in survey results for measuring attitudes towards the CAI program. As this is only a preliminary study, it is hoped that with the collection of data from more respondents, a clearer trend may be evident as this study progressed.

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

Keywords: music education, educational technology, computer-assisted instruction (CAI), computer-assisted learning (CAL), music appreciation INTRODUCTION

In the field of music, instructional software such as Drill-and-Practice or GuidedInstruction has been integrated into music curriculum particularly in the West. However, very few research has been carried out in Malaysia. The main advantages of CAI in music as recognized by researchers, include the opportunity to see an interval, melody, or chord while simultaneously hearing it (Bowyer, 2000) with much research being conducted in various disciplines of music, including music appreciation. (Arenson, 1982; Hess, 1997; Herzog, 1991; Hultberg, 1973; Foltz & Gross. 1980; Parrish, 1997; Reitenour, 1984) At Tunku Abdul Rahman (TAR) College, Music Appreciation is an elective subject for non-music majors whose curriculum includes the study of music language (musical elements) and Western art music development, among others. The main emphasis is on the elements of music, musical terms, composers, musical forms, development of music and styles within historical perspective. Non music majors encounter difficulties in the study of musical developments particularly the analysis of characteristics of the different historical periods. To overcome this problem, the researchers developed a computer assisted instruction (CAI) program after having surveyed fruitlessly for a suitable CAI program that suit the syllabus of the course, as available programs are primarily targeted on musical fundamental skills or musical dictation.

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

As mentioned by Chan (1997), the study of attitudes is important and it is helpful to study the contributing factors to such attitudes. In this study, two of the contributing factors (gender and musical background), were selected as variables to find out the existence of any correlation between background factors and attitude towards music study. In developing the CAI program, the researcher applied some colorful graphic and high quality sound to improve the effectiveness of communication as Smith (1997) point out that the two most important things that musicians do, involve sound and graphics (i.e. listening to music and studying music scores). Objectives of the Study The present study aims at determining the presence of any significant positive impact on students' achievement as demonstrated by the post-test results in music appreciation after using CAI program, as well as the improvement in understanding music elements in detail. The study centers on: 1. Designing and developing a CAI program on musical elements for the teaching of Music Appreciation for TAR students. 2. Carrying out the formative evaluation on the usage of CAI program on Musical Elements. 3. Determining general attitude of non- music majors towards using CAI music program.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is one of the technology applications widely used in different disciplines of music, such as music literature, music appreciation et cetera.

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

Many studies have been carried out to investigate the effect of CAI compare with the traditional methods. (Baker, 2000). The results so far are still inconclusive. Three studies which concentrated on music appreciation or music fundamentals, however have given significant differences between the Control Group and the Treatment Group are: first, Placek (1992) discovered significant difference in his experimental study involving an interactive computer program. Similar finding were deduced by Woodruffs (1998) design of five units of CAL modules in music appreciation addressing aural objectives which were constructed using PODIUM software. The t-tests results of the experimental group were all significant. However, his study greater level of conceptual understanding in learning aural concepts unsuitable for my study. The third study involved DART software written by the author was reported to be somewhat helpful or very helpful by 81% of the students. Statistical analysis of a pretest / posttest instrument indicated significant gains in achievement of two areas (written note identification and written key signature recognition) by students using instructional software outside-of-class. (Dobbe, 1998) There are also studies which showed no significant difference in students achievement in use of CAI. Parrish (1997) experiments showed no significant different between the students scores on music fundamental test. (Webster, 2001). In Setzers

research (1994), he applied CAI to create a complete set of interactive Music Appreciation course materials using HyperCard stacks linked to CD-ROM players. His CAI program has limited application as he utilized low-end Macintosh software incompatible with windows common used today. In Malaysia, two studies performed by Hassan (1999) and Lim (2003) showed similarly promising results. However, Hassans study did not involve the application of CAI

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

(notation software), while Lims study only utilized a software for gauging the improvement on reading music notes. However, in spite of all the studies mentioned above, the author could find no recent statistical study relating outcomes in music elements exams (for music appreciation course) to CAI supplemental instruction with the use of tutorial mode. Moreover, the two researches carried out in Malaysia thus far were using training teachers as subjects. In my opinion, students should be used as subjects to produce more accurate research. It is likely that gender and experience might influence the accuracy of the results. Hence, the researchers aim to develop this software which is suited to students for this purpose with the aim of reinforcing known materials, which has been designed for the enhancement of musical terminology in music appreciation subjects as none of the studies on developing and implementing CAI music program been reported in Malaysia.

METHODOLOGY Design This study utilized a quasi-experimental research design, with the application of pretest and posttest being applied to both the Treatment and Control Groups. Classes for both groups were samples of convenience where no students were randomly assigned as the assignment of students based on randomization was not possible. The independent variable is formed by students who integrate the CAI program designed by the researcher in the digital studio laboratory while the dependent variables were achievement results from posttest for eight different elements music quizzes. Students attitude toward the learning of CAI for the Treatment Group was also examined. Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual framework of this study.

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

Figure 1: The Conceptual Framework of the Study

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

FIXED FACTOR Group (Control / Experimental)

The application of CAI program

Achievement in 8 different quizzes

Gender (female / male) Musical Experience (music theory / practical)

The course content of music appreciation includes music language (elements) and development of music. Music elements (basic music notation, metric organization, intervals, musical terms, key signature, scales) lectures, taught during the third semesters maintained similar standards and performances and all students received the same handout and materials. Each group of students has to attend two hours of lectures and two hours of tutorials each week. All the classes were taught by one of the researchers to maintain validity and uniformity. Subjects The sample for this study comprised of 39 (Treatment Group N=17, Control Group N=22) first year diploma students in Graphic Design who are enrolled in the music appreciation course at Tunku Abdul Rahman College. They are non-music majors with a few of them possessing only music theory grade one to two. Pre and posttests were given to the

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

Treatment Group (n=17) and Control Group (n=22). Twenty three of them are (57%) females and 16 (43 %) males. The respondents ranged in age from 19 to 21 years old. Control Group The Control Group comprised of 22 students, consisted of 13 (59%) females and 9 (41.0%) males. Treatment Group The Treatment Group consisted of 17 students with 10 (59%) females and 7 (41%) males.

Instrumentation Demographic information. All the students were asked to provide the following demographic information at the beginning of the study: a) gender, b) age, c) students self-perception of previous musical experience, or study, d) types of musical software used, and e) musical preference. A student with musical experience is defined as one who has either undergone formal or informal music instructions for a minimum of one year.

Instrument for measuring attitudes towards CAI For measurement of students attitudes towards the CAI program, the researcher used a tool modified from the Instrument developed by Dobbe, 1998. Three out of seven items from Dobbe's instrument were rephrased with the addition of two new items. To avoid bias, positive and negative questions were phrased. A five-point Likert scale (Strongly Agree, Agree, Somewhat Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree) was used to record the respondent's response. An open-ended section for student comments was also included at the end of the survey.

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

Materials Software The self-developed software entitle Musical Elements CD-ROM was mostly done by using one important authoring applications, Macromedia Director. Macromedia Director MX2004 was chosen as the designing tool as it offers wide reach, control for generating files and provide powerful interactive multimedia contents. (Dragan, 2004). Other software utilized are: a) Macromedia Flash b) Digital audio and c) Notation tools. The Musical Elements CD-ROM was designed basing on the Music An Appreciation book by Roger Kamien (2002), covering eight main areas of music elements: (1) Sound, (2) Rhythm, (3) Musical Notation, (4) Melody, (5) Key, (6) Harmony, (7) Musical texture, and (8) Musical Form. Lessons were arranged in sequence, starting with the introduction to music and conclude with musical forms (as seen in Table 1).

Table 1: Course Structure of Musical Elements CD-ROM Tutorial 1 (2 hours) Topic Introduction of Music Sound - Introduction to sound: - Three properties of sound: Pitch, Dynamic and tone colour. - Pitch: introduction to high and low pitch; interval - Dynamic: dynamic levels and gradual dynamic - Tone colour: recognize of different instruments Rhythm - Four aspects of rhythm: Beat, Meter, Accent and syncopated and tempo - Beat: definition and example - Meter: definition and types of meter - Accent and syncopated: Difference - Tempo: Different tempo of Italian terms Chapter E1-2 S1-9 Quiz 1

R1-9

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)


Tutorial 2 (2 hours) Topic Musical Notation - 4 types of notation: - Notation Pitch: identify different notes on staff and on ledger lines, Treble staff, bass staff. - Notation Rhythm: learn different notes durations - Notation Silence: different symbols of rest - Notation Meter: Meaning of upper number and lower number of meter. Melody - Different terms in melody - The difference between Step and Leap - Phrase - Climax - Theme Harmony - Definition of harmony - Chord and triad - Chord progression - Consonance and dissonance chords - Broken chord 3 (2 hours) Key - Ascending and descending scale - Major and minor key - Chromatic key - Modulation Musical Texture - 3 types of textures - Monophonic - Polyphonic - Homophonic Musical Form - 2 types of form: binary and ternary - 3 techniques of form: repetition, contrast and variation Chapter N1-8

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Quiz 3

M1-3

H1-3

K1-6

T1-4

M1-6

Hardware Every student was equipped with one personal computer with an earphone for audio playback purpose. The computer platform used was both Apple Macintoshes as well as Window 2000.

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05) Reliability Tests

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Using Cronbachs coefficient alpha, reliability tests for measuring homogeneity were computed with reliability indicates obtained for all tests and questionnaire that were generally high and considered reliable. (Lim, 2003) (Table 2)
Table 2: Summary of the Reliability Analysis Aspect Evaluated 1. Tutorial 1 (Sound and Rhythm) 2. Tutorial 2 (Musical Notation, Melody and Harmony) 3. Tutorial 3 (Key, Texture, Form) 4. Attitudes towards CAI No. of Items 15 15 15 10 Cronbach Alpha .7108 .7219 .7521 .7046

Data Analysis All variables were examined prior to the analysis to avoid human error during data entry. Pretest and posttest scores for both the control and the Treatment Groups were collected and imported into Microsoft Excel 2002 software to be compiled by groups and students name for calculation and charting. The raw data was entered into SPSS statistical program (version 11.5) and analyzed to provide Descriptive Statistics. The comparison between the pretest and posttest scores for the mean differences, and standard deviation were later derived using "Paired Samples t-test", (to compare means to check if there was a statistical significance within groups), analysis of covariance, (comparison whether there was a statistical significance between two groups) in relation to treatment, gender and musical background. Also, the frequencies and means were calculated for all demographic characteristics of the sample.

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05) RESULTS Results for Pretest and Posttest

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Descriptive statistics was used to analyze data from the pre- and posttests to detect any significant intra and inter group differences for the eight quizzes with response to gender and musical experiences. Within Groups The means and standard deviations of all eight quizzes scores for both groups (pretest and posttest) are presented in table 3. As expected, the mean values for all the posttest scores were higher than pretest for both groups. For the pretest results (quiz 1 to quiz 8) the result for the Treatment Group (mean value M=30.82, SD=11.29) is higher than the Control Group (M=30.68, SD=10.67) by 0.14 points, compared to the posttest results for the, Treatment Group (M=35.33, SD=11.70) versus the Control Group (M=38.71, SD=10.55), which translates into a higher reading of 3.38 points.
Table 3: Overall Means and Standard Deviations of Control and Treatment Group Achievement in Total Quizzes Scores on the Pretest and Posttest Group Control N 22 22 17 17 Statistic M Sd M Sd Pretest* 30.68 10.67 30.82 11.29 Posttest* 35.33 11.70 38.71 10.55

Treatment

*Total marks = 58 Results for the paired t-test as shown in table 4 revealed that majority of the total quizzes result for both Control and Treatment Groups showed statistically significant differences in achievement in both the pretest and posttest. All the scores except for quiz 6-8 showed significant differences for the Control Group, where t (17) = 1.368 with the p value .186 (p > 0.05)

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

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Table 4: Overall Differences of Pair-Sampled Pretest and Posttest Results for Both Groups

Quiz

Test Group

1-2 3-5 6-8

Treatment Control Treatment Control Treatment Control

Paired Differences Mean Std. (M) Deviation (SD) 1.94 1.435 1.45 1.993 2.53 3.085 2.50 2.177 3.24 2.538 .68 2.338

Df

Sig.

5.578 3.422 3.381 5.387 5.256 1.368

17 22 17 22 17 22

.000 .003 .004 .000 .000 .186

Between Groups Analysis of 3-ways factorial (ANOVA) was used to compare the significant level in preposttest results with gender and musical experience results between Control and Treatment Groups for eight quizzes. Table 5 presents an ANOVA table for three different tutorials (Tutorial 1: Quiz 1, 2; Tutorial 2: Quiz 3, 4, 5 and finally Tutorial 3: Quiz 4, 5, 6) pretest and posttest score.
Table 5: ANOVA Table of Pretest and Posttest results for Eight Quizzes Quiz Results Fixed Factor Type III Sum of Squares
.630 27.239 3.018 9.164 37.270 .340 .001 3.028` 2.231 .841 .436 12.242 .381 18.342 1.698 44.437 14.813 6.956

df

Mean Square
.630 27.239 3.018 9.164 37.270 .340 .001 3.028 2.231 .841 .436 12.242 .381 18.342 1.698 44.437 14.813 6.956

Sig.

1-2

pretest

posttest

3-5

pretest

posttest

6-8

pretest

posttest

GROUP GENDER EXP GROUP GENDER EXP GROUP GENDER EXP GROUP GENDER EXP GROUP GENDER EXP GROUP GENDER EXP

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

.173 7.463 .827 2.557 10.399 .095 .000 .265 .195 .074 .039 1.084 .043 2.058 .190 7.584 2.528 1.187

.681 .010 .370 .120 .003 .760 .992 .610 .662 .787 .846 .306 .838 .161 .666 .010 .122 .284

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

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Quiz 1-2 result: Sound and Rhythm For both quizzes, there was no significant difference between pretest of Control Group students and Treatment Group students. F (1, 39) = .173, n.s. Also, posttest results showed no significant differences between groups. F (1, 39) = 2.557, n.s. However, there was significant difference for pretest and posttest with regards to gender where F (1, 39) =7.463, n.s. and F (1, 39) = 10.399 respectively with p value less than .05 (p< .05). As for musical experience, the F value for the pretest and posttest results revealed no significant differences: F (1, 39) =.827 and F (1, 39) =.095 respectively.

Quiz 3-5 result: Musical Notation, Melody and Harmony Results for quiz 3-5 showed no significant differences between pretest of Control Group students and Treatment Group students. F (1, 39) = .000, n.s. Furthermore, posttest results showed no significant differences between groups. F (1, 39) = .074, n.s. Similarly, there was no significant difference for pretest and posttest with regards to gender where F (1, 39) = .265, n.s. and F (1, 39) = .039, n.s. Same result is applied to music experience where F (1, 39) =.195, n.s. and F (1, 39) = 1.084, n.s.

Quiz 6-8 result: Key, Musical Texture and Musical Form Table 5 revealed no significant difference for pretest of the Control Group students and Treatment Group students where F (1, 39) = .043, n.s. but with significant difference for posttest of both groups where F (1, 39) = 7.584 with p value less than .05 (p< .05). On the other hand, there was no significant difference in compared pretest and posttest of both

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

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groups due to gender where F (1, 39) = 2.058, n.s. and F (1, 39) = 2.528, n.s. as well as musical experience where F (1, 39) = .190, n.s. and F (1, 39) = .284, n.s.

Attitudes towards CAI Table 6 shows the results of the five survey questions for both groups regarding the attitude towards usage of the CAI software used in the tutorial section.
Table 6: Results of Survey Questions for Measuring Attitudes towards CAI Survey Question 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly disagree
0 1 0 0 0

disagree

Somewhat agree
4 6 10 6 5

Agree

Strongly agree
5 0 0 2 2

0 5.9 0 0 0

2 3 4 1 1

11.8 17.6 23.5 5.9 5.9

23.5 35.3 58.8 35.3 29.4

6 7 3 8 9

35.3 41.2 17.6 47.0 52.9

29.4 0 0 11.8 11.8

The percentage for survey question one (Overall, I found the use of CAI program in this course to be useful are: 0% strongly disagreed, 12 % disagreed, 24 % stated somewhat agreed, 36 % agreed, and 30 % strongly agreed that it was very useful.

For question two (I found the use of audio in CAI program to be clear with good quality:) 6 % stated that it was unclear and not understandable, 18 % agreed, 35 % somewhat agreed, 41% stated that it was helpful, and none of them strongly agreed that the audio of CAI program is clear with good quality.

For question three (I found the use of animations or graphics are attractive: ) none of them stated for both strongly agreed or strongly agreed, 24 % stated agreed, 59 % somewhat agreed and 18 % agreed that use of animations or graphics in CAI program are attractive.

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

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For question four (I found the learning quiz easy to use:) none of them strongly disagreed, 6 % disagreed, 36 % somewhat agreed, 48% of them agreed, and none of them strongly agreed that the audio of CAI program was clear with good quality.

For question five (I enjoy using this program) none of them strongly disagreed, 6 % disagree, 30 % somewhat agreed, 53 % stated that it was helpful, and 12 of them strongly agreed that they enjoyed the program very much. The comparison for all survey questions are shown in figure 2:

Figure 2: Survey Results for Measuring Attitudes towards CAI

Comparison of Survey Results for Measuring Attitudes towards CAI


60 50 40 % 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 Survey Question Strongly disagree disagree Somewhat agree agree Strongly agree

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05) Discussion and Conclusion

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Results for Pretest and Posttest Within Group Pretest and posttest results for within group results displayed predominantly statistically significant differences in achievement results in the pretest and posttest in the quizzes result for both the Control and Treatment Groups, other than Quiz 6, 7 and 8 for the Control Groups. This indicates that both the groups have some improvements in the posttest results compared to the pretest.

Between Group As for between group results, the study showed that there was no significance difference between pretest and posttest of Control Group students and Treatment Group students for all quizzes except posttest of quiz 6-8 showed significant differences. With regards to gender, there was significant difference for pretest and posttest with regards to gender for quiz 1 and 2. From the demography table above, the number of female with musical experience was bigger compared to male which could be due to better musical experience for female as compared to the male. As for musical experience, all the results for pretest and posttest revealed no significant difference. This may be because normally students who obtain music theory experience during the primary may have already forgotten most of the musical knowledge they have learnt long time ago. As for music practical, most of them seemed to have informal training on their own for one year without any knowledge in music theory. Therefore, there is no relationship between the achievements of students with regards to musical experience.

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

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Attitudes towards CAI From the results above, it is obvious that majority (15 out of 17 students) of the subjects in the Treatment Group either somewhat agreed, agreed or strongly agreed that the selfdevelopment CAI program claim to be very useful and effective for them. For all the questions, the number-one ranking was agree except for question three regarding the audio used for the program, somewhat agree. The student comments that the usages of the animations or graphics are not so attractive and the number is not enough as they are all graphic design students who normally have higher expectation on graphics and animation. Whereas the number-five rank was strongly disagree to all questions except question number two where one student was not strongly unhappy with the audio quality provided in CAI software while none of the student strongly agreed that the audio quality was very good.

CONCLUSIONS Generally, the self-developed CAI program was well received by the Treatment Group. This has already proven from the result above that all posttest results for Treatment Group indicated higher gain compared to the Control Group. Although only a minority, (two out of eight quizzes) posttest for Treatment Group were significantly improved after the usage of CAI program and, however, positive result was obtained from a majority subjects in their attitude survey towards CAI program. Students from Treatment Group found that the software was generally very useful and effective for them in this study. This is due to the fact that it is far more interesting and effective using the computer in learning music elements than having normal discussion using the textbook that may be boring to them. The finding of the study also revealed that gender generally has no effect on the achievement

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

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results in learning music elements. Self-developed CAI program that features different audio examples and colorful graphics may motivate students to learn more interactively and enhance better understanding to different types of musical terms. Also, the clear and straight forward way of presentation facilitates the understanding of the materials. Therefore, the author suggested that this program can be a very effective instructional tool in adjunction with the existing music appreciation curriculum. It also could be useful for teaching in public schools or any other learning institutions in Malaysia. This is just a preliminary study with only a small sample. Certainly, a bigger sample (>100 for each group) administered in a longer time frame will elicit more accurate data to prove a firmer conclusion.

Studies have shown that with combined type of instruction, the traditional and CAI program might produce achievement effects superior to those obtained with either traditional or CAI instruction alone. In this study, the students either applied traditional methods or CAI methods to learn music elements. It is recommended that future studies assumed a combination of both methods for more effective teaching and learning. It is also suggested that future study might include CAI program with flexibility in terms of location and explore with duration of time. Also, longitudinal research can be conducted with the use of CAI.

Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05) REFERENCES

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Arenson, M (1992). The effect of a competency-based computer program on the learning of fundamental skills in a music theory course for non-majors. Journal of Computerbased Instruction, 9(2), 55-58. Baker, B.S. (2000). A comparison of a traditional music teaching method with Music Ace (Report No. 2000-04-00). Knox Country, Tennessee, United States: Johnson Bible College. (Eric Document Reproduction Service No. ED422729) Bowyer, Donald William. (2000). A new approach to computer-assisted instruction in music theory for elementary and middle school children. Proquest Digital Dissertations, 110. Chan, S. (1997). Instructor and Student Attitudes Towards Computerized Keyboard Teaching on the University Level. Proceedings of the First International Technological Directions in Music Learning Conference. Dragan, Richard V. (20 Apr 2004). Director: Now Better than Ever ; Aimed at professional multimedia, Web, game, and even enterprise developers, Macromedia Director MX 2004 adds polish and new reach to an already powerful multimedia authoring tool. PC Magazine. New York: Vol.23, Iss. 7; pg. 32 Dobbe, Kevin, (1998). A Study of Varied Uses of Interactive and Presentation Software Programs in a Music Fundamentals Course for Non-Majors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Foltz, Roger; Gross, Dorothy. (1980, Feb). Integration of CAI into a Music Program. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction; 6(3), 72-76.

Herzog, M. (1991). Using computer-assisted instruction to teach basic music theory to nonmusic majors. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa. Hess, George Jr. (1997). Strategies for integrating computer-based training in college music theory courses. Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 1994. Hultberg, W. Earle; Hultberg, Mary Lou. (1973). CAI in Music Theory: Paradigms: Potential: Problems. 1973. Lim, Zek Chew. (2003) The Effect Of Computer-Based Music Education Software In The Teaching Of Reading Note-Names. The Third Malaysian National Conference for Music Education. [Mus. Ed. 2003], 14. Mohd. Hassan Abdullah (1999). Implementasi applikasi komputer dalam pendidikan muzik di Institut/Maktab Perguruan Malaysia. (Computer-aided music instruction: an

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implementation of the use of notation software in a local teachers training college). Unpublished masters thesis, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Parrish, R.T. (1997). Development and testing of a computer-assisted instructional program to teach music to adult nonmusicians. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45, 90-102. Placek, R. W. (1992). Design and trial of a computer-controlled programme of music preciation. ISME Yearbook (1992), 145-152. Reitenour, Steve, (1984). A Search for and Evaluation of Computer-Assisted Instructional Programs in Music for Use at Liberty Baptist College: Societal Factors Affecting Education. ERIC journal, 32. Setzer, P. (1994). Interactive Course Materials for Music Appreciation: Increasing and Enhancing Student Involvement. Proceedings of the First International Technological Directions in Music Learning Conference. Smith, T. (1997). Talking Less to Teach More with Graphics and Sounds. Proceedings of the First International Technological Directions in Music Learning Conference. Webster, Peter. R. 2001. Second Handbook of Research for Music Teaching and Learning. Chapter 7: Computer- Based Technology and Music Teaching and Learning. [online]. URL: http://pubweb.acns.nwu.edu/~webster/writings/Hand2tech.html. [2 Dec 2003] Woodruff, E. 1998. Use of Self-Paced Computer Assisted Learning Modules in Music Appreciation. Proceedings of the 1998 Mid-South Instructional Technology. Conference. [online]. URL: http://www.mtsu.edu/~itconf/proceed98/ewoodruff.html. [13 June 2004].

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