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Prepositions 1 OVERVIEW Prepositions and their many different uses are as much a question of vocabulary as one of grammar. There are a lot more of them than can be covered in this chapter, so use a good dictionary if you need more detailed information. Some prepositions are easier to learn than others. Those with a clear basic meaning in their own right, e.g. prepositions of time or place, are relatively straightforward to learn as the meaning stays more or less the same. Prepositions that follow nouns, adjectives and verbs can take on different meanings and it is best to learn these as complete units, just as you would learn any other vocabulary, e.g. a rise in something responsible + for, or to depend + on. Individual prepositions Prepositions of time Prepositions of place Other meanings of prepositions Prepositions used with nouns, adjectives and verbs Nouns + prepositions Adjectives + prepositions Verbs + prepositions The position of prepositions in a sentence 2 INDIVIDUAL PREPOSITIONS Prepositions of time Prepositions of place Other meanings of prepositions 2A Prepositions of time at, on, in by during, over for, since in of till/until within (...of) 2A-1 at, on, in: when? 2A-1a clock times and mealtimes:

at 6 o'clock, at lunchtime, at that time NB: at the moment (right now)

2A-1b holiday periods of 2-3 days:

at Christmas, at Easter, at the weekend (US: on the weekend)

2A-1c a single day:

on Saturday, on 17th August, on that day, on Christmas Day

2A-1d longer periods:

in the next few days, in the summer, in July, in 2002

2A-1e times of day:

in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening on the morning of 20th March, on the afternoon of Jane's birthday, on that evening (i.e., on a specific morning, afternoon or evening) at night

2A-1f in time - on time

I was a little late for the workshop but I still got there in time for the first talk. (I still got there early enough not to miss the first talk.) The workshop started right on time. (It started at the planned time, neither late nor early.)

2A-1g in the beginning - at the beginning

In the beginning the Greens only dealt with environmental issues. (i.e., at first, in the early days) A band played at the beginning of the rally, then some politicians gave speeches. (The band played when the rally started.)

2A-1h in the end - at the end

The different protest groups disagreed on many issues at first, but in the end they managed to agree to a common platform. (Finally they agreed.) At the end of the meeting everyone was happy with the outcome. (i.e., when the meeting ended)

2A-2 in for periods

The nature reserve was finished in just three years. (It only took three years.) It seems the new law on the environment will be passed in two weeks' time. (i.e., 2 weeks from now)

2A-3 during, over

Nobody was allowed near the farms during the quarantine period. (i.e., right through that particular period of time) Three cows fell ill during the quarantine period. (i.e., at some point(s) between the beginning and the end of the period)

Sometimes we can use over and during for periods of time:

Over / during the next few days, tests will be done on all cattle and sheep in the area.

2A-4 for, since

We have been protesting against GMO crops in Austria for ten years now. (A period of time, showing how long something has continued: the protests started 10 years ago and they still continue.) Testing on animals has been banned in the UK since 1998. (The point of time when something started: animal testing was first banned in 1998 and it is still banned today.)

2A-5 till / until

Sepp will be working on a development project in Mozambique till/until August. (A continuing state or action that ends at the specified time: Sepp will stop working on that project in August.)

2A-5a not till / not until

Sepp won't come back from Africa till August. (i.e., only in August and not earlier)

2A-6 by

Emissions of CO2 should be significantly reduced by 2025. (i.e., a deadline: not later than 2025)

2A-7 of

Thank you for your letter of 27 May. (The letter is dated 27 May.) NB: a letter from Ellie (Ellie sent me the letter.)

2A-8 within (... of)

Payment is due within two weeks (of receipt of the invoice). (i.e., no later than two weeks after receiving the invoice)

Prepositions of place Other meanings of prepositions Prepositions: overview 2B Prepositions of place along, past among, between, (a)round at, from, to away from, towards

beyond in(side), outside; into in front of, behind, between next to/beside, close to/near off, on/onto on, on top of, under(neath); onto opposite, across over/above, under/below through, in(to), out of throughout, within up, down 2B-1 in(side), outside; into

When I arrived there were three people in(side) the information centre, asking for brochures, and one man standing outside the building, smoking a cigarette. When he finished his cigarette, the man went into the centre to join the others. (Into expresses movement.)

Note: we use in with buildings if they are seen as being all around, and at when we are talking about the normal purpose of the building.

It was busy in the information centre. (i.e., inside the building) We got some brochures at the information centre. (Providing information is the purpose of the information centre.)

2B-2 on, on top of, under(neath); onto

Can you see that bird on the roof of that building? Look, it's on top of the chimney now. It looks like it has built a nest under(neath) the roof. The birdwatcher climbed onto the roof to get a better view of the nest. (Onto expresses movement.)

Other uses of on:

on 75th Street (US) (GB: in Brick Lane), on the third floor, on the right/left on the radio, on TV, on the Internet NB: in the newspaper

2B-3 over/above, under/below

"Do you have a map of the national park?" "Yes, it's over there, over/above the shelf with the brochures. A map of the whole region is on the table under/below the window."

Note: above and below are not normally used for horizontal movement, e.g.:

The plane flew over the houses. WRONG: The plane flew above the houses.

2B-4 up, down

The hikers are going up the mountain very early in the morning, so they can be at the top by lunchtime. It takes about 4 hours. They'll take the path down the other side, which should be a lot quicker.

2B-5 through, in(to), out of

The new road goes through a natural forest. Environmentalists are protesting heavily and have suggested building a tunnel instead. Cars would then go in(to) the tunnel near Heiligenstadt and come out of it near Klosterneuburg.

2B-6 off, on(to)

This area has been taken off the market and put on(to) a list of protected areas of natural beauty.

2B-7 at, from, to

The Minister for the Environment is currently giving a press conference at Schwechat airport. He is going to Paris to meet the other EU ministers and from there he is flying to New York to take part in the next World Summit. The company's share price has fallen from a record high to the lowest level since the beginning of the year and now stands at six dollars.

Other uses of at:

at 10 Downing Street, at my house, at home at the office, at the library, at university (IN vs. AT with buildings) at my company, at Microsoft, at Woolworth at the event, at the meeting, at the presentation You can reach me at this telephone number: 0815/4711. (U.S.: on this telephone number)

2B-8 away from, towards

The EU is slowly moving away from burning fossil fuels to produce energy and towards renewable forms of energy such as wind, water and sun.

Note: we use to for a destination and towards for a direction.

We walked to the Donauinsel yesterday and spent the whole day there. We started walking towards the Donauinsel, but we got lost near Karlsplatz.

2B-9 next to/beside, close to/near

The man standing on the stage next to/beside Sting is the head of the Rainforest Foundation. They should be careful, they're standing very close to/near the edge of the stage.

2B-10 in front of, behind, between

For the official photograph, would the children sit in a row in front of everyone, then

could we have the park rangers behind them? Great. Now can we have the Senator in the middle, somewhere between the children and the rangers? Note: we normally use in front of and behind to say where something is; we normally use before and after to mean earlier or later in time, or the order things come in, e.g.

A comes before B in the alphabet.

2B-11 along, past

There were hundreds of people cycling along the river that day. Just as I was going past a caf someone stepped out of the garden and I crashed into them.

2B-12 opposite, across

The health food shop is opposite the bank, just across the road. (i.e., on the other side of the road from the bank)

2B-13 among, between, (a)round

It's amazing this little plant has survived: it's grown among rocks and stones, with no other plants or trees (a)round it to give it any shelter from the elements.

Note: among suggests a larger number than between, which is used for items that we see as separate and individual.

I couldn't see her among the protestors. Hang the banner between these two trees.

2B-14 beyond

"How much further do we have to walk to the shelter?" "Not far now, it's just beyond this next hill. About another twenty minutes." (i.e., on the other side of the hill)

2B-15 throughout, within

The disease spread throughout the park very fast. Every tree within a 20-kilometre radius was affected.

Prepositions of time Other meanings of prepositions Prepositions: overview 2C Other meanings of prepositions Prepositions can have other meanings besides time or place, e.g.: ACCORDING TO - DESIPITE/IN STPITE OF - DUE TO - EXCEPT (FOR)/APART FROM/BUT - IN FAVOUR OF - INSTEAD OF - ON BEHALF OF - UP TO AS LIKE AT for rates, etc. BY for "authorship"

BY for difference and change BY for means IN for opinions 2C-1 according to - despite/in spite of - due to - except (for)/apart from/but - in favour of - instead of - on behalf of - up to

According to Greenpeace, the genetic engineering of food crops doesn't reduce poverty or hunger. (Greenpeace says that it doesn't reduce poverty or hunger.) Most people continued eating beef despite / in spite of the BSE scare. (The BSE scare was on, but most people still continued eating beef.) All trekking tours in the area have had to be cancelled due to heavy flooding. (i.e., because of heavy flooding) Everyone signed the petition except (for) / apart from / but Jane. (Jane didn't sign, but everyone else did.) Everyone is in favour of stricter legislation on pollution, with the exception of big business. (Everyone else is for stricter legislation.) Instead of leaving electrical equipment on standby, make sure you switch everything off when you've finished using it. (Don't leave equipment on standby, switch it off.) Protest groups speak on behalf of millions of individuals. (They speak for those individuals.) It's up to you to decide what you eat. (It's your responsibility to decide.)

2C-2 At for prices, rates, etc.

at a speed of 100 km/h, at 20C, at a reduced price, at the standard rate, at the age of 19

2C-3 In for opinions, etc.

In my opinion (view / experience), economic growth and environmental protection are not easy to reconcile. NB: from my point of view

2C-4 By for means

You can pay by credit card. (Credit cards are a means of payment you can use.) NB: with for instruments: You can digitalise pictures with a scanner. by letter, by post, by phone, by fax, by e-mail by train, by car, by bus, by tram, by bike NB: on my bike, in her car, on the 69 bus (specific means of transport) NB: on foot, on horseback

2C-5 By for "authorship"

a song by John Lennon (It was written by John Lennon.)

NB: a picture of Marilyn Monroe. (It shows Marilyn Monroe.) 2C-6 By for difference and change

Emissions have increased by 12%. (There has been an increase of 12%.) We had to delay the beginning of the meeting by hour. (We started hour later.)

AN INCREASE + OF 2C-7 As like

She spoke as an expert on radiation. (That was her role.) She sounded like an expert, but she didn't really know much. (She spoke in the same way as experts do.)

Prepositions of time Prepositions of place Prepositions: overview 3 PREPOSITIONS USED WITH NOUNS, ADJECTIVES OR VERBS Nouns + prepositions Adjectives + prepositions Verbs + prepositions 3A Nouns + prepositions Some nouns can be followed by a certain preposition. These combinations are fixed, i.e. they cannot usually be changed.

Hohe Tauern National Park is an excellent example of combining nature conservation and eco-tourism. Certain types of algae are proof of water pollution. The main reason for the bad air in our cities is motorised traffic.

3A-1 More examples Here are some more examples of common noun + preposition patterns. 3A-1a Making a difference

an effect on people's behaviour a great influence on the younger generation a considerable impact on air quality

3A-1b Can it be done?

a way / a method of reducing emissions Isn't the idea of building a theme park in a nature reserve ridiculous? WRONG: the idea to build

I don't believe in the possibility of feeding the world with genetically manipulated crops. (I don't believe it's possible to do that.) WRONG: the possibility to feed the chance / the opportunity of making a quick profit the danger / the risk of GMOs spreading from field to field

3A-1c What it takes

answers to burning ecological questions, a solution to the traffic problem, the key to success an alternative to

burning fossil fuels

a substitute for fossil fuels

3A-1d What people want

a request for help the demand for organic food the wish for peace a need for immediate action

3A-1e What people think

the government's position on genetic engineering; the minister's comment on the BSE crisis (i.e., what they think or say about the subject) my ideas / views / opinion on sustainable development (i.e., what I think about it) the public's reaction to the government's plans people's attitude towards energy conservation my idea of healthy living (i.e., how I think it should be done) my opinion of the government (i.e., good or bad)

3A-1f Topics

a lecture on / about climate change; a report on / about the limits of growth an overview / a survey of different environmental problems; a study of the effects of pesticides

3A-1g Quantitative change

an increase / a rise in pollution levels; a reduction / a decrease in prices for organic food; a delay in approving the plan (i.e., what has changed) an increase / a rise of 20%; a reduction / a decrease of 10, a delay of two weeks (i.e., how much change)

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TO INREASE + BY AT, FROM, TO for quantitative change 3A-2 Nouns, verbs and adjectives: different prepositions Sometimes related nouns and verbs or adjectives take different prepositions without any difference in meaning.

The local government took pride in its eco-tourism project. The local government was proud of its eco-tourism project. We can see great differences between real eco-tourism and things like adventure travel. True eco-tourism differs greatly from so-called adventure travel. There seemed to be no answer to their questions. He couldn't answer their questions. [no preposition]

To check which prepositions follow other nouns, look up the noun in a good dictionary. Adjectives + prepositions Verbs + prepositions Prepositions: overview The gerund after prepositions 3B Adjectives + prepositions Some adjectives can be followed by a certain preposition. These combinations are fixed, i.e. they cannot usually be changed.

The public needs to be more aware of environmental problems. Sally's involved in all kinds of ecological causes. Humans are responsible for the ozone hole.

3B-1 Adjectives expressing feelings Many of these adjectives express feelings:

afraid of the possible effects of global warming angry at the West's indifference to hunger and poverty ashamed of their wasteful behaviour curious about these new eco-hotels interested in the new recycling scheme opposed to

building another motorway (i.e., against it)

proud of our Austrian lakes satisfied with the water quality surprised / shocked / amazed at / by the extent of the damage worried about heavy metal poisoning

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3B-2 Other adjectives Here are some more examples of common adjective + preposition patterns.

allergic to grass pollen available to the public dependent on government support different to / from other EU member states harmful to the environment serious about conservation short of time similar to the original idea successful in their campaign suitable for recycling typical / characteristic of this particular region used / accustomed to

cycling to work BUT: I used to cycle to work when I was younger. (USED TO for past habits)

Welcome to Vienna!

The gerund after prepositions 3B-3 Different prepositions depending on meaning Some adjectives can be combined with different prepositions, depending on the meaning.

Organic food is good for you. (It makes/keeps you healthy.) Anna is good at cooking. (She does it well.) You've been very good to us. (You've been very kind.) These flower pots are made from recycled yoghurt containers. (The containers have been turned into something else.) The filing cabinets are made of rare wood from the rainforests. (The wood is still wood.)

To check which prepositions follow other adjectives, look up the adjective in a good dictionary. Verbs + prepositions Nouns + prepositions Prepositions: overview The gerund after prepositions 3C Verbs + prepositions

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3C-1 Prepositional verbs Prepositions combine with verbs to make prepositional verbs. These combinations are fixed, i.e. they cannot usually be changed. 3C-1a Examples Here are some common examples.

The damage caused by reckless driving amounts to millions of euros every year. Can you believe it? Some company has applied for a building permit in the national park. Be honest: do you believe in a greener future? Everyone will benefit from stricter pollution control. Our natural cosmetics are very reasonably priced compared with / to other similar products. We can't deal with all problems at once, so let's concentrate on the most urgent ones first. On behalf of the City Council, let me congratulate you on the great success of your recycling project. It's getting increasingly difficult for cities to cope with the growing volume of waste. We must do something about global warming now, or our children will pay for it. We're looking for someone to explain the new Waste Management Law to our staff. WRONG: to explain our staff the new Waste Management Law NB: to present (something to someone) and to introduce (someone to someone) work the same way I think I'll leave the car at home, I feel like taking a walk. The director insists on all the food at the banquet being local and organic. More and more people are investing in renewable energy production. The local population strongly objects to

the country road being widened to accommodate more traffic.

Citizens' committees from all over the country are expected to participate / take part in the national air protection campaign. We need stronger sun blocks to protect ourselves from harmful radiation. The organisers of the sit-in have set up a canteen to provide / supply the protesters with food. Don't you think we should replace our old oil furnace with solar collectors? The Body Shop specialises in cosmetics that haven't been tested on animals. In times of crisis companies are less willing to spend money on cleaner production technologies. Most chestnut trees in Vienna are suffering from the same disease.

The gerund after prepositions Prepositions: overview 3C-1b Different prepositions depending on meaning

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Some verbs can be combined with different prepositions, depending on the meaning:

He never looked at the problems, just the profit. (He never examined or thought about the problems.) They spent a whole day looking round the farm. (They looked at different parts of the farm.) It is high time we looked for a solution. (We must find a solution.) We need to look after the countryside better. (We must take better care of it.) After tough negotiations the conservationists agreed with the developers on an environmentally sound project design. (They found a compromise.) I'm afraid we can't agree to your proposal without consulting our head office . (We can't accept your proposal.) The company I'm talking about deals in natural rubber products. (They trade in these products.) My colleague, Mr. Johnson, deals with tax questions. I'll put you through to him. (Mr. Johnson handles these questions.)

To check which prepositions follow other verbs, look up the verb in a good dictionary. Phrasal-prepositional verbs The gerund after prepositions Prepositions: overview 3C-2 Phrasal-prepositional verbs Some phrasal verbs can also combine with prepositions (e.g. to check up + on ).

Don't you think you should check up on the latest developments?

Sometimes the meaning is clear from the meaning of the individual words.

The room looked out over farmland.

In other cases the meaning is specific to the combination of words.

A scientist has come up with a totally natural pesticide. (to come up with something: to think of and suggest something)

Here are some more examples of phrasal-prepositional verbs.

Just carry on with the good work! Trying to cut down on waste turned out to be a big challenge for hotels. How do you get on with your colleagues? We design the energy efficiency of your home to fit in with your needs and budget. OK, we can go along with your proposal. It's not a good idea to go back on your promise; people will never trust you again if you do. I'm looking forward to

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hearing your ideas on energy conservation.

I don't know how you put up with their constant complaints. The government thinks the campaign has run out of steam . Thanks for your offer, I'll gladly take you up on it when I need help.

The gerund after prepositions Prepositional verbs Nouns + prepositions Adjectives + prepositions Prepositions: overview 4 THE POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS IN A SENTENCE There are several possible positions of a preposition in a sentence:

She walked into the building. (before a noun phrase) We were thinking of moving house . (before a gerund) Make a list of what we need. (before a wh-clause) There's never been a problem until now. (before an adverb)

Sometimes the preposition goes at the end of a clause:

What were you talking about? (wh - question) She wouldn't say who she had talked to. (whwh-clause) Environmentalists used to be laughed at. (passive clause) There's nothing to be worried about. (infinitive clause) That's the woman we signed the contract with. (relative clause) Prepositions in relative clauses

Prepositions rarely go in any other place in these types of sentences. In relative clauses, prepositions can be put earlier in the sentence to make it very formal.

That is the woman with whom we signed the contract.

The gerund after prepositions Prepositions: overview

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