Solutions

Introduction to
Linear Circuit Analysis

and Modelling
From DC to RF
Solutions Manual
Luis Moura
Izzat Darwazeh
Contents
1 Elementary electrical circuit analysis 3
2 Complex numbers: An introduction 35
3 Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 37
4 Natural and forced responses circuit analysis 60
5 Electrical two-port network analysis 78
6 Basic electronic amplier building blocks 119
7 RF circuit analysis techniques 141
8 Noise in electronic circuits 175
2
Chapter 1
Elementary electrical circuit analysis
Solution of problem 1.1
The current owing through the capacitor is given by:
i(t) = C
d v(t)
dt
= 10
6
2 1000 cos(2 100 t +/4) A
= 6.3 cos(2 100 t +/4) mA
Figure 1.1 shows the waveforms for the voltage across and the current through the capacitor.
i(t)
(V)
v(t)
(mA)
5
10
5 10
15 20
t (ms)
10
5
5
10
0
0
5
10
Voltage
Current
Figure 1.1: Waveforms for the voltage across and the current through the capacitor.
1. Elementary electrical circuit analysis 4
The voltage across the terminals of the inductor is given by:
v(t) = L
d i(t)
dt
= 3 10
3
2 5000 20 10
3
sin(2 5000 t) V
= 1.9 sin(2 5000 t) V
Figure 1.2 shows the waveforms for the voltage across and the current through the inductor.
i(t)
(mA)
t (ms)
10
0
0
1
2
v(t)
(V)
0.5
20
10
20
1
2
Voltage
Current
Figure 1.2: Waveforms for the voltage across and the current through the inductor.
Introduction to linear circuit analysis and modelling Moura and Darwazeh
The calculations of the voltages across and the currents through each circuit elements are effected
applying the Nodal analysis. This method can be outlined as follows:
1. First, we indicate the voltages at each node. These voltages indicate the potential difference
between the node being considered and a reference node which can be chosen arbitrarily. This
node is traditionally called node zero (0) or the ground terminal and is often chosen as the
node with the highest number of attached electrical elements. This is illustrated in gure 1.3 a)
+ +
V
A
V
B
R
1
+ +
V
A V
B
(V
A
)
(V
B
)
0
+
+ +
(V
A
)
(V
B
)
V
A
V
B
0
a)
0
d)
c)
b)
V
A
(V
B
)
R
1
I
R1
I
R1
=
V
A
V
B
R
1
R
1
V
R1
= V
A
V
B
V
A
V
B
V
R1
= V
A
V
B
V
R1
= V
A
+ (V
B
)
Figure 1.3: Application of the Nodal analysis method. a) Indication of the voltage is the nodes A
and B b) Indication of the current I
R
1
c) I
R
1
= (V
A
V
B
)/R. d) Adding vectors.
2. Then, we consider, in an arbitrary manner, the current direction in each branch, as indicated
in gure 1.3 b).
3. The current that ows through each resistance can be expressed, according to Ohms law, as
the ratio of the voltage across that resistance and the resistance value;
I
R
1
=
V
A
V
B
R
1
(1.1)
Note that the similarity between the way we express the voltage across the resistance, as
V
A
V
B
, and the calculation of the sum (or subtraction) of vectors shown in gure 1.3 d).
4. Finally, we apply the current voltage law to each node
1
We apply now the Nodal analysis method to solve the circuits of the problem 1.3 where the voltages
at each node and the directions of the currents have been chosen as indicated in gure 1.4.
1
As its name suggests the Nodal analysis method is based on the application of the current voltage law to each node of
the circuit. However, the calculation of some circuits may require the application of the voltage law.
+
R
1
V
1
R
3
R
2
0
I
R3
I
R1
I
R2
V
A
V
B
+
+
R
1
R
2
R
3
V
1
V
2
R
4
V
A
V
B V
C
V
D
0
I
R1
I
R2
I
R3
I
R4
R
1
I
1
I
2
V
A
0
I
R1
+
V
1
+
V
2
R
2
V
A
V
B
V
C I
R2
0
R
1
I
R1
+
R
2
V
1
R
4
R
1
R
3
V
A
V
B
V
C
0
I
R1
I
R2
I
R3
I
R4
+
R
2
R
4
V
1
R
3
0
V
A
V
B
V
C
R
1
I
R1
I
R3
I
R2
I
R4
I
1
f)
e)
d)
a)
c)
b)
Figure 1.4: Circuits of problem 1.3.
Circuit a): Applying the current law we can write:
I
R
1
= I
1
+I
2
= 0.7 A
The voltage across R
1
is V
A
which is obtained applying Ohms law:
V
A
= I
R
1
R
1
= 70 V
Circuit b): For this circuit we can write the following set of eqns:
_
_
I
R
1
= I
R
2
V
A
V
C
= V
1
V
B
= V
2
(1.2)
which can be rewritten as follows:
_
_
V
B
V
A
R
1
=
V
C
R
2
V
A
V
C
= V
1
V
B
= V
2
(1.3)
Solving this set of eqns in order to obtain V
A
, V
B
and V
C
we can write:
V
A
=
R
2
V
2
+R
1
V
1
R
1
+R
2
= 2.63 V
V
B
= V
2
= 3 V
V
C
= R
2
V
2
V
1
R
1
+R
2
= 0.63 V
The current I
R
1
is equal to I
R
2
= 3.7 mA.
Circuit c): For this circuit we can write
_
_
I
R
1
=
V
A
R
1
V
A
= V
1
I
R
2
= I
R
3
(1.4)
that is,
_
_
I
R
1
=
V
1
R
1
V
1
V
B
R
2
=
V
B
R
3
(1.5)
Solving to obtain V
B
we get
V
B
= V
1
R
3
R
2
+R
3
= 1.1 V
2
is V
A
V
B
= 0.9 V. The currents through the resistances are:
I
R
1
= 4 mA
I
R
2
= I
R
3
= 7.5 mA
Circuit d): For this circuit we write the following set of eqns:
_
_
I
R
1
+I
R
2
+I
R
3
= 0
I
R
4
= I
R
3
V
B
V
A
= V
1
V
B
V
C
= V
2
(1.6)
This set of eqns can be written as:
_
_
V
A
R
1
+
V
B
R
2
+
V
D
R
3
= 0
V
C
V
D
R
4
=
V
D
R
3
V
B
V
A
= V
1
V
B
V
C
= V
2
(1.7)
Solving to obtain V
A
, V
B
, V
C
and V
D
we get:
V
A
= R
1
R
2
V
2
V
1
(R
2
+R
3
+R
4
)
R
2
(R
1
+R
3
+R
4
) +R
1
(R
3
+R
4
)
= 29.3 mV
V
B
= R
2
R
1
V
2
+V
1
(R
3
+R
4
)
R
2
(R
1
+R
3
+R
4
) +R
1
(R
3
+R
4
)
= 1.97 V
V
C
=
V
1
R
2
(R
3
+R
4
) V
2
(R
2
R
3
+R
2
R
4
+R
1
+R
3
+R
1
R
4
)
R
2
(R
1
R
3
+R
4
) +R
1
(R
3
+R
4
)
= 1.03 V
V
D
= R
3
(R
1
+R
2
)V
2
R
2
V
1
R
2
(R
1
+R
3
+R
4
) +R
1
(R
3
+R
4
)
= 0.46 V
Circuit e): For this circuit we write
_
_
_
I
R
4
= I
R
1
+I
R
3
I
R
2
= I
R
3
V
A
= V
1
(1.8)
or
_
_
V
C
R
4
=
V
1
V
C
R
1
+
V
B
V
C
R
3
V
1
V
B
R
2
=
V
B
V
C
R
3
(1.9)
Solving to obtain V
B
and V
C
:
V
B
= V
1
R
1
R
3
+R
4
(R
1
+R
2
+R
3
)
R
1
(R
2
+R
3
+R
4
) +R
4
(R
2
+R
3
)
= 1.8 V
V
C
= V
1
R
4
(R
1
+R
2
+R
3
)
R
1
(R
2
+R
3
+R
4
) +R
4
(R
2
+R
3
)
= 1.33 V
Circuit f): For this circuit we write the following set of eqns:
_
_
_
I
1
= I
R
1
+I
R
3
I
1
= I
R
2
+I
R
4
V
1
= V
A
V
C
(1.10)
that is
_
_
I
1
=
V
B
V
A
R
1
+
V
B
V
C
R
3
I
1
=
V
A
R
2
+
V
C
R
4
V
1
= V
A
V
C
(1.11)
Solving to obtain V
A
, V
B
and V
C
we get
V
A
= R
2
V
1
+R
4
I
1
R
2
+R
4
= 8.75 V
V
B
= V
1
R
2
R
3
R
1
R
4
(R
2
+R
4
)(R
1
+R
3
)
+I
1
_
R
1
R
3
R
1
+R
3
+
R
2
R
4
R
2
+R
4
_
= 14.46 V
V
C
= R
4
R
2
I
1
V
1
R
2
+R
4
= 6.75 V
We consider N resistances connected in series and driven by a DC voltage source V as shown in
gure 1.5. For this circuit we can write:
+
V
+ + +
V
R2
V
RN
R
2
R
N R
1
V
R1
I
Figure 1.5: N resistances connected in series.
V = V
R
1
+V
R
2
+. . . +V
R
N
= I (R
1
+R
2
+. . . +R
N
)
= I R
eq
that is
R
eq
= R
1
+R
2
+. . . +R
N
We consider N resistances connected in parallel and driven by a DC voltage source V as shown in
+
V
I
I
R2
I
R1
R
1
(G
1
)
R
2
(G
N
) (G
2
)
R
N
I
RN
Figure 1.6: N resistances connected in parallel.
I = I
R
1
+I
R
2
+. . . +I
R
N
= V (G
1
+G
2
+. . . +G
N
)
= V G
eq
that is
G
eq
= G
1
+G
2
+. . . +G
N
Circuit a): The equivalent resistance between points A and B is given by the parallel combi-
nation of the three resistance, that is:
R
eq
= (R
1
[[R
2
)[[R
3
Let R
1,2
be the resistance resulting from the parallel combination of R
1
and R
2
;
R
1,2
=
R
1
R
2
R
1
+R
2
= 22.2
R
eq
can be calculated as follows:
R
eq
=
R
1,2
R
3
R
1,2
+R
3
= 16.2
The equivalent conductance is G
eq
= R
1
eq
= 61.7 mS.
Circuit b): Since the three resistances are connected in series we can write
R
eq
= R
1
+R
2
+R
3
= 210
eq
= R
1
eq
= 4.8 mS
Circuit c): The resistance R
1
is connected in series with R
2
;
R
1,2
= R
1
+R
2
= 400
R
1,2
is connected in parallel with R
3
:
R
1,2,3
=
R
1,2
R
3
R
1,2
+R
3
= 114.3
R
1,2,3
4
, that is
R
eq
= R
1,2,3
+R
4
= 384.3
eq
= R
1
eq
= 2.6 mS.
Circuit d): The resistance R
1
2
and R
3
is connected in series with
R
4
;
R
1,2
= R
1
+R
2
= 150
R
3,4
= R
3
+R
4
= 150
The equivalent resistance results from the parallel combination of R
1,2
with R
5
and with R
3,4
R
eq
= R
1,2
[[R
5
[[R
3,4
= 42.9
eq
= R
1
eq
= 23.3 mS.
+
R
3
R
5
R
2
R
4
0
I
R2
I
R5
I
R4
I
R3
V
Z
V
Y
I
R1
R
1
I
t
V
t
V
X
A
B
Figure 1.7: Circuit of problem 2 e).
Circuit e) For this circuit we cannot identify any combination of resistances which share the
same voltage across their terminals or share the same current. This means that there are no
parallel nor series connections. In order to determine the equivalent resistance we have to
apply a test voltage source V
t
to the circuit between points A and B as shown in gure 1.7.
This source supplies a current I
t
to the circuit. By evaluating V
t
/I
t
we calculate the equivalent
resistance:
R
eq
=
V
t
I
t
(1.12)
We apply the Nodal analysis method to evaluate V
t
/I
t
. For the circuit of gure 1.7 we can
write
_
_
I
t
= I
R
1
+I
R
4
I
t
= I
R
5
+I
R
3
I
R
1
= I
R
5
+I
R
2
V
X
= V
t
(1.13)
that is,
_
_
I
t
=
V
t
V
Y
R
1
+
V
t
V
Z
R
4
I
t
=
V
Y
R
5
+
V
Z
R
3
V
t
V
Y
R
1
=
V
Y
R
5
+
V
Y
V
Z
R
2
(1.14)
Solving in order to obtain V
t
we obtain:
V
t
= I
t
R
5
R
3
(R
1
+R
2
+R
4
) +R
1
R
4
(R
2
+R
3
+R
5
) +R
2
(R
4
R
5
+R
1
R
3
)
R
2
(R
1
+R
3
+R
4
+R
5
) + (R
3
+R
5
)(R
1
+R
4
)
If we divide both terms of last eqn by I
t
we obtain the desired equivalent resistance;
V
t
I
t
=
R
5
R
3
(R
1
+R
2
+R
4
) +R
1
R
4
(R
2
+R
3
+R
5
) +R
2
(R
4
R
5
+R
1
R
3
)
R
2
(R
1
+R
3
+R
4
+R
5
) + (R
3
+R
5
)(R
1
+R
4
)
= 83.5
eq
= R
1
eq
= 12.0 mS.
We consider N capacitances connected in series and driven by a voltage source v(t) as shown in
+
+ + +
v(t)
i(t)
v
C1
(t) v
C2
(t) v
CN
(t)
C
1
C
2
C
N
Figure 1.8: N capacitances connected in series.
v(t) = v
C
1
(t) +v
C
2
(t) +. . . +v
C
N
(t)
=
_
1
C
1
+
1
C
2
+. . . +
1
C
N
__
t
0
i(t)dt
=
1
C
eq
_
t
0
i(t)dt
that is
1
C
eq
=
1
C
1
+
1
C
2
+. . . +
1
C
N
We consider N capacitances connected in parallel and driven by a voltage source v(t) as shown in
+
i(t)
v(t)
i
CN
(t) i
C2
(t) i
C1
(t)
C
1
C
2
C
N
Figure 1.9: N capacitances connected in parallel.
i(t) = i
C
1
(t) +i
C
2
(t) +. . . +i
C
N
(t)
= (C
1
+C
2
+. . . +C
N
)
d v(t)
dt
= C
eq
d v(t)
dt
that is
C
eq
= C
1
+C
2
+. . . +C
N
Circuit a): All capacitors are connected in series:
1
C
eq
=
1
C
1
+
1
C
2
+
1
C
3
Solving, we obtain:
C
eq
= 0.67 F
Circuit b): Now, all capacitors are connected in parallel:
C
eq
= C
1
+C
2
+C
3
= 11 F
Circuit c): C
1
is connected in parallel with C
2
. The capacitance resulting from this combina-
tion is connected in series with C
3
;
C
eq
=
(C
1
+C
2
)C
3
(C
1
+C
2
) +C
3
= 3 F
We consider N inductances connected in series and driven by a voltage source v(t) as shown in
+
+ + +
v(t)
i(t) L
1
L
2
L
N
v
L1
(t)
v
L2
(t) v
LN
(t)
Figure 1.10: N inductances connected in series.
v(t) = v
L
1
(t) +v
L
2
(t) +. . . +v
L
N
(t)
= (L
1
+L
2
+. . . +L
N
)
d i(t)
dt
= L
eq
d i(t)
dt
that is
L
eq
= L
1
+L
2
+. . . +L
N
We consider N inductances connected in parallel and driven by a voltage source v(t) as shown in
+
i
L1
(t)
L
1
i(t)
v(t)
i
LN
(t) i
L2
(t)
L
2 L
N
Figure 1.11: N inductances connected in parallel.
i(t) = i
L
1
(t) +i
L
2
(t) +. . . +i
L
N
(t)
=
_
1
L
1
+
1
L
2
+. . . +
1
L
N
__
t
0
v(t) dt
=
1
L
eq
_
t
0
v(t) dt
that is
1
L
eq
=
1
L
1
+
1
L
2
+. . . +
1
L
N
Circuit a): The inductance L
2
is connected in series with L
3
and L
5
is connected in parallel
with L
6
. Hence, we can write:
L
2,3
= L
2
+L
3
= 11 mH
L
5,6
=
L
5
L
6
L
5
+L
6
= 5.74 mH
The circuit of gure 1.12 a) can be simplied as shown in gure 1.12 b). From the circuit of
A
L
1
L
2,3
B
L
4,5,6
A
L
1
L
2,3
L
5,6
L
4
B
A
L
1
L
2,3,4,5,6
B
A
L
1
L
4
L
5
L
6
1 mH 7 mH
6 mH
4 mH
12 mH
11 mH
L
2
L
3
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 1.12: Circuits of problem 1.12 a)
gure 1.12 b) we can observe that L
4
is connected in series with L
5,6
;
L
4,5,6
= L
4
+L
5,6
= 11.74 mH
From gure 1.12 c) we see that L
4,5,6
is connected in parallel with L
2,3
;
L
2,3,4,5,6
=
L
4,5,6
L
2,3
L
4,5,6
+L
2,3
= 5.68 mH
From gure 1.12 d) we see that the equivalent inductance is given by the series combination
of L
1
with L
2,3,4,5,6
, that is:
L
eq
= L
1
+L
2,3,4,5,6
= 6.68 mH
Circuit b): L
2
is connected in parallel with L
3
. The resulting inductance is connected in series
with L
1
and L
4
;
L
eq
= L
1
+
L
2
L
3
L
2
+L
3
+L
4
= 25.26 mH
Circuit a): Using the expression for the resistive current divider we can obtain the current
through R
o
as follows:
I
o
= 0.1
R
1
[[R
2
R
o
+ (R
1
[[R
2
)
= 23.4 mA
and the voltage across R
o
is 1.4 Volt.
Circuit b): Using the expression for the resistive voltage divider we can obtain the voltage
across R
o
as follows:
V
o
= 3
R
o
R
o
+R
1
+R
2
= 0.4 V
and the current through R
o
is 10 mA.
We use the Nodal Analysis method to analyse the circuits of gure 1.13.
Circuit a): For this circuit we observe that the voltage across R
1
is the voltage supplied by V
s
,
that is, 5 V. Hence we have:
I
R
1
=
V
s
R
1
= 73.5 mA
Note that the current that ows through the short-circuit is I
sc
= I
R
1
+I
s
= 273.5 mA.
Circuit b): For the circuit of gure 1.13 b) we can write the following set of eqns:
_
_
_
I
s
= I
R
1
+I
R
3
+I
R
5
I
s
= I
R
2
+I
R
4
+I
R
5
I
R
1
= I
R
2
(1.15)
that is
_
_
I
s
=
V
A
V
B
R
1
+
V
A
V
C
R
3
+
V
A
R
5
I
s
=
V
B
R
2
+
V
C
R
4
+
V
A
R
5
V
A
V
B
R
1
=
V
B
R
2
(1.16)
A
, V
B
and V
C
we get:
V
A
= I
s
R
5
(R
3
+R
4
)(R
2
+R
1
)
R
5
(R
1
+R
2
+R
3
+R
4
) + (R
4
+R
3
)(R
1
+R
2
)
= 30 V
V
B
= I
s
R
5
R
2
(R
3
+R
4
)
R
5
(R
1
+R
2
+R
3
+R
4
) + (R
4
+R
3
)(R
1
+R
2
)
= 14 V
V
C
= I
s
R
5
R
4
(R
2
+R
1
)
R
5
(R
1
+R
2
+R
3
+R
4
) + (R
4
+R
3
)(R
1
+R
2
)
= 18 V
V
R
1
is equal to (V
A
V
B
) = 16 V and I
R
1
= 200 mA.
Circuit c): For this circuit we can write:
_
_
V
C
V
D
= V
s
I
3
+I
2
+I
4
+I
6
= I
s
I
1
+I
s
= I
5
I
5
= I
4
+I
6
(1.17)
that is
_
_
V
C
V
D
= V
s
V
D
R
3
+
V
C
R
2
+
V
B
R
4
+
V
B
R
6
= I
s
V
C
V
A
R
1
+I
s
=
V
A
V
B
R
5
V
A
V
B
R
5
=
V
B
R
4
+
V
B
R
6
(1.18)
+
0.2 A
c)
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
4
R
1
R
3
R
5
R
6
R
2
V
A
a)
b)
V
B
V
B
V
C
V
C
V
D 0
0
V
s
V
s
I
s
R
1
I
R
1
I
s
R
5
I
R
1
I
R
2
I
R
3
I
R
4
I
R
5
I
R
2
I
R
4
I
sc
I
R
5
V
A
I
R
1
I
R
3
0
I
R
6
Since R
4
is connected in parallel with R
6
the last set of eqns can be written as
_
_
V
C
V
D
= V
s
V
D
R
3
+
V
C
R
2
+
V
B
R
4,6
= I
s
V
C
V
A
R
1
+I
s
=
V
A
V
B
R
5
V
A
V
B
R
5
=
V
B
R
4,6
(1.19)
where R
4,6
= R
4
[[R
6
= 21.7 . Solving in order to obtain V
A
, V
B
, V
C
and V
D
we get
V
A
=
R
4
(R
4,6
+R
5
)[I
s
(R
3
R
1
+R
2
R
1
+R
3
R
2
) +R
2
V
s
]
(R
3
R
4
+R
2
R
4
)(R
4,6
+R
5
+R
1
) +R
3
R
2
(R
4,6
+R
4
)
= 6.95 V
V
B
=
R
4
R
4,6
[I
s
(R
3
R
1
+R
2
R
1
+R
3
R
2
) +R
2
V
s
]
(R
3
R
4
+R
2
R
4
)(R
4,6
+R
5
+R
1
) +R
3
R
2
(R
4,6
+R
4
)
= 2.71 V
V
C
=
R
2
[V
s
R
4
(R
4,6
+R
5
+R
1
) +I
s
R
3
(R
4
R
4,6
+R
4
R
5
R
1
R
4,6
)]
(R
3
R
4
+R
2
R
4
)(R
4,6
+R
5
+R
1
) +R
3
R
2
(R
4,6
+R
4
)
= 7.33 V
V
D
=
R
3
I
s
R
2
[R
4
(R
4,6
+R
5
) R
1
R
4,6
]
(R
3
R
4
+R
2
R
4
)(R
4,6
+R
5
+R
1
) +R
3
R
2
(R
4,6
+R
4
)
R
3
V
s
[R
4
(R
4,6
+R
5
+R
1
) +R
2
(R
4,6
+R
4
)]
(R
3
R
4
+R
2
R
4
)(R
4,6
+R
5
+R
1
) +R
3
R
2
(R
4,6
+R
4
)
= 2.67 V
V
R
1
is equal to V
C
V
A
= 0.37 V and I
R
1
= 24.8 mA.
Th evenin equivalent circuits between points A and B (see gure 1.14).
+
V
Th
R
Th
A
B
Figure 1.14: Th evenin equivalent circuit between points A and B.
Circuit b): The Th evenin voltage, V
Th
, is the voltage between points A and B obtained in the
previous problem:
V
Th
= V
A
= 30 V
The Th evenin resistance, R
Th
is determined by calculating the equivalent resistance between
the points A and B (after substituting the current source by an open-circuit). Figure 1.15
shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of R
Th
. From this gure we can write:
A
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
5
B
R
Th
Figure 1.15: Equivalent circuit for the calculation of R
Th
.
R
Th
= (R
1
+R
2
)[[(R
3
+R
4
)[[R
5
= 42.9
Circuit c): The Th evenin voltage, V
Th
, is the voltage between points A and B obtained in the
previous problem:
V
Th
= V
A
V
B
= 4.24 V
The Th evenin resistance, R
Th
is determined by calculating the equivalent resistance between
the points A and B (after substituting the current source by an open-circuit and the voltage
source by a short-circuit). Figure 1.16 shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of R
Th
.
From this gure we can write:
R
Th
= R
5
[[[(R2[[R
3
) + (R
4
[[R
6
) +R
1
]
= 19.4
R
5
R
2
A
B
R
Th
R
4
R
6
R
1
R
3
Figure 1.16: Equivalent circuit for the calculation of R
Th
.
Norton equivalent circuits between points A and B (see gure 1.17).
I
Nt
R
Nt
A
B
Figure 1.17: Norton equivalent circuit.
Circuit b): The Norton current can be determined as follows:
I
Nt
=
V
Th
R
Th
= 699.3 mA
and the Norton resistance is equal to R
Nt
= R
Th
= 42.9 .
Circuit c): The Norton current can be determined as follows:
I
Nt
=
V
Th
R
Th
= 219.1 mA
and R
Nt
= R
Th
= 19.4 .
We use the Nodal analysis method to solve the circuits of gure 1.18.
Circuit a): For this circuit we can write the following set of equations:
_
_
I
s
+I +I
R
2
= 0
I
R
2
= A
i
I
I =
V
A
R
1
I
R
3
= A
i
I
(1.20)
that is
_
_
I
s
+I +
V
B
V
A
R
2
= 0
V
B
V
A
R
2
= A
i
I
I =
V
A
R
1
V
C
R
3
= A
i
I
(1.21)
A
, V
B
and V
C
we get:
V
A
=
R
1
I
s
1 +A
i
= 1.73 V
V
B
=
I
s
(R
1
A
i
R
2
)
1 +A
i
= 8.65 V
V
C
=
I
s
A
i
R
3
1 +A
i
= 16.15 V
3
is V
C
. Thus, I
R
3
= 230.7 mA.
Circuit b): We observe that V = V
B
. Hence we can write:
_
_
V
C
R
3
= G
m
V
V = V
s
R
2
R
2
+R
1
(1.22)
that is,
V
C
= R
3
G
m
V
s
R
2
R
2
+R
1
= 32.1 V
3
is V
C
. Thus, I
R
3
= 321 mA.
Circuit c): For this circuit we can write
_
_
I
R
1
= I
R
2
+I
R
4
V
B
V
C
= A
v
V
B
I
R
1
= I
R
2
+I
R
3
(1.23)
+
R
2 A
i
I
I
R
1
a)
I
s
0
V
A V
B
V
C
R
3
I
R
2
I
R
3
I
R
3
I
R
1
I
R
2
I
R
4
I
R
3
I
R
3
I
R
1
+
+
+
R
3
R
1 A
v
V
V
c)
R
2
R
4
0
V
B
V
C
+
R
2
R
3
G
m
V
V
b)
R
1
V
s
V
0
V
B V
C
+
R
2 R
3
+
I
R
m
I
R
1
0
d)
V
B
V
A
V
C
V
D
V
s
V
s
V
s
V
s
I
s
V
D
that is
_
_
V
s
V
B
R
1
=
V
B
R
2
+
V
D
R
4
V
B
V
C
= A
v
V
B
V
s
V
B
R
1
=
V
B
R
2
+
V
C
V
D
R
3
(1.24)
Solving to obtain V
B
, V
C
and V
D
we have:
V
B
=
V
s
R
2
(R
3
+R
4
)
R
3
(R
2
+R
1
) +R
1
R
2
(1 A
v
) +R
4
(R
1
+R
2
)
= 0.56 V
V
C
=
V
s
R
2
(R
3
+R
4
)(A
v
1)
R
3
(R
2
+R
1
) +R
1
R
2
(1 A
v
) +R
4
(R
1
+R
2
)
= 5.08 V
V
D
=
R
4
V
s
R
2
(A
v
1)
R
3
(R
2
+R
1
) +R
1
R
2
(1 A
v
) +R
4
(R
1
+R
2
)
= 4.32 V
3
is (V
C
V
D
) = 0.76 V and I
R
3
= 76 mA.
Circuit d): For this circuit we write:
_
_
V
B
V
C
= R
m
V
B
R
2
V
D
= V
s
V
A
R
1
+
V
C
V
D
R
3
=
V
B
R
2
V
A
R
1
= I
s
(1.25)
Solving to obtain V
A
, V
B
, V
C
and V
D
we get:
V
A
= I
s
R
1
= 23.4 V
V
B
=
R
2
(I
s
R
3
V
s
)
R
2
+R
m
+R
3
= 4.6 V
V
C
=
(I
s
R
3
V
s
)(R
2
+R
m
)
R
2
+R
m
+R
3
= 14.8 V
V
D
= V
s
= 10 V
3
is V
C
V
D
= 4.8 V and I
R
3
= 66.7 mA.
We apply the Superposition theorem to the circuits of gure 1.19 to nd the current owing through
R
2
(I
R
2
).
+
+
+
R1
R2
R3
R4 R5
a)
Gm V
+
V
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
b)
Vs1
Vs2
Is
Is
Vs
1. Circuit a)
V
s1
: Figure 1.20 shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution from
V
s1
to the current I
R
2
. The current source I
s
has been replaced by an open-circuit and
the voltage source V
s2
has been replaced by a short-circuit. From this circuit we can
write:
I
R
2
=
V
s1
R
1
+R
2
= 40.5 mA
I
s
I
s
to the current I
R
2
. Both voltage sources were replaced by short-circuits. From this
gure we observe that R
1
and R
2
form a resistive current divider. Hence we have:
I
R
2
=
R
1
R
1
+R
2
I
s
= 64.9 mA
V
s2
V
s2
to the current I
R
2
s
was replaced by an open-circuit and the
voltage source V
s1
was replaced by a short-circuit. We observe that there is no closed
electrical path between R
2
and V
s2
. Hence the contribution fromV
s2
to the current I
R
2
is
zero.The current that ows through R
2
(sum of all contributions) is I
R
2
= 40.5+64.9 =
105.4 mA.
2. Circuit b)
V
s1
V
s
to the current I
R
2
s
was replaced by an open-circuit. For this
circuit we can write:
_
_
I
R
1
= I
R
2
I
R
2
+G
m
V = I
R
4
I
R
4
= I
R
5
V = V
C
V
D
(1.26)
+
R
1
R
2
V
s1
I
R2
Figure 1.20: Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution from V
s1
to the current I
R
2
.
R
2
R
3
R
4 R
5
I
s
R
1
Figure 1.21: Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution from I
s
to the current I
R
2
.
that is
_
_
V
s
V
B
R
1
=
V
B
V
C
R
2
V
B
V
C
R
2
+G
m
(V
C
V
D
) =
V
C
V
D
R
4
V
C
V
D
R
4
=
V
D
R
5
(1.27)
Solving, we obtain:
V
B
= V
s
R
5
+R
4
G
m
R
2
R
4
+R
2
G
m
R
2
R
4
R
2
R
5
R
4
+R
1
G
m
R
4
R
1
= 1.79 V
V
C
= V
s
R
5
+R
4
G
m
R
2
R
4
R
2
R
5
R
4
+R
1
G
m
R
4
R
1
(1.28)
= 0.08 V
V
D
= V
s
R
5
G
m
R
2
R
4
R
2
R
5
R
4
+R
1
G
m
R
4
R
1
= 0.03 V
and
I
R
2
=
V
B
V
C
R
2
= 20.8 mA
I
s
I
s
to the current I
R
2
. The voltage source V
s
was replaced by a short-circuit. For this
+
R
2
R
5
R
1
I
R2
R
4
V
s2
s2
to the current I
R
2
.
+
G
m
V
+
V
R
1
R
2
R
5
V
B
V
C
V
D
I
R5
I
R4
I
R2
I
R1
R
4
0
V
s
s
to the current I
R
2
.
circuit we write:
_
_
I
s
= I
R
3
I
s
= I
R
1
+I
R
2
I
R
2
+G
m
V = I
R
4
V = (V
C
V
D
)
I
R
4
= I
R
5
+I
s
(1.29)
that is
_
_
I
s
=
V
A
V
B
R
3
I
s
=
V
B
R
1
+
V
B
V
C
R
2
V
B
V
C
R
2
+G
m
(V
C
V
D
) =
V
C
V
D
R
4
V
C
V
D
R
4
=
V
D
R
5
+I
s
(1.30)
A
, V
B
, V
C
and V
D
we get:
V
A
= I
s
(G
m
R
4
1)(R
3
R
2
+R
3
R
1
+R
1
R
2
)
G
m
R
2
R
4
R
2
R
5
R
4
+R
1
G
m
R
4
R
1
I
s
R
3
(R
5
+R
4
) +R
1
R
4
(1 +G
m
R
5
)
G
m
R
2
R
4
R
2
R
5
R
4
+R
1
G
m
R
4
R
1
= 1.3 V
V
B
= I
s
R
1
R
5
G
m
R
4
+R
4
G
m
R
2
R
4
+R
2
G
m
R
2
R
4
R
2
R
5
R
4
+R
1
G
m
R
4
R
1
G
m
V
+
V
R
3
R
1
R
2
I
s
0
V
A
V
B
V
C
V
D
I
R5
R
5
R
4
I
R4
I
R3
I
R2
I
R1
Figure 1.24: Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution from I
s
to I
R
2
.
= 0.3 V
V
C
= I
s
R
2
R
5
+R
2
R
5
G
m
R
4
+R
5
G
m
R
4
R
1
+R
4
R
1
G
m
R
2
R
4
R
2
R
5
R
4
+R
1
G
m
R
4
R
1
= 5.96 V
V
D
= I
s
R
5
R
2
+G
m
R
2
R
4
+R
1
G
m
R
4
R
4
G
m
R
2
R
4
R
2
R
5
R
4
+R
1
G
m
R
4
R
1
= 5.81 V
and the current owing through R
2
is:
I
R
2
=
V
B
V
C
R
2
= 69.6 mA
The total current (the sum of all the contributions) is 90.4 mA.
3. Circuit c)
V
s
: Figure 1.25 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution
from V
s
to V
R
2
. From this gure we observe that the voltage across R
2
is:
V
R
2
= A
v
V
C
+V
s
= (1 A
v
) V
s
= 90 V
Note that V
C
= V
s
. I
R
2
= 0.45A.
I
r
: Figure 1.25 b) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution
from I
r
to V
R
2
. Note that V
C
is zero. Hence, the voltage-controlled voltage source is
now effectively a short-circuit and the voltage-controlled current source is now an open-
circuit. From this gure we observe that the voltage across R
2
is zero.
The overall voltage across R
2
is 90 V and the overall current through R
2
is 0.45 A.
+
V
C
R
1
+
V
s
G
m
V
C
A
v
V
C
+
a)
b)
+
R
2
V
R2
+
V
R2
I
r
+
V
C
= 0
R
2
I
R2
Figure 1.25: a) Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution fromV
s
to V
R
2
b) Equivalent
circuit for the calculation of the contribution from I
r
to V
R
2
.
Chapter 2
Complex numbers: An introduction
Axis
Real
Axis
Imaginary
2
4
4
3
2.5
z
1
z
2
z
3
z
4
Figure 2.1: Representation of the complex numbers of problem 1.
1. 2
2. j 2
3. 11.25 +j 2.5
4. 0.3562 +j 0.3836
5. (1.25, 0.9)
6. (2.2, 5.1)
7. (4, 15.5)
8. (1.1746, 0.4483)
2. Complex numbers: An introduction 36
1. z = 3/2 +j
127/2 or z = 3/2 j
127/2
2. z = 1/4 +
21/4 or z = 1/4
21/4
3. z = 1/4 +j 1/4
39 or z = 1/4 j 1/4
39
4. z = 3
5. z =
7/4 +j
65/4 or z =
7/4 j
65/4
1. 1.414 0.785 (rad)
2. 1.732 2.186 (rad)
3. 2.022 0.149 (rad)
4. 3.162 2.562 (rad)
1. 0.5
2. 0.75 j 1.3
3. j 0.5
4. j 0.5
1. 2
2. 8
3. 13.753 +j 9.992
4. 0.072 +j 0.222
5. 4.511 +j 8.142
6. 0.45 j 0.279
1. z = 1 or z = 1
2. z =
2/2(1 +j) or z =
2/2(1 j)
3. z = 2
1/6
exp(j/12) or
z = 2
1/6
exp(j9/12) or
z = 2
1/6
exp(j17/12)
4. z = (5/2)
1/5
exp(j3/20) or
z = (5/2)
1/5
exp(j5/20) or
z = (5/2)
1/5
exp(j13/20) or
z = (5/2)
1/5
exp(j21/20) or
z = (5/2)
1/5
exp(j29/20).
Chapter 3
Frequency domain electrical signal
and circuit analysis
The effective value for each voltage waveform v
i
(t) can be determined as follows:
V
eff
i
=
1
T
_
t
o
+T
t
o
v
2
i
(t) dt (3.1)
where t
o
can be chosen to facilitate the calculation of the integral in the last eqn.
a) Using eqn 3.1 with t
o
= T/2 we can write:
V
eff
1
=
1
T
_
T/2
T/2
v
2
1
(t) dt
The integral of the last eqn can be determined as follows:
1
T
_
T/2
T/2
v
2
1
(t) dt =
V
2
A
T
_
T/4
T/4
cos
2
( t) dt (with = 2/T)
=
V
2
A
2 T
_
T/4
T/4
[1 + cos(2 t)] dt
=
V
2
A
2 T
_
t
_
T/4
T/4
+
V
2
A
4 T
_
sin(2 t)
_
T/4
T/4
=
V
2
A
4
Hence, V
eff
1
= V
A
/2.
b) Using eqn 3.1 with t
o
= 0 we can write:
V
eff
2
=
1
T
_
T
0
v
2
2
(t) dt
1
T
_
T
0
v
2
2
(t) dt =
V
2
B
T
3
_
T
0
t
2
dt
=
V
2
B
T
3
_
t
3
3
_
T
0
=
V
2
B
3
Hence, V
eff
2
= V
B
/
3.
3. Frequency domain electrical signal and circuit analysis 38
c) Using eqn 3.1 with t
o
= T/2 we can write:
V
eff
3
=
1
T
_
T/2
T/2
v
2
3
(t) dt
1
T
_
T/2
T/2
v
2
3
(t) dt =
V
2
C
T
_
T/4
T/4
sin
2
(4 t) dt (with = 2/T)
=
V
2
C
2 T
_
T/4
T/4
[1 + cos(8 t)] dt
=
V
2
C
2 T
_
t
_
T/4
T/4
+
V
2
C
2 T 8
_
sin(8 t)
_
T/4
T/4
=
V
2
C
4
Hence, V
eff
3
= V
C
/2.
Assuming that the AC voltage across Z
L
is:
v
a
(t) = V
a
cos( t +
v
)
and that the AC current through Z
L
is:
i
a
(t) = I
a
cos( t +
i
)
we can obtain the average power dissipated by Z
L
as follows:
P
AV
=
1
T
_
T
0
v
a
(t) i
a
(t) dt
=
V
a
I
a
2 T
_
T
0
cos(
v
i
) dt +
V
a
I
a
2 T
_
T
0
cos(2 t +
v
+
i
) dt
=
V
a
I
a
2
cos(
v
i
)
=
V
a
I
a
2
Real
_
e
j
v
e
j
i
=
1
2
Real[V
A
I
A
]
with
V
A
= V
a
e
j
v
I
A
= I
a
e
j
i
We solve the circuits of this problem using the Nodal analysis method together with phasor analysis.
+
V
Z
C
Z
L
R
I
Figure 3.1: Circuit (a) of problem 3.3.
Circuit a): The impedances associated with the capacitor, Z
C
and the inductor, Z
L
, are:
Z
C
=
1
j C
=30 krad/s
= j 37.04
Z
L
= j L
=30 krad/s
= j 90.0
The (static) phasor associated with the voltage source is V = 10 exp(j /4) V. Since R is
connected in series with C and with L we can determine the current I as follows:
I =
V
Z
L
+Z
C
+R
=
10 e
j /4
j 90 j37.04 + 100
= 88.4 e
j 0.30
mA
The voltage across the resistance, V
R
, can be obtained from:
V
R
= RI
= 8.84 e
j 0.30
V
The voltage across the capacitance, V
C
, can be obtained from:
V
C
= Z
C
I
= 3.27e
j 0.30j /2
V
= 3.27e
j 1.27
V
The voltage across the inductance, V
L
, is:
V
L
= Z
L
I
= 7.95e
j 0.30+j /2
V
= 7.95e
j 1.87
V
Note that, as expected, the voltage and the current through the resistance are in phase, that
is, the phase difference between the voltage and the current is zero. On the other hand, the
voltage across the capacitor lags the current by /2 while the voltage across the inductor leads
the current by /2.
+
Z
C
Z
L
R
2
V
R
1
V
A
V
B
V
C
b)
V
R
1
Z
CLR2
V
B
I
ZL
I
R1
I
ZC
V
A
= V
0
0
a)
Figure 3.2: a) Circuit (b) of gure 3.1. b) Equivalent circuit
Circuit b): The impedances associated with the capacitance and inductance are:
Z
C
=
1
j C
=30 krad/s
= j166.7
Z
L
= j L
=30 krad/s
= j 300.0
From gure 3.2 a) we observe that the series combination of R
2
with Z
L
is connected in
parallel with Z
C
. Hence, we can obtain an equivalent impedance, which represent these com-
binations, as follows:
Z
CLR
2
= Z
C
[[(Z
L
+R
2
)
= 77.3 j 201.0 (3.2)
Fromgure 3.2 b) we recognise that R
1
and Z
CLR
2
forman impedance voltage divider. Hence
we can write:
V
B
= V
Z
CLR
2
Z
CLR
2
+R
1
= 1.97 e
j 0.23
V
From gure 3.2 a) we also note that Z
L
and R
2
form an impedance voltage divider which
allows us to relate V
C
and V
B
as follows:
V
C
= V
B
R
2
Z
L
+R
2
= 1.39 e
j 1.02
V
Now, the current in each element can be obtained:
I
R
1
=
V V
B
R
1
= 9.1 e
j 0.97
mA
I
Z
C
=
V
B
Z
C
= 11.8 e
j 1.34
mA
I
Z
L
=
V
B
V
C
Z
L
= 4.6 e
j 1.02
mA
I
R
2
= I
Z
L
Circuit c): The impedances associated with the capacitance and inductance are:
+
+
V
I R
3
V
I
R
1
R
2
Z
L
Z
C
b)
a)
0
0
Z
CR2
R
3
V
A
V
B
V
C
V
C
V
D
V
A
I
LR1
Z
LR1
I
CR2
I
R3
Figure 3.3: a) Circuit (c) of gure 3.1. b) Equivalent circuit
Z
C
=
1
j C
=30 krad/s
= j47.6
Z
L
= j L
=30 krad/s
= j 150
Since R
1
is in series with Z
L
and R
2
is in series with Z
C
we can obtain the equivalent circuit
of gure 3.3 b) with
Z
LR
1
= Z
L
+R
1
= 250 +j 150
Z
CR
2
= Z
C
+R
2
= 200 j47.6
For this circuit we can write the following set of eqns:
_
_
_
I
LR
1
+I
R
3
= I
V
A
V
C
= V
(3.3)
that is:
_
_
V
A
Z
LR
1
+
V
C
R
3
= I
V
A
V
C
= V
(3.4)
A
and V
C
we get:
V
A
= Z
LR
1
V +I R
3
R
3
+Z
LR
1
= 27.38 e
j 1.26
V
V
C
= R
3
I Z
LR
1
V
R
3
+Z
LR
1
= 19.05 e
j 1.50
V
Hence, the current that ows through C and R
2
is given by:
I
CR
2
=
V
A
V
C
Z
CR
2
= 48.6 e
j 1.02
mA (3.5)
and the current that ows through L and R
1
is given by:
I
LR
1
=
V
A
Z
LR
1
= 93.9 e
j 0.72
mA (3.6)
The current that ows through R
3
is given by:
I
R
3
=
V
C
R
3
= 68.0 e
j 1.50
mA (3.7)
The voltages across R
2
and C are given by:
V
R
2
= I
CR
2
R
2
= 9.73 e
j 1.02
V
V
Z
C
= I
CR
2
Z
C
= 2.32 e
j 0.55
V
The voltages across R
1
and L are given by:
V
R
1
= I
LR
1
R
1
= 23.48 e
j 0.72
V
V
Z
L
= I
LR
1
Z
L
= 14.09 e
j 2.29
V
Circuit d): The impedances associated with the capacitance and inductance are:
Z
C
=
1
j C
=30 krad/s
= j 33.3
Z
L
= j L
=30 krad/s
= j 180
Since R
1
is in parallel with Z
C
and R
2
is in series with Z
L
we can obtain the equivalent circuit
of gure 3.4 b) with
Z
CR
1
=
Z
C
R
1
Z
C
+R
1
= 0.85 j 33.31
Z
LR
2
= Z
L
+R
2
= 800 +j180
+
V
1
+
V
Z
C
R
1
Z
L
R
2
G
m
V
1
(A)
G
m
V
1
(A)
+
V
1
V
B
V
A
= V = V
1
Z
CR1
V
Z
LR2
a)
b)
0
I
LR2
Figure 3.4: a) Circuit (d) of gure 3.1. b) Equivalent circuit
For this circuit we can write the following:
I
LR
2
+G
m
V
1
= 0
Since V
1
= V we can write the last eqn as:
V
B
Z
LR
2
G
m
V = 0
that is
V
B
= Z
LR
2
G
m
V
= 820.0 e
j 1.01
V
The currents that ow through C, I
Z
C
, and through R
1
, I
R
1
, are given by
I
Z
C
=
V
Z
C
= 0.3 e
j 2.36
A
I
R
1
=
V
R
1
= 7.7 e
j 0.79
mA
The current that ows through the series combination of L with R
2
is
I
LR
2
= 1.0 e
j 0.79
A
In order to have maximum power transfer at f = 35 kHz Z
L
must be equal to Z
S
at this frequency.
Z
S
is the impedance of the series combination of the 120 resistor and the capacitor (see gure
+
Z
L
Z
L
V
v(t)
b)
a)
0.6 F
120
Z
S
Figure 3.5: a) Circuit of problem 3.4 b) Equivalent circuit.
3.5):
Z
S
= R +
1
j 2 f C
f=35 kHz
= 120 j 7.58
Hence Z
L
should be made equal to Z
S
= 120 + j 7.58 . A circuit which realises this impedance
Z
L
= Z
S
at f = 35 kHz is the series combination of a 120 resistance with an inductance L such
that;
j 2 f L
f=35 kHz
= j 7.58
that is L = 34.46 H.
a): The average value C
0
is determined as follows:
C
0
=
1
T
_
T/2
T/2
v
1
(t) dt
=
1
T
_
T/4
T/4
V
A
cos( t) dt ( = 2/T)
=
V
A
T
T
2
_
sin
_
2
T
t
__
T/4
T/4
=
V
A
The coefcients C
n
([n[ > 0) are determined as
C
n
=
1
T
_
T/2
T/2
v
1
(t) e
j 2
n
T
t
dt
=
V
A
T
_
T/2
T/2
cos
_
2
1
T
t
_
e
j 2
n
T
t
dt
=
V
A
2 T
_
T/4
T/4
e
j 2
1n
T
t
dt +
V
A
2 T
_
T/4
T/4
e
j 2
1+n
T
t
dt
=
V
A
2 T
T
j 2 (1 n)
_
e
j 2
1n
T
t
_
T/4
T/4
+
V
A
2 T
T
j 2 (1 +n)
_
e
j 2
1+n
T
t
_
T/4
T/4
=
V
A
2
_
sin
_
(1 n)
1 n
+
sin
_
(1 +n)
1 +n
_
=
V
A
4
sinc
_
1 n
2
_
+
V
A
4
sinc
_
1 +n
2
_
Figure 3.6 shows the spectrum of v
1
(t).
b): The average value C
0
is determined as follows:
C
0
=
1
T
_
T
0
v
2
(t) dt
=
1
T
_
T
0
V
B
t
T
dt
=
V
B
2
(3.8)
The coefcients C
n
([n[ > 0) are determined from
C
n
=
1
T
_
T
0
v
2
(t) e
j 2
n
T
t
dt
=
1
T
_
T
0
V
B
t
T
e
j 2
n
T
t
dt
=
V
B
T
2
_
e
j 2
n
T
t
_
j 2
n
T
_
2
_
1 +j 2
n
T
t
_
_
T
0
=
V
B
(2n)
2
_
e
j 2 n
. .
1
(1 +j 2 n) 1
_
=
j V
B
2n
(3.9)
2 4 6 4 6 2
6 2 4 6 4 2
1
f/T
|C
n
| (V)
C
n
(rad)
f/T
a)
b)
Figure 3.6: Spectrum of v
1
(t) a) Magnitude. b) Phase.
2
(t).
c): The average value C
0
is zero. The coefcients C
n
([n[ > 0) are determined from
C
n
=
1
T
_
T
0
v
3
(t) e
j 2
n
T
t
dt
=
1
T
_
T/4
T/4
V
C
cos(4 t) dt ( = 2/T)
=
V
C
4
sinc
_
4 n
2
_
+
V
A
4
sinc
_
4 +n
2
_
3
(t). Note that the spectrum contains no DC component.
2 4 6 4 6 2
1
|C
n
| (V)
C
n
(rad)
f/T
a)
b)
6
4 2
2 4 6
f/T
2
Using phasor analysis we determine the output voltage V
R
as follows:
V
R
= V
S
R
Z
C
+R
(3.10)
where Z
C
is the impedance associated with the capacitor:
Z
C
=
1
j 2 f C
Eqn 3.10 can be written as:
V
R
= V
S
j 2 f RC
1 +j 2 f RC
(3.11)
we dene
H(f) =
V
R
V
S
giving
=
j 2 f RC
1 +j 2 f RC
(3.12)
2 4 6 4 6 2
6 2 4 6 4 2
1
f/T
|C
n
| (V)
C
n
(rad)
f/T
a)
b)
3
a): Using the result of the last problem (see eqn 3.11 with V
O
= V
R
) and by applying the
Superposition theorem, that is, substituting the phasor V
S
in eqn 3.11 by the phasors C
n
given
by eqn 3.8 and 3.9, we obtain the phasors representing the output voltage, V
O
n
, as follows:
V
O
n
=
_
_
0 , n = 0
V
B
RC
T
_
1 +j 2
n
T
RC
_
, n ,= 0
(3.13)
and the output voltage, v
o
(t) can be written as :
v
o
(t) =
n=1
[2 V
O
n
[ cos
_
2
n
T
t +V
O
n
_
=
n=1
5.6
_
1 + (2.8 n)
2
cos
_
2
n
T
t + tan
1
(2.8 n)
_
V
(3.14)
b): Using phasor analysis we determine the output voltage V
O
as follows:
V
O
= V
S
Z
L
Z
L
+R
(3.15)
where Z
L
is the impedance associated with the inductance:
Z
L
= j 2 f L
V
O
= V
S
j 2 f L/R
1 +j 2 f L/R
(3.16)
Using again the Superposition theorem, that is, substituting the phasor V
S
in eqn 3.16 by the
phasors C
n
given by eqn 3.8 and 3.9, we obtain the phasors V
O
n
as follows:
V
O
n
=
_
_
0 , n = 0
V
B
L/R
T
_
1 +j 2
n
T
L/R
_
, n ,= 0
(3.17)
and the output voltage, v
o
(t) can be written as :
v
o
(t) =
n=1
[2 V
O
n
[ cos
_
2
n
T
t +V
O
n
_
=
n=1
5.6
_
1 + (2.8 n)
2
cos
_
2
n
T
t + tan
1
(2.8 n)
_
V
(3.18)
Comparing eqn 3.14 with eqn 3.18 we observe that these are identical. This means that both
circuits produce the same output when driven by the same input signal, regardless of fre-
quency. Both circuits are high-pass lters.
We apply phasor analysis together with the Nodal analysis method to the circuits of gure 3.9.
+
+
a)
I
S
V
O
R
Z
C
Z
L
0
c)
V
S
I
O
Z
L
Z
C
R
0
V
S
V
A
+
b)
V
S V
O
Z
L
Z
C
R
1
R
2
0
V
A
V
O
V
S
V
O
Circuit a): For this circuit we observe that the output voltage is applied to the parallel com-
bination of Z
C
, Z
L
and R. This parallel combination can be represented by an equivalent
impedance Z
eq
given by:
Z
eq
= Z
C
[[Z
L
[[R
=
j 2 f LR
R(1 (2 f)
2
LC +j 2 fL
(3.19)
Since V
O
= I
S
Z
eq
the transfer function is equal to Z
eq
;
H(f) =
j 2 f LR
R(1 (2 f)
2
LC +j 2 fL
(3.20)
The magnitude of the transfer function is:
[H(f)[ =
2 f LR
_
R
2
[1 (2 f)
2
LC]
2
+ (2 f)
2
L
2
(3.21)
Figure 3.10 shows the magnitude of the transfer function versus the frequency.
10
3
10
4
f
c1
f
c2
10
5
f (Hz)
|H(f)| ()
250
200
150
100
50
f
o
Figure 3.10: Magnitude of the transfer function versus the frequency.
Note that the peak value of the magnitude of the transfer function is equal to R = 230 and
it occurs at the central frequency f
o
given by:
f
o
=
1
2
LC
= 5.03 kHz
The 3 dB cut-off frequencies satisfy the following eqn :
2 f LR
_
R
2
[1 (2 f)
2
LC]
2
+ (2 f)
2
L
2
=
R
2
Solving, we obtain:
(2f)
2
=
1 + 2
C
/
L
2
2
C
_
1 + 4
C
/
L
2
2
C
where
C
= RC and
L
= L/R. Taking the square root we nd:
f
c
1
=
_
1 + 2
C
/
L
_
1 + 4
C
/
L
_1
2
2
2
C
f
c
2
=
_
1 + 2
C
/
L
+
_
1 + 4
C
/
L
_1
2
2
2
C
The bandwidth is (f
c
2
f
c
1
) = 692 Hz. The Quality factor can be calculated as indicated
below:
Q =
f
o
f
c
2
f
c
1
= 7.3
Circuit b): For this circuit we can write the following set of eqns:
_
_
_
V
S
V
A
R
1
=
V
A
Z
C
+
V
A
V
O
Z
L
V
O
=
R
2
R
2
+Z
L
V
A
(3.22)
with
Z
C
=
1
j C
Z
L
= j L
Solving we obtain:
V
O
= V
S
R
2
R
2
+R
1
+j 2 f (R
2
R
1
C +L) LR
1
C (2 f)
2
that is:
H(f) =
R
2
R
2
+R
1
+j 2 f (R
2
R
1
C +L) LR
1
C (2 f)
2
Figure 3.11 shows the magnitude of the transfer function versus the frequency. The 3 dB
10
5
|H(f)|
f (Hz)
f
c
10
4
10
3
10
2
0.7
0.6
0.2
0.1
0.5
0.4
0.3
cut-off frequency satises the following eqn :
[H(f)[ =
1
2
R
2
R
2
+R
1
From gure 3.11 we can obtain the 3 dB cut-off frequency; f
c
= 2.64 kHz. The bandwidth is
also 2.64 kHz.
Circuit c): For this circuit we can write;
V
O
=
Z
LR
Z
LR
+Z
C
V
S
where Z
LR
is the impedance associated with the parallel combination of R with L, that is:
Z
LR
=
j 2 f LR
j 2 f L +R
The output current I
O
can be expressed as:
I
O
=
V
O
Z
L
that is:
I
O
= V
S
Z
LR
Z
LR
+Z
C
1
Z
L
Finally,
H(f) =
Z
LR
Z
LR
+Z
C
1
Z
L
=
j 2 f C
j 2 f L +R[1 (2 f)
2
LC]
Figure 3.12 shows the magnitude of the transfer function versus the frequency. The 3 dB
10
2
0.3
0.2
0.1
|H(f)| (mS)
10
4
f
c1 f
c2
10
3
f (Hz)
cut-off frequency satisfy the following eqn :
[H(f)[ =
1
2
C
L
From gure 3.12 we can obtain the 3 dB cut-off frequencies; f
c
1
= 1.27 kHz and f
c
2
= 1.43
kHz. The bandwidth is therefore 160 Hz.
Signal a): v
1
(t) can be expressed as
v
1
(t) =
_
_
_
b
a
t for 0 < t < a
0 elsewhere
(3.23)
with b = 3/2 and a = 4 10
3
.
V
1
(f) can be calculated as follows:
V
1
(f) =
_

v
1
(t) e
j 2 f t
dt
=
_
a
0
b
a
t e
j 2 f t
dt
= b
(1 + 2 j a f) e
2 j a f
1
4 a
2
f
2
Signal b): v
2
v
2
(t) =
_
_
t + 3a for 3a < t < 2a
a for 2a t 2a
t + 3a for 2a < t < 3a
0 elsewhere
(3.24)
with a = 10
3
.
V
2
V
2
(f) =
_

v
2
(t) e
j 2 f t
dt
=
_
2a
3a
(t + 3a) e
j 2 f t
dt +
_
2a
2a
a e
j 2 f t
dt
+
_
3a
2a
(t + 3a) e
j 2 f t
dt
=
cos(4 f a) cos(6 f a) 2 sin(4 f a)
2
2
f
2
+
1
4
sinc (4 f a)
Signal c): v
3
v
3
(t) = 2 rect
_
t
2 a
_
+ rect
_
t 2 a
2 a
_
+ rect
_
t + 2 a
2 a
_
with a = 10
3
.
V
3
V
3
(f) =
_

v
3
(t) e
j 2 f t
dt
= 4 a sinc (2 f a) [1 + cos(4 f a)]
Let us consider the convolution between two functions x(t) and y(t). x(t) y(t) can be expressed
as:
x(t) y(t) =
_

x(t ) y() d (3.25)

Using the variable transformation
= t
we have
d = d

and eqn 3.25 can be written as follows:
x(t) y(t) =
_

+
x() y(t ) d
=
_
+
x() y(t ) d
= y(t) x(t)
The transfer function of the circuit can be calculated using phasor analysis:
H(f) =
V
O
V
S
=
1
1 +j 2 f RC (2 f)
2
LC
This transfer function can be written as follows:
H(f) =

2
o
2
o
+j 2 f (2
o
) (2 f)
2
where
o
=
1
LC
= 30.9 krad/s
and
=
1
2
R
_
C
L
= 0.7
The transfer function can also be written as
H(f) =

2
1
_
1
1
+j 2 f

1
2
+j 2 f
_
with
1
=
o
o
_
2
1
2
=
o
o
_
2
1
Choosing
1
=
o

o
_
2
1 and
2
=
o
+
o
_
2
1 and using the table of Fourier
transforms in Appendix A we can write the impulse response as:
h(t) =

2
1
_
e
1
t
e
2
t
_
u(t)
=

o
2
_
2
1
e
o
t
_
e
2
1 t
e
2
1 t
_
u(t)
Since is less than one, the last eqn can be written as:
h(t) =

o
j 2
_
1
2
e
o
t
_
e
j
o
1
2
t
e
j
o
1
2
t
_
u(t)
=

o
_
1
2
e
o
t
sin
_
o
_
1
2
t
_
u(t)
Figure 3.13 shows h(t).
15
10
5
h(t)
(10
3
)
1 2 3
t (s)
(10
4
)
Figure 3.13: Impulse response.
The output voltage is given by:
v
o
(t) = h(t) v
i
(t)
=
_

h() v
i
(t )d (3.26)
where h(t) is as calculated in the previous exercise and v
i
(t) is given by
v
i
= V
a
rect
_
t T
a
/2
T
a
_
v
o
(t) =
_
_
_
t
0
h() V
a
d for < t < T
a
_
t
tT
a
h() V
a
d for t T
a
(3.27)
Solving, we obtain:
v
o
(t) =
_
_
V
a
V
a
_
1
2
e
o
t
sin
_
_
1
2
o
t +
_
, 0 < t < T
a
V
a
_
1
2
_
e
o
t
sin
_
_
1
2
o
t +
_
e
o
(tT
a
)
sin
_
_
1
2
o
(t T
a
) +
__
, t T
a
(3.28)
with
= tan
1
_
_
1
2
_
Figure 3.14 shows v
i
(t) and v
o
(t).
0.5
t
(ms)
t
(ms)
0.5
2
2
a)
b)
v
o
(t) (V)
v
i
(t) (V)
Figure 3.14: a) v
i
(t). b) v
o
(t).
Chapter 4
Natural and forced responses circuit
analysis
T 5T 4T 3T 2T
0.2
0.4
0.6
v
C
(t)/V
s
1.0
0.8
t
Figure 4.1: Voltage normalised to V
s
versus time normalised to T.
Figure 4.1 shows v
C
(t) when = T/3. From this gure we observe that the circuit reaches its
steady-state at about 2T. We conclude that for a smaller time constant the circuit bandwidth in-
creases and, therefore, the circuit reaches its steady-state more quickly.
4. Natural and forced responses circuit analysis 61
The Laplace transform of v
1
(t) can be calculated as follows:
V
1
(s) =
_

0
v
1
(t) e
s t
dt
=
_
1
0
t e
s t
dt +
_

0
e
s t
dt
=
_
t
s
e
s t
1
s
2
e
s t
_
1
0
+
_
1
s
e
s t
_
0
=
1
s
2
_
1 e
s
_
Real(s) > 0
The Laplace transform of v
2
V
2
(s) =
_

0
v
2
(t) e
s t
dt
=
_

0
t
2
e
s t
dt
=
_
t
2
s
e
s t
2 t
s
2
e
s t
2
s
3
e
s t
_
0
=
2
s
3
Real(s) > 0
v
3
(t) can be expressed as follows:
v
3
(t) = t
2
u(t) (t 1)
2
u(t 1)
Now the Laplace transform of v
2
V
1
(s) = V
2
(s) V
2
(s) e
s
=
2
s
3
_
1 e
s
_
Real(s) > 0
The roots of the equation (s a)
2
+b
2
= 0 are:
s = a j b
Now we can write:
1
(s a)
2
+b
2
=
K
1
s a j b
+
K
2
s a +j b
that is:
1
(s a)
2
+b
2
=
K
1
(s a +j b) +K
2
(s a j b)
(s a)
2
+b
2
The last eqn is an equality if:
_
_
_
K
1
+K
2
= 0
K
1
(a +j b) +K
2
(a j b) = 1
(4.1)
Solving, we obtain:
K
1
=
1
j 2 b
K
2
=
1
j 2 b
The inverse Laplace transform can now be obtained as follows:
x
1
(t) =
1
j 2 b
e
(a+j b) t
1
j 2 b
e
(aj b) t
=
1
b
e
a t
e
j b t
e
j b t
2 j
=
1
b
e
a t
sin(b t)
We can write X
2
(s) as follows:
s
(s +a)
2
(s +b)
2
=
K
a
1
(s +a)
2
+
K
a
2
s +a
+
K
b
1
(s +b)
2
+
K
b
2
s +b
The coefcients K
a
1
, K
a
2
, K
b
1
and K
b
2
can be obtained solving the following set of eqns:
_
_
K
a
2
+K
b
2
= 0
K
a
2
a + 2 K
a
2
b +K
a
1
+K
b
1
+K
b
2
b + 2 K
b
2
a = 0
2 K
a
1
b + 2 K
a
2
a b +K
a
2
b
2
+ 2 K
b
1
a + 2 K
b
2
b a +K
b
2
a
2
= 1
K
a
1
b
2
+K
b
2
b a
2
+K
a
2
a b
2
+K
b
1
a
2
= 0
(4.2)
Solving, we obtain:
K
a
1
=
a
(a b)
2
K
b
1
=
b
(a b)
2
K
a
2
=
(a +b)
(a b)
3
K
a
3
=
(a +b)
(a b)
3
The inverse Laplace transform can be written as
x
2
(t) = (K
a
1
+K
a
2
t) e
a t
u(t) + (K
b
1
+K
b
2
t) e
b t
u(t)
X
3
(s) can be written as
1
s
2
a
2
=
K
1
s +a
+
K
2
s a
with
K
1
=
1
2 a
K
2
=
1
2 a
and x
1
(t) can be obtained as follows:
x
1
(t) =
1
2 a
e
a t
u(t) +
1
2 a
e
a t
u(t)
=
1
a
sinh(a t) u(t)
Circuit a): Figure 4.2 a) shows the equivalent circuit for t < 0. Note that, if connected to a DC
+
V
s
I
L
R
1
R
2
R
3
a)
R
2
b)
V
R2
(f)
(V
R2
(s))
+
+
+
(V
L
(s))
I(f)
(I(s))
(V
R1
(s))
V
R1
(f)
V
L
(f)
L
R
1
Figure 4.2: a) Equivalent circuit for t < 0. b) Equivalent circuit for t 0.
source for a long time the inductor behaves as a short-circuit. The current that ows through
R
1
and L can be determined as follows:
I
L
=
V
s
(R
1
[[R
2
) +R
3
R
2
R
1
+R
2
(4.3)
= 0.75 mA
1
is:
V
R
1
=
R
1
R
1
+R
2
V
s
= 0.75 V
Figure 4.2 b) shows the equivalent circuit for t 0. Using Fourier transforms we can write
the following eqn:
V
R
1
(f) +V
L
(f) = V
R
2
(f)
that is:
R
1
I(f) +j 2 f LI(f) LI
L
= R
2
I(f)
where I
L
is given by eqn 4.3. Solving this eqn to obtain I(f) we have:
I(f) =
LI
L
R
1
+R
2
+j 2 f L
and V
R
1
(f) is:
V
R
1
(f) = R
1
I(f)
=
R
1
LI
L
R
1
+R
2
+j 2 f L
Calculating the inverse Fourier transform we obtain the time domain voltage across R
1
for
t 0, that is:
v
R
1
(t) = R
1
I
L
e
t (R
1
+R
2
)/L
u(t) (4.4)
The voltage v
R
1
(t) can be written, for all time t, as follows:
v
R
1
(t) =
R
1
R
1
+R
2
V
s
u(t) +R
1
I
L
e
t (R
1
+R
2
)/L
u(t) (4.5)
Now, we use Laplace transforms to analyse the circuit (see gure 4.2 b)). We can write the
following eqn:
R
1
I(s) +s LI(f) LI
L
= R
2
I(s)
that is:
I(f) =
LI
L
R
1
+R
2
+s L
and V
R
1
(s) is:
V
R
1
(f) = R
1
I(s)
=
R
1
LI
L
R
1
+R
2
+s L
Calculating the inverse Laplace transform we obtain the time domain voltage across R
1
for
t 0, that is:
v
R
1
(t) = R
1
I
L
e
t (R
1
+R
2
)/L
u(t) (4.6)
Comparing eqn 4.4 with 4.6 we observe that these are equal. This is expected since both
methods (Fourier and Laplace transforms) can be used to study the natural response of a
circuit. Figure 4.3 shows the voltage across R
1
.
6 2 4
t
(s)
v
R
1
(t)
(V)
0
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
Figure 4.3: Voltage across R
1
.
Circuit b): Figure 4.4 a) shows the equivalent circuit for t < 0. Note that, for DC, the
capacitor behaves as an open-circuit. Hence all the current ows through R
2
giving rise to a
voltage across its terminals:
V
R
2
= R
2
I
s
= 4 V
I
s
a)
b)
R
1
C (V
C
(s))
V
C
(f)
R
2
+
Figure 4.4: a) Equivalent circuit for t < 0 b)Equivalent circuit for t 0.

Since the resistor R
1
is not conducting, v
R
1
(t) = 0 for t < 0 and the voltage across the
capacitor, for t < 0, is V
R
2
.
Figure 4.4 b) shows the equivalent circuit for t 0. From this circuit it is clear that the voltage
across R
1
is the same as the voltage across the capacitor. Using Fourier transforms we can
write:
V
C
(f)
R
1
= j 2 f C V
C
(f) +C V
R
2
Note that V
R
2
corresponds to the initial condition of the capacitor. The voltage V
C
(f) can be
obtained as:
V
C
(f) = V
R
2
R
1
C
1 +j 2 f R
1
C
Taking the inverse Fourier transform we get:
v
c
(t) = V
R
2
e
t/
u(t)
with = R
1
C. The voltage across the resistance R
1
, for all time t, can be written as:
v
R
1
(t) = V
R
2
e
t/
u(t)
Using Laplace transforms we can write (for t 0):
V
C
(s)
R
1
= s C V
C
(s) +C V
R
2
The voltage V
C
(s) can be obtained as:
V
C
(s) = V
R
2
R
1
C
1 +s R
1
C
Taking the inverse Laplace transform we get:
v
c
(t) = V
R
2
e
t/
u(t)
where = R
1
C. The voltage across the resistance R
1
can be written, for all time t, as:
v
R
1
(t) = V
R
2
e
t/
u(t)
Once again the Fourier transform and Laplace transforms give the same result. Figure 4.5
shows the voltage across R
1
.
2 0 4 6 8 10
(ms)
t
v
R
1
(t)
(V)
2
4
Figure 4.5: Voltage across R
1
.
Circuit a): Figure 4.6 a) shows the equivalent circuit for t < 0. Since the capacitor represents
+
V
s
a)
R
2
+
R
1
+ R
3
+
V
L
(s)

V
C
(s)
+
C
b)
V
R
(s)
L
R
3
I(s)
an open-circuit at DC, R
1
is not conducting and the voltage across the capacitor, V
co
, is the
voltage across R
3
, which is given by:
V
R
3
= V
s
R
3
R
2
+R
3
= 0.44 V
The inductor behaves as a short-circuit at DC. Therefore, the voltage across its terminals is
zero. The current that ows through the inductor is the current that ows through R
3
:
I
lo
= I
R
3
I
R
3
=
V
R
3
R
3
= 3.7 mA
Figure 4.6 b) shows the equivalent circuit for t 0. For this circuit we can write (using
Laplace domain analysis):
V
C
(s) = V
R
(s) +V
L
(s)
that is
I(s)
s C
+
V
co
s
= RI(s) +s LI(s) LI
lo
with R = R
1
+R
3
. Solving in order to obtain I(s) we get:
I(s) = =
C V
co
+LC s I
lo
1 +s C R +LC s
2
The last eqn can be written as follows:
I(s) = C V
co
2
n
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
+ I
lo
s
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
with
n
=
1
LC
= 50 krad/s
=
1
2
R
_
C
L
= 2.2
Taking the inverse Laplace Transform ( > 1) we have:
i(t) = C V
co
n
_
2
1
sinh
_
n
_
2
1 t
_
e
t
n
u(t)
. .
Contribution from V
co
+ I
lo
_
cosh
_
n
_
2
1 t
_
2
1
sinh
_
n
_
2
1 t
_
_
e
t
n
u(t)
. .
Contribution from I
lo
Figure 4.7 shows i(t) versus the time.
40
60 80 20
4
1
2
3
i(t)
(mA)
i(t)
Contribution
Contribution
100
(s)
t
from V
co
from I
lo
Figure 4.7: The current for all time t.
Circuit b): Figure 4.8 a) shows the equivalent circuit for t < 0. The voltage across the
capacitor is equal to the voltage across R
1
given by:
V
co
= V
R
1
= I
s
R
1
The current through the inductor is zero since the capacitor is not conducting.
R
1
V
R1
(s)
+
I
s
C
+
L
b)
V
R2
(s)
a)
I
(
s)
V
L
(s)
+
R
2
V
C
(s)
+
Figure 4.8 b) shows the equivalent circuit for t 0. For this circuit we can write:
V
L
(s) = V
R
2
+V
C
(s)
that is
s LI(s) = RI(s)
I
(
s)
s C
+
V
co
s
Solving, we get:
I(s) =
C V
co
s
2
LC +s C R + 1
= C I
s
R
1
2
n
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
with
n
=
1
LC
= 14.1 krad/s
=
1
2
R
_
C
L
= 0.35
Taking the inverse Laplace transform we obtain
i(t) = C V
co
n
_
1
2
sin
_
n
_
1
2
t
_
e
t
n
u(t)
Figure 4.9 shows i(t).
6 8 10
5
10
10
2
i(t) (A)
t (s)
10
4
4 2
5
Figure 4.9: The current i(t).
Circuit a): Figure 4.10 shows the equivalent circuit in the s-domain. For this circuit we can
+
R
2
R
1
V
S
(s)
1
s C
+
V
C
1
(s)
Figure 4.10: Equivalent circuit in the s-domain.
write:
V
C
1
(s) = V
S
(s)
R
1
[[
1
s C
1
_
R
1
[[
1
s C
1
_
+R
2
= V
S
(s)
R
1
R
1
+R
2
1
1 +s
with
V
S
(s) =
V
s
s
= C
1
R
1
R
2
R
1
+R
2
V
s
= 3 V. Thus V
C
1
(s) can be written as:
V
C
1
(s) =
V
s
s

R
1
R
1
+R
2
1
1 +s
Taking the inverse Laplace transform we obtain
v
C
1
(t) =
V
s
R
1
R
1
+R
2
_
1 e
t/
_
u(t)
Figure 4.11 shows v
C
1
(t)
2
4 10
4
t (s)
v
C
1
(t) (V)
3
1.5
Figure 4.11: The voltage across the capacitor C
1
.
+
V
S
(s)
(s C
1
)
1
(s C
2
)
1
R
1
R
2
Circuit b): Figure 4.12 shows the equivalent circuit in the s-domain. For this circuit we can
write:
V
C
1
(s) = V
S
(s)
R
1
[[
1
s C
1
_
R
1
[[
1
s C
1
_
+
_
R
2
[[
1
s C
2
_
that is:
V
C
1
(s) = V
S
(s)
R
1
R
1
+R
2
1 +s R
2
C
2
1 +s (C
1
+C
2
)
R
1
R
2
R
1
+R
2
Since R
1
C
1
= R
2
C
2
the last eqn can be written as:
V
C
1
(s) = V
S
(s)
R
1
R
1
+R
2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform we have
v
C
1
(t) =
R
1
R
1
+R
2
v
S
(t)
= 2.5 u(t)
This shows that if R
1
C
1
= R
2
C
2
then the output waveform is a smaller though undistorted
version of the input. This result is important for the design of attenuators and can be found in
nearly all oscilloscope attenuators and probes.
Circuit a): Figure 4.13 shows the equivalent circuit in the s-domain. For this circuit we can
+
R
2
R
1 V
S
(s)
s L
I
S
(s) I
L
(s)
write:
I
S
(s) =
V
S
(s)
R
2
+ (R
1
[[s L)
= V
S
(s)
R
1
+s L
R
2
R
1
+s L(R
2
+R
1
)
Now the current in L can be obtained from the current divider expression:
I
L
(s) = I
S
(s)
R
1
R
1
+s L
= V
S
(s)
R
1
R
1
+R
2
1
R
1
R
2
R
1
+R
2
+s L
=
V
s
s
R
1
R
1
+R
2
1
R
1
R
2
R
1
+R
2
+s L
with V
s
= 4 V. Taking the inverse Laplace transform we obtain:
i
L
(t) =
V
s
R
2
_
1 e
t/
_
(4.7)
with = L/(R
1
[[R
2
). Figure 4.14 shows I
L
(t).
10
20
2 4 6 8 t (s)
I
L
(t) (mA)
Figure 4.14: The current i
L
(t).
+
R
1
R
2
V
S
(s)
s L
I
L
(s)
I
S
(s)
Circuit b): Figure 4.15
shows the equivalent circuit in the s-domain. For this circuit we can write:
I
S
(s) =
V
S
(s)
R
1
+ (R
2
[[s L)
= V
S
(s)
R
2
+s L
R
2
R
1
+s L(R
2
+R
1
)
and
I
L
(s) =
R
2
R
2
+s L
I
L
(s)
=
V
s
s
1
R
1
1
1 +s L
R
1
+R
2
R
1
R
2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform we obtain:
i
L
(t) =
V
s
R
1
_
1 e
t/
_
(4.8)
with = L/(R
1
[[R
2
). Figure 4.16 shows I
L
(t).
t (s)
2 4 6 8 10
7
I
L
(t) (mA)
8
4
Figure 4.16: The current i
L
(t).
Figure 4.17 shows the equivalent circuit in the s-domain. The current through the resistance can be
C
L
I
S
(s)
R
I
L
(s) I
C
(s)
I
R
(s)
obtained as follows:
I
R
(s) = I
S
(s)
Z
LC
Z
LC
+R
with I
S
(s) = I
s
/s and with Z
LC
representing the parallel combination of s L with (s C)
1
;
Z
LC
= s L[[(s C)
1
=
s L
1 +s
2
LC
Hence, I
R
I
R
(s) = I
S
(s)
s L
s
2
LC R +s L +R
= I
S
(s)
2
n
s
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
= I
s
2
n
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
with
n
=
1
LC
= 64.6 krad/s
=
1
2 R
_
L
C
= 0.48
Taking the inverse Laplace transform we have:
i
R
(t) = I
s
2 e
t
n
_
1
2
sin
_
_
1
2
n
t
_
u(t)
The current through the capacitor can be obtained as follows:
I
C
(s) = I
S
(s)
Z
LR
Z
LR
+ (s C)
1
with Z
LR
representing the parallel combination of s L and R;
Z
LR
= s L[[R
=
s LR
R +s L
Hence, I
C
I
C
(s) = I
S
(s)
s
2
LC R
s
2
LC R +s L +R
= I
S
(s)
s
2
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
= I
s
s
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
i
C
(t) = I
s
e
t
n
_
1
2
cos
_
_
1
2
n
t +
_
u(t)
with
= tan
1
_

_
1
2
_
The current through the inductor can be obtained as:
I
L
(s) = I
S
(s)
Z
CR
Z
CR
+s L
with Z
CR
representing the parallel combination of (s C)
1
and R;
Z
CR
= (s C)
1
[[R
=
R
1 +s C R
Hence, I
L
I
L
(s) = I
S
(s)
R
s
2
LC R +s L +R
= I
S
(s)

2
n
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
= I
s
2
n
s (s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
)
i
L
(t) = I
s
_
1
e
t
n
_
1
2
sin
_
_
1
2
n
t +
_
_
u(t)
with
= tan
1
_
_
1
2
_
Figure 4.18 shows i
S
(t), i
R
(t), i
C
(t) and i
L
(t). Note the oscillatory response associated to i
R
(t),
i
C
(t) and i
L
(t) due to < 1. It is interesting to note that as t the inductor conducts I
s
while R
and C do not conduct. This is expected since, as t the electrical elements see i
S
(t) as a DC
current source and it is known that for DC the inductor behaves as a short-circuit and the capacitor
behaves as an open-circuit.
1
2 3
t (s)
10
4
2
4
6
2
8
12
10
1
2
3
t (s)
10
4
2
4
6
2
8
12
10
1
2 3
t (s)
10
4
2
4
6
2
8
12
10
1
2 3
t (s)
10
4
2
4
6
2
8
12
10
i
L
(t) (mA)
i
C
(t) (mA)
i
S
(t) (mA)
i
R
(t) (mA)
Figure 4.18: i
S
(t), i
R
(t), i
C
(t) and i
L
(t)
The circuit is critically damped when = 1. Using the results obtained in the previous problem we
have
R = 2
_
L
C
= 38.7
Chapter 5
Electrical two-port network analysis
Circuit a): Figure 5.1 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Z
11
and Z
21
. From
this gure we can write:
V
1
= (Z
1
+Z
2
) I
1
V
2
= Z
2
I
1
Hence we have:
Z
11
=
V
1
I
1
I
2
=0
= Z
1
+Z
2
Z
21
=
V
2
I
1
I
2
=0
= Z
2
Figure 5.1 b) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Z
12
and Z
22
. For this circuit
we can write:
V
2
= Z
2
I
2
V
1
= V
2
Hence we have:
Z
12
=
V
1
I
2
I
1
=0
= Z
2
Z
22
=
V
2
I
2
I
1
=0
= Z
2
Z
1 Z
1
Z
2
I
2
Z
2
+ + +
I
1
+
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
2
b) a)
I
1
= 0 I
2
= 0
Figure 5.1: a) Calculation of Z
11
and Z
21
. b) Calculation of Z
12
and Z
22
.
5. Electrical two-port network analysis 79
Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
Z
2
I
1
+
V
1 V
2
+
V
1
+
V
2
a) b)
I
1
= 0
I
2
= 0
I
2
11
and Z
21
12
and Z
22
.
Circuit b): Figure 5.2 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Z
11
and Z
21
. From
V
1
= Z
1
I
1
V
2
= V
1
Hence we have:
Z
11
=
V
1
I
1
I
2
=0
= Z
1
Z
21
=
V
2
I
1
I
2
=0
= Z
1
12
and Z
22
. For this circuit
we can write:
V
2
= (Z
2
+Z
1
) I
2
V
1
= Z
1
I
2
Hence we have:
Z
12
=
V
1
I
2
I
1
=0
= Z
1
Z
22
=
V
2
I
2
I
1
=0
= Z
1
+Z
2
Circuit c): Figure 5.3 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Z
11
and Z
21
. From
I
1
Z
3
Z
4
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
I
2
Z
2
+
V
2
V
1
+
V
1
+
V
2
0
0
V
B
Z
1 Z
2
a) b)
I
Z2
I
Z1
I
Z4
I
Z1
I
Z2
I
Z3 I
Z3 I
1
= 0 I
2
= 0
V
C
V
B
V
A
I
Z4
11
and Z
21
12
and Z
22
.
_
_
I
1
= I
Z
1
+I
Z
3
I
1
= I
Z
2
+I
Z
4
I
Z
1
= I
Z
4
V
2
= V
B
V
C
(5.1)
that is
_
_
I
1
=
V
1
V
C
Z
1
+
V
1
V
B
Z
3
I
1
=
V
B
Z
2
+
Z
C
Z
4
V
1
V
C
Z
1
=
V
C
Z
4
V
2
= V
B
V
C
(5.2)
Solving, to obtain V
1
and V
2
we get:
V
1
= I
1
(Z
3
+Z
2
)(Z
4
+Z
1
)
Z
3
+Z
4
+Z
1
+Z
2
V
2
= I
1
(Z
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
)
Z
3
+Z
4
+Z
1
+Z
2
Hence we have:
Z
11
=
V
1
I
1
I
2
=0
=
(Z
3
+Z
2
)(Z
4
+Z
1
)
Z
3
+Z
4
+Z
1
+Z
2
Z
21
=
V
2
I
1
I
2
=0
=
(Z
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
)
Z
3
+Z
4
+Z
1
+Z
2
12
and Z
22
. For this circuit
we can write:
_
_
I
2
= I
Z
3
+I
Z
2
I
2
= I
Z
4
+I
Z
1
I
Z
3
= I
Z
1
V
1
= V
A
V
B
(5.3)
that is
_
_
I
2
=
V
2
V
A
Z
3
+
V
2
V
B
Z
2
I
2
=
V
B
Z
4
+
V
A
Z
1
V
2
V
A
Z
3
=
V
A
Z
1
V
1
= V
A
V
B
(5.4)
Solving, to obtain V
1
and V
2
we get:
V
1
= I
2
Z
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
Z
3
+Z
4
+Z
1
+Z
2
V
2
= I
2
(Z
2
+Z
4
)(Z
3
+Z
1
)
Z
3
+Z
4
+Z
1
+Z
2
Hence we have:
Z
12
=
V
1
I
2
I
1
=0
=
Z
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
Z
3
+Z
4
+Z
1
+Z
2
Z
22
=
V
2
I
2
I
1
=0
=
(Z
2
+Z
4
)(Z
3
+Z
1
)
Z
3
+Z
4
+Z
1
+Z
2
Circuit d): Figure 5.4 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Z
11
and Z
21
. For
a) b)
Z
3
Z
1
Z
3
Z
1
+
V
1
Z
2
V
2
+
V
1
+ +
Z
2
V
2
I
1
= 0 I
2
= 0
I
1
I
2
11
and Z
21
12
and Z
22
.
this circuit we can write:
V
1
= I
1
[Z
1
[[(Z
2
+Z
3
)]
= I
1
Z
1
(Z
2
+Z
3
)
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
and
V
2
= I
1
Z
2
Z
1
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
Hence we have:
Z
11
=
V
1
I
1
I
2
=0
=
Z
1
(Z
2
+Z
3
)
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
Z
22
=
V
2
I
1
I
2
=0
= Z
2
Z
1
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
11
and Z
21
. For this circuit
we can write:
V
2
= I
2
Z
2
[[(Z
1
+Z
3
)
= I
2
Z
2
(Z
1
+Z
3
)
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
and
V
1
= I
2
Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
(5.5)
Hence we have:
Z
12
=
V
1
I
2
I
1
=0
= Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
Z
22
=
V
2
I
2
I
1
=0
=
Z
2
(Z
1
+Z
3
)
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
Circuit e): Figure 5.5 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Z
11
and Z
21
. For
+
I
1
+
R
i
A
rv
V
o
A
fi
I
i
I
2
+
V
1
+
R
o
V
o
= V
2
I
1
= I
i
= 0
I
i
R
i
A
rv
V
o
R
o
A
fi
I
i
I
2
= 0
+
V
o
= V
2
+
V
1
b)
a)
11
and Z
21
12
and Z
22
.
I
1
=
V
1
A
rv
V
o
R
i
=
V
1
A
rv
V
2
R
i
(5.6)
and
V
o
= V
2
= A
fi
I
i
R
o
= A
fi
I
1
R
o
(5.7)
Equations 5.6 and 5.7 can be solved to obtain V
1
as follows:
V
1
= I
1
(R
i
+A
rv
A
fi
R
o
)
Hence, we can write
Z
11
=
V
1
I
1
I
2
=0
= R
i
+A
rv
A
fi
R
o
= 103 k
Z
21
=
V
2
I
1
I
2
=0
= A
fi
R
o
= 1 M
12
and Z
22
. For this circuit
we have I
1
= I
i
= 0. Hence, we can write:
V
2
= I
2
R
o
and
V
1
= A
rv
V
2
= A
rv
I
2
R
o
Finally we have,
Z
12
=
V
1
I
2
I
1
=0
= A
rv
R
o
= 1 k
Z
22
=
V
2
I
2
I
1
=0
= R
o
= 10 k
Figure 5.6 a) shows the circuit for the calculation of Z
eq
11
and Z
eq
21
. Z
eq
11
can be determined as
follows:
[Z
] + [Z
]
I
2
+
V
2
I
1
+
V
1
1
V
+
V

2
V

1
+
1
I
2
I
2
I
1
V
1
+
[Z
]
[Z
]
+
1
V
+
V

2
V

1
+
1
I
2
+
V
2
2
I
1
I
1
[Z
]
[Z
]
+
V
1
V
2
+
I
2
a)
b)
c)
I
1
= 0
I
2
= 0
eq
11
and Z
eq
21
eq
12
and Z
eq
22
. c) Equivalent
two-port circuit.
Z
eq
11
=
V
1
I
1
I
2
=0
Since port 2 is an open-circuit then I
2
= I
2
= I
2
= 0 and I
1
= I
1
= I
1
. We also have V
1
=
V
1
+V
1
. Therefore, we can write the last eqn as follows:
Z
eq
11
=
V
1
I
2
=0
+
V
1
I
2
=0
= Z
11
+Z
11
In addition we have V
2
= V
2
+V
2
. Therefore we can write:
Z
eq
21
=
V
2
I
2
=0
+
V
2
I
2
=0
= Z
21
+Z
21
Figure 5.6 b) shows the circuit for the calculation of Z
eq
12
and Z
eq
22
. Z
eq
12
is given by:
Z
eq
12
=
V
1
I
2
I
1
=0
Since port 1 is an open-circuit then I
1
= I
1
= I
1
= 0 and I
2
= I
2
= I
2
. Again we have
V
1
= V
1
+V
1
and V
2
= V
2
+V
2
. Therefore, we can write:
Z
eq
12
=
V
1
I
1
=0
+
V
1
I
1
=0
= Z
12
+Z
12
and
Z
eq
22
=
V
2
I
1
=0
+
V
2
I
1
=0
= Z
22
+Z
22
From the above we can write
[Z
eq
] = [Z
] + [Z
]
Circuit a): Figure 5.7 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Y
11
and Y
21
. For
+
a)
Z
1
Z
2
V
1
I
1
I
2
Z
1
Z
2
V
2
I
2
I
1
b)
V
1
= 0
V
2
= 0
Figure 5.7: a) Calculation of Y
11
and Y
21
. b) Calculation of Y
12
and Y
22
.
I
1
= V
1
1
Z
1
and
I
2
= V
1
1
Z
1
= I
1
Hence we can write:
Y
11
=
I
1
V
1
V
2
=0
=
1
Z
1
Y
21
=
I
2
V
1
V
2
=0
=
1
Z
1
Figure 5.7 b) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Y
12
and Y
22
. For this circuit
we can write:
I
2
= V
2
_
1
Z
1
+
1
Z
2
_
I
2
= V
2
(Y
1
+Y
2
)
and
I
1
= V
2
1
Z
1
Hence we can write:
Y
12
=
I
1
V
2
V
1
=0
=
1
Z
1
Y
22
=
I
2
V
2
V
1
=0
= Y
1
+Y
2
Circuit b): Figure 5.8 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Y
11
and Y
21
. For
+
Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
Z
2
V
2
= 0
I
2
I
1
V
1
= 0
V
2
b) a)
I
2
I
1
V
1
11
and Y
21
12
and Y
22
.
Y
11
=
I
1
V
1
V
2
=0
= Y
1
+Y
2
Y
21
=
I
2
V
1
V
2
=0
= Y
2
12
and Y
22
. For this circuit
we can write:
Y
12
=
I
1
V
2
V
1
=0
= Y
2
Y
22
=
I
2
V
2
V
1
=0
= Y
2
Circuit c): Figure 5.9 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Y
11
and Y
21
. For
+
Z
1
Z
3
Z
2
Z
4
Z
1
Z
3
Z
2
Z
4
I
1
V
1
= 0 V
2
= 0
I
2
I
1
V
1
V
2
b)
0 0
a)
V
A
V
B
V
B
I
2
V
A
11
and Y
21
12
and Y
22
.
_
_
V
A
V
B
= V
1
V
A
Y
1
+V
A
Y
3
= I
1
V
B
Y
2
V
B
Y
4
= I
1
V
A
Y
1
+V
B
Y
4
= I
2
V
A
Y
3
V
B
Y
2
= I
2
(5.8)
Solving to obtain I
1
and I
2
we get:
I
1
= V
1
(Y
1
+Y
3
) (Y
2
+Y
4
)
Y
1
+Y
3
+Y
2
+Y
4
I
2
= V
1
Y
3
Y
4
Y
2
Y
1
Y
1
+Y
4
+Y
3
+Y
2
that is
Y
11
=
(Y
1
+Y
3
) (Y
2
+Y
4
)
Y
1
+Y
3
+Y
2
+Y
4
Y
21
=
Y
2
Y
1
Y
3
Y
4
Y
1
+Y
4
+Y
3
+Y
2
12
and Y
22
. For this circuit
we can write:
_
_
V
A
V
B
= V
2
V
A
Y
2
+V
A
Y
3
= I
2
V
B
Y
1
V
B
Y
4
= I
2
V
A
Y
2
+V
B
Y
4
= I
1
V
A
Y
3
V
B
Y
1
= I
1
(5.9)
Solving to obtain I
1
and I
2
we get:
I
1
= V
2
Y
3
Y
4
Y
2
Y
1
Y
1
+Y
4
+Y
3
+Y
2
I
2
= V
2
(Y
3
+Y
2
) (Y
1
+Y
4
)
Y
1
+Y
4
+Y
3
+Y
2
that is:
Y
12
=
Y
2
Y
1
Y
3
Y
4
Y
1
+Y
4
+Y
3
+Y
2
Y
22
=
(Y
3
+Y
2
) (Y
1
+Y
4
)
Y
1
+Y
4
+Y
3
+Y
2
Note the symmetrical results as expected.
Circuit d): Figure 5.10 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Y
11
and Y
21
. For
a) b)
Z
3
Z
1
Z
3
Z
1
Z
2 Z
2
I
1
V
1
V
2
V
1
= 0
V
2
= 0
I
2
I
1 I
2
+
+

11
and Y
21
12
and Y
22
.
I
1
= V
1
(Y
1
+Y
3
)
I
2
= V
1
Y
3
Hence, we can write:
Y
11
=
I
1
V
1
V
2
=0
= Y
1
+Y
3
Y
21
=
I
1
V
1
V
2
=0
= Y
3
12
and Y
22
. For this circuit
we can write:
I
1
= V
2
Y
3
I
2
= V
2
(Y
2
+Y
3
)
Hence, we can write:
Y
12
=
I
1
V
2
V
1
=0
= Y
3
Y
22
=
I
2
V
2
V
1
=0
= Y
2
+Y
3
Circuit e): Figure 5.11 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Y
11
and Y
21
. For
+
R
i
R
o
A
fi
I
i
I
2
I
1
= I
i
+
V
1
V
o
= V
2
= 0
R
i
A
rv
V
o
I
2
V
2
+
R
o
V
o
+
V
1
= 0
I
1
= I
i
b)
a)
A
fi
I
i
Figure 5.11: Calculation of: a) Y
11
; b) Y
21
.
V
1
= R
i
I
1
I
2
= A
i
V
1
R
i
Hence we can write:
Y
11
=
I
1
V
1
V
2
=0
=
1
R
i
= 0.33 mS
and
Y
21
=
I
2
V
1
V
2
=0
=
A
fi
R
i
= 33.33 mS
12
and Y
22
. For this circuit
we can write:
I
1
=
A
rv
V
2
R
i
I
2
=
V
2
R
o
+
A
rv
A
fi
V
2
R
i
Hence we can write:
Y
12
=
I
1
V
2
V
1
=0
=
A
rv
R
i
= 33.33 S
and
Y
22
=
I
2
V
2
V
1
=0
=
1
R
o
+
A
rv
A
fi
R
i
= 3.4 mS
Figure 5.12 a) shows the circuit for the calculation of Y
eq
11
and Y
eq
21
. Y
eq
11
can be determined as
follows:
+
+
V
1
I
1
I
2
+
V
2
[Y
] + [Y
]
a)
V

2
I
2
I
2
V

2
I
2
I
1
V

1
I
1
I
1
[Y
]
[Y
]
+
V

1
+
+
+
V
2
V
1
= 0
V

2
I
2
I
2
V

2
I
2
I
1
V

1
I
1
I
1
[Y
]
[Y
]
+
V

1
+
+
+
V
1
+
b)
c)
V
2
= 0
eq
11
and Y
eq
21
eq
12
and Y
eq
22
. c) Equivalent
two-port circuit.
Y
eq
11
=
I
1
V
1
V
2
=0
Since port 2 is short-circuited V
2
= V
2
= V
2
= 0. In addition we have V
1
= V
1
= V
1
, I
2
= I
2
+I
2
and I
1
= I
1
+I
1
. Therefore, we can rewrite the last eqn as follows:
Y
eq
11
=
I
1
V
2
=0
+
I
2
=0
= Y
11
+Y
11
and Y
eq
21
can be determined as:
Y
eq
21
=
I
2
V
1
V
2
=0
=
I
2
V
2
=0
+
I
2
V
2
=0
= Y
21
+Y
21
Figure 5.12 b) shows the circuit for the calculation of Y
eq
11
and Y
eq
21
. These can be determined as
follows:
Y
eq
12
=
I
1
V
2
V
1
=0
Y
eq
22
=
I
2
V
2
V
1
=0
Since port 1 is short-circuited, V
1
= V
1
= V
1
= 0. We also have V
2
= V
2
= V
2
, I
2
= I
2
+I
2
and
I
1
= I
1
+I
1
. Therefore, we can rewrite the last two eqns as follows:
Y
eq
12
=
I
1
V
1
=0
+
I
1
V
1
=0
= Y
12
+Y
21
Y
eq
22
=
I
2
V
1
=0
+
I
2
V
1
=0
= Y
22
+Y
22
From the above we can see that
[Y
eq
] = [Y
] + [Y
]
Circuit a): Figure 5.13 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A
11
. For this
Z
1
Z
2
+
I
1
+
V
1
V
2
I
2
= 0
Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
Z
2
+
V
2
a)
I
2
= 0
Z
1
Z
2
I
1
+
V
1
+
V
1
I
1
+
I
1
I
2
I
2
V
2
= 0
V
2
= 0 V
1
b)
c)
d)
Figure 5.13: Calculation of: a) A
11
; b) A
12
; c) A
21
; d) A
22
.
V
2
= V
1
Z
2
Z
2
+Z
1
Hence,
A
11
=
V
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
Z
2
+Z
1
Z
2
Figure 5.13 b) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A
12
. For this circuit we can
write:
V
1
= I
2
Z
1
Hence,
A
12
=
V
1
I
2
V
2
=0
= Z
1
Figure 5.13 c) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A
21
write:
V
2
= I
1
Z
2
Hence,
A
21
=
I
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
1
Z
2
Figure 5.13 d) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A
22
write:
I
1
= I
2
Hence,
A
22
=
I
1
I
2
V
2
=0
= 1
Circuit b): Figure 5.14 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A
11
. For this
Z
1
Z
2
I
1
a)
b)
c)
d)
V
1 V
2
+
V
1
+
V
1 V
2
+
V
1
I
1
+
I
2
I
2
= 0
I
2
I
1
I
1
I
2
= 0
Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
Z
2
V
2
= 0
V
2
= 0
11
; b) A
12
; c) A
21
; d) A
22
.
circuit we write:
V
1
= V
2
that is:
A
11
=
V
1
V
2
I
2
=0
= 1
12
write:
V
1
= I
2
Z
2
Hence,
A
12
=
V
1
I
2
V
2
=0
= Z
2
21
. For this circuit, since
I
2
= 0, we can write:
V
2
= I
1
Z
1
Hence,
A
21
=
I
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
1
Z
1
22
write:
I
2
= I
1
Z
1
Z
1
+Z
2
Hence,
A
22
=
I
1
I
2
V
2
=0
=
Z
1
+Z
2
Z
1
Circuit c): Figure 5.15 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A
11
. For this
circuit we can write the following set of eqns:
_
_
V
1
= V
A
V
B
I
Z
3
= I
Z
2
I
Z
1
= I
Z
4
(5.10)
that is
_
_
V
1
= V
A
V
B
V
A
V
2
Z
3
=
V
2
V
B
Z
2
V
A
Z
1
=
V
B
Z
4
(5.11)
Solving to obtain V
1
we get
V
1
= V
2
(Z
2
+Z
3
) (Z
1
+Z
4
)
Z
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
I
1
Z
3
Z
4
+
V
1
+
V
2
Z
1 Z
2
I
Z2
I
Z1
I
Z4
I
Z3
I
2
= 0
Z
3
Z
4
Z
1 Z
2
I
Z2
I
Z1
I
Z4
Z
3
Z
4
+
V
2
Z
1 Z
2
a)
I
Z2
I
Z1
I
Z4
I
2
= 0
I
1
Z
3
Z
4
+
V
1
+
Z
1 Z
2
I
Z2
I
Z1
I
Z4
I
Z3
+
I
1
I
1
V
1
V
1
+
I
2
V
2
= 0
I
2
c)
d)
b)
I
Z3
V
A
0
I
Z3
V
A
V
A
V
A
V
B
V
2
= 0
0
0
0 V
B
V
B
V
B
11
; b) A
12
; c) A
21
; d) A
22
.
that is:
A
11
=
V
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
(Z
2
+Z
3
) (Z
1
+Z
4
)
Z
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
12
write the following set of eqns:
_
_
V
1
= V
A
V
B
I
Z
3
I
Z
2
= I
2
I
Z
4
I
Z
1
= I
2
(5.12)
that is
_
_
V
1
= V
A
V
B
V
A
Z
3
+
V
B
Z
2
= I
2
V
B
Z
4
V
A
Z
1
= I
2
(5.13)
Solving to obtain V
1
we get
V
1
= I
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
+Z
1
Z
3
Z
2
+Z
1
Z
4
Z
2
+Z
3
Z
4
Z
2
Z
3
Z
4
Z
2
Z
1
that is:
A
12
=
V
1
I
2
V
2
=0
=
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
+Z
1
Z
3
Z
2
+Z
1
Z
4
Z
2
+Z
3
Z
4
Z
2
Z
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
21
write:
_
_
I
1
= I
Z
3
+I
Z
1
I
1
= I
Z
2
+I
Z
4
I
Z
3
= I
Z
2
(5.14)
that is
_
_
I
1
=
V
A
V
2
Z
3
+
V
A
Z
1
I
1
=
V
2
V
B
Z
2
V
B
Z
4
V
A
V
2
Z
3
=
V
2
V
B
Z
2
(5.15)
Solving to obtain I
1
we get
I
1
= V
2
Z
1
+Z
4
+Z
2
+Z
3
Z
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
and
A
21
=
I
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
Z
1
+Z
4
+Z
2
+Z
3
Z
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
22
write:
_
_
I
1
= I
Z
3
+I
Z
1
I
1
= I
Z
2
+I
Z
4
I
2
= I
Z
3
I
Z
2
(5.16)
that is
_
_
I
1
=
V
A
Z
3
+
V
A
Z
1
I
1
=
V
B
Z
2
V
B
Z
4
I
2
=
V
A
Z
3
+
V
B
Z
2
(5.17)
Solving to obtain I
1
we can write
I
1
= I
2
(Z
1
+Z
3
)(Z
4
+Z
2
)
Z
3
Z
4
Z
2
Z
1
and nally,
A
22
=
I
1
I
2
V
2
=0
=
(Z
1
+Z
3
)(Z
4
+Z
2
)
Z
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
Circuit d): Figure 5.16 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A
11
. For this
a)
Z
3
Z
1
+
Z
2
V
2
I
2
= 0
Z
3
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
Z
1
+
V
1
+
Z
2
V
2
I
2
= 0
I
1
Z
3
Z
1
+
V
1
Z
2
I
1
I
1
I
1
+
V
1
+
V
1
V
2
= 0
I
2
I
2
V
2
= 0
b)
c)
d)
11
; b) A
12
; c) A
21
; d) A
22
.
V
2
= V
1
Z
2
Z
2
+Z
3
that is
A
11
=
V
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
Z
2
Z
2
+Z
3
12
write:
V
1
= I
2
Z
3
that is:
A
12
=
V
1
I
2
V
2
=0
= Z
3
21
write:
V
2
= I
1
Z
2
Z
1
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
that is:
A
21
=
I
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
Z
2
Z
1
22
write:
I
2
= I
1
Z
1
Z
1
+Z
3
that is
A
22
=
I
1
I
2
V
2
=0
=
Z
1
+Z
3
Z
1
Circuit e): Figure 5.17 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A
11
. For this
V
2
= A
fi
I
i
R
o
I
1
= I
i
=
V
1
A
rv
V
2
R
i
Hence we can write V
2
as follows:
V
2
= A
fi
R
o
V
1
A
rv
V
2
R
i
that is
V
2
= V
1
A
fi
R
o
R
i
+A
rv
A
fi
R
o
and
A
11
=
V
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
_
A
fi
R
o
R
i
+A
rv
A
fi
R
o
_
1
= 0.1
+
I
1
+
I
1
I
i
R
i
R
o
A
fi
I
i
I
i
R
i
A
rv
V
o
R
o
A
fi
I
i
I
2
= 0
+
V
o
= V
2
+
V
1
I
i
R
i
A
rv
V
o
R
o
A
fi
I
i
I
2
= 0
+
V
o
= V
2
a)
I
1
I
1
+
+
V
1
V
1
I
i
R
i
R
o
A
fi
I
i
+
V
1
V
o
= V
2
= 0
I
2
I
2
V
o
= V
2
= 0
b)
c)
d)
11
; b) A
12
; c) A
21
; d) A
22
.
11
. Note that since V
o
=
V
2
= 0, the voltage controlled-current source is replaced by a short-circuit. For this circuit we
can write:
I
2
= A
fi
I
i
= A
fi
V
1
R
i
that is
A
12
=
V
1
I
2
V
2
=0
=
R
i
A
fi
= 30
21
write:
V
2
= A
fi
I
1
R
o
and
A
21
=
I
1
V
2
I
2
=0
= (A
fi
R
o
)
1
= 1 S
21
write:
A
22
=
I
1
I
2
V
2
=0
=
1
A
fi
= 0.01
The chain parameters for each two port circuit of gure 5.18 satisfy the following eqns:
V
1
= A
11
V
2
A
12
I
2
(5.18)
I
1
= A
21
V
2
A
22
I
2
(5.19)
and
V
1
= A
11
V
2
A
12
I
2
(5.20)
I
1
= A
21
V
2
A
22
I
2
(5.21)
Figure 5.18 a) shows the circuit for the calculation of A
eq
11
which is given by
A
eq
11
=
V
1
V
2
I
2
=0
(5.22)
Using eqn 5.18 and since V
1
= V
1
, V
2
= V
1
, V
2
= V
2
and I
2
= I
1
we can write eqn 5.22 as
follows:
A
eq
11
= A
11
V
1
V
2
=0
+A
12
I
1
V
2
=0
(5.23)
that is:

V

2
+ + +
+
I
1
= I
1 I
2
I
1
[A
] V

1
I
2
= I
2
V

1
[A
] V

2
+
+
V
1
I
1
I
2
+
V
2 [A
] [A
]

V

2
+ + +
+
I
1
= I
1 I
2
I
1
[A
] V

1
I
2
= I
2
V

1
[A
] V

2

V

2
+ + +
+
I
1
= I
1 I
2
I
1
[A
] V

1
I
2
= I
2
V

1
[A
] V

2

V

2
+ + +
+
I
1
= I
1 I
2
I
1
[A
] V

1
I
2
= I
2
V

1
[A
] V

2
V
1
V
1
I
1
I
1
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Figure 5.18: a) Calculation of A
eq
11
eq
21
. c) Calculation of Y
eq
12
. d) Y
eq
22
. e)
Equivalent two-port circuit.
A
eq
11
= A
11
A
11
+A
12
A
21
Figure 5.18 b) shows the circuit for the calculation of A
eq
12
which is given by
A
eq
12
=
V
1
I
2
V
2
=0
(5.24)
Using again the result of eqn 5.18 and since V
1
= V
1
, V
2
= V
1
, V
2
= V
2
= 0 and I
2
= I
1
we
can write eqn 5.24 as follows:
A
eq
12
= A
11
V
1
I
2
=0
+A
12
I
1
I
2
=0
= A
11
A
12
+A
12
A
22
Figure 5.18 c) shows the circuit for the calculation of A
eq
21
which is given by
A
eq
21
=
I
1
V
2
I
2
=0
(5.25)
Using the result of eqn 5.19 and since V
1
= V
1
, I
1
= I
1
, V
2
= V
1
, I
2
= I
2
= 0 and I
2
= I
1
we
can write eqn 5.25 as follows:
A
eq
21
= A
21
V
1
V
2
=0
+A
22
I
1
V
2
=0
= A
21
A
11
+A
22
A
21
Figure 5.18 d) shows the circuit for the calculation of A
eq
22
which is given by
A
eq
22
=
I
1
I
2
V
2
=0
(5.26)
Using the result of eqn 5.19 and since V
1
= V
1
, I
1
= I
1
, V
2
= V
1
, V
2
= V
2
= 0 and I
2
= I
1
we can write eqn 5.26 as follows:
A
eq
22
= A
21
V
1
I
2
=0
+A
22
I
1
I
2
=0
= A
21
A
12
+A
22
A
22
From the above we get:
[A
eq
] = [A
] [A
] (5.27)
[V ] = [Z] [I]
Using elementary matrix algebra we can solve the last eqn to obtain [Y ]
[Y ] = [Z]
1
[V ]
that is [Y ] = [Z]
1
.
+
+
V
1
= 0
V
1
V
2
Y
f Y
f
I
1 I
2 I
2
I
1
a) b)
V
2
= 0
11
and Y
21
12
and Y
22
.
Figure 5.19 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Y
11
and Y
21
Y
11
=
I
1
V
1
V
2
=0
= Y
f
Y
21
=
I
2
V
1
V
2
=0
= Y
f
12
and Y
22
Y
12
=
I
1
V
2
V
1
=0
= Y
f
Y
22
=
I
2
V
2
V
1
=0
= Y
f
+
I
1
I
2
I
1
= 0
V
2
[Y
a
]
b)
I
2 I
1
[Y
M
]
a)
V
1
I
1
I
2
I
2
[Y
a
]
I
1
[Y
M
]
I
1
Y
1
Y
1
Y
2
Y
2
I
2
I
2
= 0
M
11
and Y
M
21
M
12
and Y
M
22
.
Figure 5.20 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of Y
M
11
and Y
M
12
. Y
M
11
is given by;
Y
M
11
=
I
1
V
1
V
2
=0
=
I
1
+I
1
V
1
V
2
=0
=
I
1
+Y
1
V
1
V
1
V
2
=0
=
I
1
V
1
V
2
=0
+Y
1
= Y
a
11
+Y
1
Y
M
21
is given by;
Y
M
21
=
I
2
V
1
V
2
=0
=
I
2
V
1
V
2
=0
= Y
a
21
= 0
M
12
and Y
M
22
. Y
M
12
is given by;
Y
M
12
=
I
1
V
2
V
1
=0
=
I
1
V
2
V
2
=0
= Y
a
21
Y
M
22
is given by;
Y
M
22
=
I
2
V
2
V
1
=0
=
I
2
+I
2
V
2
V
2
=0
= Y
a
22
+Y
2
Since Y
1
= Y
f
(1 A
v
) and Y
2
= Y
f

Y
f
A
v
we can write
_
Y
as indicated below:
_
Y
=
_
_
Y
a
11
+Y
f
(1 A
v
) 0
Y
a
21
Y
a
22
+Y
f

Y
f
A
v
_
_
(5.28)
The chain parameters can be dened by the set of eqns indicated below:
_
_
_
V
1
= A
11
V
2
A
12
I
2
I
1
= A
21
V
2
A
22
I
2
(5.29)
while the Y parameters can be dened by the following set of eqns:
_
_
_
I
1
= Y
11
V
1
+Y
12
V
2
I
2
= Y
21
V
1
+Y
22
V
2
(5.30)
Solving the rst eqn of 5.29 in order to obtain I
2
we have:
I
2
=
1
A
12
V
1
+
A
11
A
12
V
2
(5.31)
Using the expression for I
2
, given by this last eqn, on the second eqn of 5.29 we obtain:
I
1
= A
21
V
2
A
22
_
1
A
12
V
1
+
A
11
A
12
V
2
_
=
A
22
A
12
V
1
+
_
A
21
A
22
A
11
A
12
_
V
2
(5.32)
Comparing eqns 5.31 and 5.32 with the set of eqns dened by 5.30 we can write:
Y
11
=
A
22
A
12
Y
12
=
_
A
21
A
22
A
11
A
12
_
Y
21
=
1
A
12
Y
22
=
A
11
A
12
Circuit a):
+
a)
Ri
+
V
o
+
g
m
V
i
+
V
i
R
o
+
g
m
V
i
+
V
i
R
o
g
m
V
i
b)
c)
+
V
i
R
o
g
m
V
i
Ri
V
o
= V
2
= 0
I
o
= I
2
V
o
= V
2
I
o
= I
2
= 0
V
2
I
o
= I
2 I
s
= I
1
V
s
= V
1
= 0
+
V
i
R
o
+
g
m
V
i
V
s
+
Ri
I
s
= I
1
I
o
= I
2
= 0
V
o
= V
2
I
s
= I
1
V
1
V
s
Ri
+
V
1
I
o
= I
2
I
s
= I
1
V
s
+
+
V
s
Ri
V
o
= V
2
= 0
I
s
= I
1
e)
d)
R
o
Z =
(Y = 0)
V
i
= 0
Figure 5.21: Calculation of: a) Z
11
and A
21
; b) Y
22
; c) A
11
; d) A
22
; e) A
12
.
1. The input impedance (I
o
= 0) corresponds to Z
11
. Figure 5.21 a) shows the equivalent
circuit for the calculation of Z
11
.
Z
11
=
V
1
I
1
I
2
=0
= R
i
= 2.5 k
2. The output impedance (V
s
= 0) corresponds to (Y
22
)
1
. Figure 5.21 b) shows the
equivalent circuit for the calculation of Y
22
Y
22
=
I
2
V
2
V
1
=0
=
1
R
o
Thus, the output impedance is R
o
= 10 k.
3. The voltage gain V
o
/V
s
(I
o
= 0) corresponds to (A
11
)
1
. Figure 5.21 c) shows the
equivalent circuit for the calculation of A
11
A
11
=
V
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
V
1
g
m
V
1
R
o
=
1
g
m
R
o
Thus, the voltage gain is g
m
R
o
= 400.
4. The current gain I
o
/I
s
(V
o
22
)
1
. Figure 5.21 d) shows the
22
.
A
22
=
I
1
I
2
V
2
=0
=
V
1
R
i
g
m
V
1
=
1
g
m
R
i
Thus, the current gain is g
m
R
i
= 100.
5. The transimpedance gain V
o
/I
s
(V
o
21
)
1
. Figure 5.21 a) shows
the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A
21
.
A
21
=
I
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
V
1
R
i
g
m
V
1
R
o
=
1
g
m
R
i
R
o
The transimpedance gain is g
m
R
i
R
o
= 1 M.
6. The transconductance gain I
o
/V
s
(V
o
12
)
1
. Figure 5.21 e)
shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of A
12
.
A
12
=
V
1
I
2
V
2
=0
=
V
1
g
m
V
1
=
1
g
m
The transconductance gain is g
m
= 40 mS.
Circuit b):
o
11
11
. For this circuit we can write:
I
1
=
V
1
R
i
g
m
V
i
= V
1
1 +g
m
R
i
R
i
c)
d)
e)
+
g
m
V
i
+
V
o
R
o
+
g
m
V
i
R
o
Ri
+
V
i
g
m
V
i
+
R
o
V
s
= V
1
= 0
V
2
+
V
o
+
Ri
+
V
i
g
m
V
i
R
o
+
+
V
i
g
m
V
i
R
o
I
o
= I
2
I
s
= I
1
I
o
= I
2
I
o
= I
2
I
s
= I
1
I
s
I
1
Ri
+
Ri
+
I
s
I
1
V
o
= V
2
= 0
V
o
= V
2
= 0
I
o
= I
2
= 0
V
o
= V
2
I
o
= I
2
= 0
I
s
= I
1
V
1
V
1
+
Ri
V
1
V
s
V
1
V
1
V
i
V
i
= 0
Z =
a)
b)
11
and A
21
; b) Y
22
; c) A
11
; d) A
22
; e) A
12
.
Z
11
=
V
1
I
1
I
2
=0
=
R
i
1 +g
m
R
i
= 24.8
s
22
)
1
22
.
Y
22
=
I
2
V
2
V
1
=0
=
1
R
o
Thus, the output impedance is R
o
= 10 k.
o
/V
s
(I
o
11
)
1
11
.
A
11
=
V
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
V
i
g
m
V
i
R
o
=
1
g
m
R
o
Thus, the voltage gain is g
m
R
o
= 400.
o
/I
s
(V
o
22
)
1
22
.
A
22
=
I
1
I
2
V
2
=0
=
V
1
R
i
g
m
V
i
g
m
V
i
=
V
1
1+g
m
R
i
R
i
g
m
V
1
=
1 +g
m
R
i
g
m
R
i
Thus, the current gain is 0.99.
o
/I
s
(V
o
21
)
1
21
.
A
21
=
I
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
V
1
1+g
m
R
i
R
i
g
m
V
1
R
o
=
1 +g
m
R
i
g
m
R
i
R
o
The transimpedance gain is 9.9 k.
o
/V
s
(V
o
12
)
1
. Figure 5.22 e)
12
.
A
12
=
V
1
I
2
V
2
=0
=
V
1
g
m
V
1
=
1
g
m
The transconductance gain is g
m
= 40 mS.
Circuit c):
o
11
11
. For this circuit we can write:
I
1
=
V
i
R
i
V
2
= R
o
_
g
m
V
i
+
V
i
R
i
_
V
1
= V
i
+V
o
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
R
i
I
s
V
i

g
m
V
i
+
R
i
V
i

+
R
i
V
i

g
m
V
i
R
i
V
i

g
m
V
i
R
i
V
i

g
m
V
i
I
o
= I
2
= 0
I
o
= I
2
I
o
= I
2
= 0
V
o
= V
2
V
o
= V
2
V
s
= V
1
= 0
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
I
1
+
+ I
1
I
o
= I
2
I
o
= I
2
V
2
V
o
= V
2
= 0
V
o
= V
2
= 0
R
o
R
o
R
o
R
o
R
o
I
s
I
s
= I
1
I
s
= I
1
I
s
= I
1
V
1
= V
s
V
s
V
1
V
1
= V
s
V
1
V
s
g
m
V
i
+
V
o
11
and A
21
; b) Y
22
; c) A
11
; d) A
22
; e) A
12
.
and
Z
11
=
V
1
I
1
I
2
=0
= R
i
+R
o
(1 +g
m
R
i
)
= 1.013 M
s
22
)
1
22
.
Y
22
=
I
2
V
2
V
1
=0
=
g
m
V
2
+
V
2
R
o
+
V
2
R
i
V
2
=
g
m
R
o
R
i
+R
o
+R
i
R
o
R
i
Thus, the output impedance is 24.7 .
o
/V
s
(I
o
11
)
1
11
.
A
11
=
V
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
V
i
+V
o
V
o
=
V
i
+R
o
_
g
m
V
i
+
V
i
R
i
_
R
o
_
g
m
V
i
+
V
i
R
i
_
=
R
i
+R
o
(1 +g
m
R
i
)
R
o
(1 +g
m
R
i
)
Thus, the voltage gain is 0.998.
o
/I
s
(V
o
22
)
1
22
.
A
22
=
I
1
I
2
V
2
=0
=
V
i
R
i
g
m
V
i
+
V
i
R
i
=
1
1 +g
m
R
i
Thus, the current gain is 101.
o
/I
s
(V
o
21
)
1
21
.
A
21
=
I
1
V
2
I
2
=0
=
V
i
R
i
R
o
_
g
m
V
i
+
V
i
R
i
_
=
1
R
o
(1 +g
m
R
i
)
The transimpedance gain is 1.01 M.
o
/V
s
(V
o
12
)
1
. Figure 5.23 e)
12
.
A
12
=
V
1
I
2
V
2
=0
=
V
i
g
m
V
i
+
V
i
R
i
=
R
i
g
m
R
i
+ 1
The transconductance gain is 40.4 mS.
+
V
s
R
o +
V
o
R
f
1 A
va
V
i
+
R
i R
s
I
s
V
o
+
R
o
R
i
V
s
+
R
f
Two-port circuit a
a)
b)
g
m
V
i
g
m
V
i
R
s
+
V
i
R
f
A
va
A
va
1
Figure 5.24: a) Two-port network a) application of Millers theorem.
The two-port network a indicated in gure 5.24 a) (not including R
s
and R
f
) can be characterised
by an admittance representation given by
Y
11
=
1
R
i
= 0.2 mS
Y
12
= 0
Y
21
= g
m
= 40 mS
Y
22
=
1
R
o
= 0.2 mS
and Y
f
= 1/R
f
= 0.02 mS. Since [Y
21
[ >> [Y
f
[ and [Y
22
[ >> [Y
f
[ we can write:
A
v
a

Y
21
Y
22
= 200
Figure 5.24 b) shows the circuit resulting from the application of Millers theorem. The input
impedance and the voltage gain V
o
/V
s
can be obtained assuming that a voltage source V
s
is ap-
plied to the circuit. The input impedance R
in
is given by:
R
in
=
V
s
I
s
= R
s
+
_
R
f
1 A
v
a
[[ R
i
_
= 309.4
In order to calculate the voltage gain we can write
V
o
= g
m
V
i
_
R
f
A
v
a
A
v
a
1
[[ R
o
_
and
V
i
= V
s
_
R
f
1A
v
a
[[ R
i
_
_
R
f
1A
v
a
[[ R
i
_
+R
s
The voltage gain can be obtained as follows
A
V
=
V
o
V
s
=
V
o
V
i
V
i
V
s
= g
m
_
R
f
A
v
a
A
v
a
1
[[ R
o
_
_
R
f
1A
v
a
[[ R
i
_
_
R
f
1A
v
a
[[ R
i
_
+R
s
= 122.4
+
V
o
R
o
Two-port circuit f
Two-port circuit a
Two-port circuit s
R
s
V
s R
i
V
i
+
g
m
V
i
R
f
+
Figure 5.25: Two-port network
Figure 5.25 shows the circuit of the previous problem as an interconnection of two-ports. The two-
port networks a and f can be characterised by admittance parameters as follows:
[Y
a
] =
_
_
1
R
i
0
g
m
1
R
o
_
_
(5.33)
[Y
f
] =
_
_
1
R
f
1
R
f
1
R
f
1
R
f
_
_
(5.34)
The parallel connection of the two-port network a with the two-port network f is given by the
sum of [Y
a
] with [Y
f
] that is
[Y
a+f
] =
_
_
1
R
i
+
1
R
f
1
R
f
g
m
1
R
f
1
R
o
+
1
R
f
_
_
(5.35)
Converting [Y
a+f
] to a chain representation we get:
[A
a+f
] =
_
_
R
f
+R
o
R
o
(1g
m
R
f
)
R
f
1g
m
R
f
R
f
+R
p
+R
i
(1+g
m
R
o
)
R
i
R
o
(1g
m
R
f
)
R
f
+R
i
R
i
(1g
m
R
f
)
_
_ (5.36)
The two-port networks s can be characterised by a chain representation as follows:
[A
s
] =
_
_
1 R
s
0 1
_
_
(5.37)
The two-port network can be characterised by an equivalent chain representation given by:
[A
eq
] = [A
s
] [A
a+f
]
The voltage gain can now be obtained as follows:
A
V
=
1
A
eq
11
= 125.8
and the input impedance can be obtained (see table in appendix C) as follows:
R
in
= Z
eq
11
=
A
eq
11
A
eq
21
= 329
Comparing these values with those obtained in the previous problemwe conclude that the application
of Millers theorem introduces an error of about 6% in the calculation of the input impedance and an
error of 2.8% in the calculation of the voltage gain. These errors are relatively small and it should
be noticed that the application of Millers theorem leads to simpler calculations.
Chapter 6
Basic electronic amplier building
blocks
The gain of a non-inverter amplier is
A
v
=
R
2
R
1
+ 1
For a gain of 20 we have that R
2
= 19 R
1
. Choosing R
1
= 1 k we obtain R
2
= 19 k.
+
v
s
+
v
o
R
1
R
2
Figure 6.1: Non-inverter amplier.
6. Basic electronic amplier building blocks 120
The voltage gain is
A
v
=
R
2
R
1
= 5
The input impedance is R
1
= 1 k.
+
v
o
v
s
R
2
R
1
Figure 6.2: Inverting amplier.
This circuit can be implemented with an inverting amplier with R
2
= R
1
. We can choose R
2
=
R
1
= 1 k.
+
v
o
v
s
R
2
R
1
Figure 6.3: Inverting amplier.
Figure 6.4 shows the circuit designed with R = 1 k. Note that v
o
= (v
i1
+ v
i2
+ v
i3
), since
all resistances are equal. The second op-amp with two equal resistances, also chosen as R = 1 k,
implements an amplier with a voltage gain of 1 such that v
o
= v
o
= v
i1
+v
i2
+v
i3
.
+
v
i3
R
R
v
i2
v
i1
R
R
R
R
v
o
v
o
Figure 6.4: Adder amplier.
V
o
=
R
2
R
1
2 R
3
+R
4
R
4
(v
sb
v
sa
)
= 3 (v
sb
v
sa
)
+
v
o
v
v
sb
v
sa
v
a
v
b
v
sa
v
sb
R
3
R
3
R
4
R
1
R
1
R
2
+
R
2
+
+
+
Figure 6.5: Instrumentation amplier.

+
vs
v
in
R
s
v
o
+
a)
b)
R
L
vs
v
in
R
s
R
L
v
o
R
B
R
C
+

Y
r
L
g
m
v
g
m
v
Figure 6.6: a) Common-emitter small-signal equivalent amplier for the mid and high-frequency
ranges. b) Equivalent representation.
Figure 6.6 b) shows the common-emitter small-signal equivalent amplier for the mid and high-
frequency ranges. Using the nodal analysis method we can write:
(v
s
v
) Y
s
= v
(Y
+j C
) + (v
v
o
)j C
(6.1)
(v
v
o
)j C
= g
m
v
+
v
o
R
L
(6.2)
with
Y
=
1
R
B
+
1
r
Y
s
=
1
R
s
R
L
= R
L
[[R
C
Equation 6.1 can be rewritten as follows:
v
s
Y
s
= v
(Y
+j C
) + (v
v
o
)j C
(6.3)
with
Y
=
1
R
s
+
1
R
B
+
1
r
Solving the set of eqns given by 6.2 and 6.3 to obtain the voltage transfer function, v
o
/v
s
, we get:
A
v
=
Y
s
R
L
(j C
g
m
)
Y
(1 +j R
L
C
) +j [C
+C
(1 +g
m
R
L
)]
2
C
L
R
s
+
g
m
v
v
o
R
C
C
+ C
(1 A
vBC
)
R
B
(R
1
||R
2
)
R
L
R
s
+
g
m
v
v
o
R
C
R
B
(R
1
||R
2
)
R
L
v
= 0
r
a)
Z
C
Av
BC
Av
BC
1
C
b)
v
Figure 6.7: Calculation of the high-frequency time constants.

Figure 6.7 a) shows the equivalent circuit to calculate the equivalent resistance at the terminals of
C
+C
(1+g
m
R
L
). Note that the voltage source v
s
is replaced by a short-circuit. From this circuit
it is clear that this resistance is
R
eq
1
= R
s
[[R
B
[[r
Figure 6.7 b) shows the equivalent circuit to calculate the equivalent resistance at the terminals of
C
. Again the voltage source v

s
is replaced by a short-circuit. Since v
= 0 the voltage controlled

current source is effectively an open-circuit. Hence, we have:
R
eq
1
= R
L
The current gain is given by:
i
c
i
b
g
m
r
1 +j (C
+C
) r
T
= 2 f
T
is the frequency for which the current gain is unity,
i
c
i
b
= 1 (0 dB)
that is:
g
m
r
_
1 + (
T
(C
+C
) r
)
2
= 1
1 +r
2
(C
+C
)
2
2
T
= (g
m
r
)
2

2
T
=
(g
m
r
)
2
1
r
2
(C
+C
)
2
Since g
m
r
>> 1 we can write:
T

g
m
r
(C
+C
)
=
g
m
C
+C

Figure 6.8 shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the f
T
for FETs. For this circuit we can
g
m
v
gs
i
d
C
gd
C
gs
i
g
r
o v
gs
+
Figure 6.8: Calculation of the f
T
for FETs.
write:
i
g
= j C
gs
v
gs
+j C
gd
v
gs
i
d
= g
m
v
gs
j C
gd
v
gs
Note that the voltage across C
gd
is v
gs
. This is because the drain is short-circuited to the source.
Solving this set of eqns we obtain:
i
d
i
d
=
g
m
j C
gd
j (C
gd
+C
gs
)
For the range of frequencies for which this model is valid we have that g
m
>> C
gd
. Hence, we
can write:
i
d
i
d
g
m
j (C
gd
+C
gs
)
and the frequency
T
= 2 f
T
for which we have:
i
d
i
d
= 1
is
T
=
g
m
C
gd
+C
gs
DC analysis: Figure 6.9 shows the equivalent circuit for DC analysis. Since the gate current
V
CC
V
S
V
D
I
D
I
D
V
G
R
D
R
S
R
1
R
2
Figure 6.9: Circuit for DC analysis.
is zero we can write:
V
G
= V
CC
R
2
R
2
+R
1
= 2 V
Assuming that the transistor operates in the saturation region, the drain (and the source) current
is given by
I
D
=
1
2
k
n
W
L
(V
GS
V
Th
)
2
(6.4)
and V
GS
can be written as
V
GS
= V
G
V
S
= V
G
R
S
I
D
Now eqn 6.4 can be written as
I
D
=
1
2
k
n
W
L
(V
G
R
S
I
D
V
Th
)
2
(6.5)
Solving we obtain
_
_
I
D
= 1.5 mA and V
GS
= 1.85 V
or
I
D
= 68.5 mA and V
GS
= 4.9 V
(6.6)
Clearly, the second pair of solutions is not valid since V
GS
< V
Th
. Hence we have I
D
= 1.5
mA and V
GS
= 1.85 V. Note that V
DS
= 5.8 V is greater than V
GS
V
Th
= 0.85 V. Thus,
the FET operates in the saturation region as assumed previously.
Mid frequency range AC analysis: Figure 6.10 shows the equivalent circuit for AC analysis.
g
m
v
gs
+
r
o
||R
L
||R
D
v
o
+
v
gs
R
s
v
s
R
G
Figure 6.10: Circuit for AC analysis.
We can write the voltage gain as
A
v
=
v
o
v
s
=
v
o
v
gs
v
gs
v
s
= g
m
(r
o
[[R
L
[[R
D
)
R
G
R
G
+R
s
with R
G
= R
1
[[R
2
= 16 k. g
m
and r
o
are given by
g
m
=
2 I
D
V
GS
V
Th
= 3.5 mA/V
r
o
=
V
A
I
D
= 53 k
Hence, the voltage gain is calculated to be 7.7.
Low-frequency cut-off frequency: Figure 6.11 shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation
of the time constants associated with each DC blocking (AC coupling) and by-pass capacitor
using the short-circuit time constants method. Figure 6.11 a) shows the equivalent circuit for
the calculation of the time constant associated with C
G
where we replace C
G
by a test voltage
source in order to calculate equivalent resistance, R
eq
G
, seen by this capacitor. Note that all
remaining capacitors are replaced by short-circuits and the voltage source is replaced by a
short-circuit. From this gure it clear that R
eq
G
is
R
eq
G
= R
s
+R
G
= 16.1 k
Figure 6.11 b) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the time constant associated
with C
S
. Since there is no current owing through R
s
and R
G
we have v
gs
= v
t
and we
can write:
v
o
R
L
+
v
o
v
t
r
o
g
m
v
t
= 0 (6.7)
v
o
v
t
r
o
g
m
v
t
=
v
t
R
S
+i
t
(6.8)
with R
L
= R
D
[[R
L
. Solving these eqns in order to obtain v
t
/it we get:
R
eq
S
=
v
t
i
t
+
g
m
v
gs
v
gs
R
G
+
R
s
r
o
R
L
||R
D
v
o
v
t
i
t
g
m
v
gs
R
G
+
R
s
R
L
||R
D
+
v
gs
= 0
r
o
Z
v
t
R
S
g
m
v
gs
v
gs
R
G
+
R
s
+
v
t
r
o
||R
L
||R
D
a)
c)
b)
Figure 6.11: Calculation of time constants.
=
R
S
(r
o
+R
L
)
R
S
(g
m
r
o
+ 1) +r
o
+R
L
= 74.6
Figure 6.11 c) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the time constant associated
with C
L
. Since v
gs
= 0 and we can write:
R
eq
L
=
v
t
i
t
= r
o
[[R
L
[[R
D
= 2.2 k
and f
L
is given by:
f
L
=
1
2
_
1
R
eq
G
C
G
+
1
R
eq
S
C
S
+
1
R
eq
L
C
L
_
= 287.7 Hz
High-frequency cut-off frequency: Figure 6.12 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the high-
frequency range. By applying Millers theorem to C
gd
we obtain the circuit of gure 6.12 b)
+
v
s
R
s
+
v
s
R
s
g
m
v
gs
v
gs
+
g
m
v
gs
C
gd
v
gs
+
C
gs
R
G
R
G
a)
b)
C
gd
A
v
A
v
1
C
gs
+ C
gd
(1 A
v
)
R
L
R
L
v
o
v
o
Figure 6.12: a) Equivalent circuit for the high-frequency range. b) Application of Millers theorem
to C
gd
.
where A
v
is the gain between the gate and the drain;
A
v
=
v
o
v
gs
g
m
R
L
= 7.7
with R
L
= R
L
[[ r
o
. The two time constants are:
1
= (R
G
[[R
s
) [C
gs
+C
gd
(1 +g
m
R
L
)]
= 3.7 ns
2
= R
L
C
gd
g
m
R
L
1 +g
m
R
L
= 3.9 ns
The cut-off frequency is
f
H
=
1
2 (
1
+
2
)
= 20.9 MHz
Hence, the bandwidth is f
H
f
L
f
H
= 20.9 MHz.
DC analysis: Figure 6.13 shows the equivalent circuit for DC analysis. Neglecting the base
V
CC
R
E
(10 V)
V
B
V
E
R
1
R
2
I
E
0.7 V
Figure 6.13: Equivalent circuit for DC analysis.
current (I
B
0) we can write:
V
B
= V
CC
R
2
R
2
+R
1
= 5 V
and
V
E
= V
B
0.7
= 4.3 V
The emitter current is
I
E
=
V
E
R
E
= 1 mA
The collector current is approximately equal to I
E
.
AC analysis (mid-range): The transistor transconductance is
g
m
=
I
C
V
T
(V
T
25 mV)
= 40 mS
and r
is
r
=

g
m
= 5 k
Figure 6.14 shows the equivalent circuit for the mid-frequency range AC analysis. The current
+
Z
in
a
+
r
R
E
g
m
v
i
s
i
b i
e
R
L
i
o
R
s
a)
+
r
R
E
R
L
g
m
v
i
t
b)
v
t
i
e
Figure 6.14: a) Equivalent circuit for mid-frequency range AC analysis. b) Equivalent circuit for the
calculation of Z
in
a
.
gain is given by
A
i
=
i
o
i
s
=
i
o
i
e
i
e
i
b
i
b
i
s
the partial gains i
o
/i
e
and i
b
/i
s
can be obtained from the resistive current divider expression
while i
e
= ( + 1) i
b
. Thus, we can write:
A
i
=
R
E
R
E
+R
L
( + 1)
R
s
R
s
+Z
in
a
(6.9)
where R
s
= R
s
[[R
1
[[R
2
= 5 k. Z
in
a
can be calculated by applying rst a test voltage, v
t
,
to the relevant part of the circuit as illustrated in gure 6.14 b). From this circuit we can write.
i
t
=
v
and
v
t
= v
+i
e
(R
E
[[R
L
)
= v
+
_
v
+g
m
v
_
(R
E
[[R
L
)
Thus we have
Z
in
a
=
v
t
i
t
= r
+ (g
m
r
+ 1) (R
E
[[R
L
)
= r
+ ( + 1) (R
E
[[R
L
)
= 676.7 k
Now the current gain can be calculated using eqn 6.9, that is, A
i
= 0.33.
AC analysis (low-frequency range): Figure 6.15 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calcu-
Z
in
a
+
r
R
E
R
L
g
m
v
R
s
R
B
+
v
t
+
r
g
m
v
s
+
R
E
Z
o
a
b)
a)
c)
+
r
g
m
v
s
+
v
t
v
t
R
L
i
t
Figure 6.15: Calculation of time constants. Low-frequency range.
lation of the equivalent resistance seen by C
B
where C
B
is replaced by a test voltage v
t
. From
this circuit we can write
R
eq
B
= R
s
+ (R
B
[[Z
in
a
)
= 19.9k
with R
B
= R
1
[[R
2
. Figure 6.15 b) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the
equivalent resistance seen by C
E
;
R
eq
E
= R
L
+ (R
E
[[Z
o
a
)
where Z
o
a
can be obtained from the circuit of gure 6.15 c). We can write:
v
= v
t
r
+R
s
and
i
t
= g
m
v
+
v
t
r
+R
s
= g
m
v
t
r
+R
s
+
v
t
r
+R
s
Now Z
o
a
can be obtained as follows:
Z
o
a
=
v
t
i
t
=
r
+R
s
g
m
r
+ 1
=
r
+R
s
+ 1
= 49.8
and R
eq
E
is approximately equal to R
L
= 15 k. The cut-off frequency is:
f
L
=
1
2
_
1
R
eq
E
C
E
+
1
R
eq
B
C
B
_
= 2.7 Hz
AC analysis (high-frequency range): Figure 6.16 a) shows the equivalent circuit at the high-
i
s
+
r
R
E
g
m
v
+
R
E
g
m
v
R
L
+
+
b)
c)
+
r
R
E
g
m
v
a)
C
v
t
Z
ina
R
s
R
s
R
s
v
t
r
R
L
R
L
v
b
v
o
i
t
Figure 6.16: a) High-frequency equivalent circuit b) Calculation of time constant associated with
C
. c) Calculation of time constant associated with C
.
frequency regime. Figure 6.16 b) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the resis-
tance seen by C
where, according to the open-circuit time-constants method, i

s
is replaced
by an open-circuit and C
is also replaced by an open-circuit. R

eq
is:
R
eq
= R
s
[[Z
in
a
= 5.0 k
Figure 6.16 c) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of the resistance seen by C
.
Again, i
s
is replaced by an open-circuit and C
is also replaced by an open-circuit. For this

i
t
=
v
t
r
+
v
b
R
s
But v
b
is
v
b
= v
t
+
_
v
t
r
+g
m
v
t
_
R
L
Hence we have:
i
t
=
v
t
r
+
v
t
R
s
+v
t
_
1 +g
m
r
_
R
L
R
s
Finally,
R
eq
=
v
t
i
t
= r
[[R
s
[[
r
s
(1 +g
m
r
) R
L
= 36.9
The cut-off frequency is:
f
H
=
1
2
_
1
R
eq
+R
eq
_
= 10.2 MHz
and the bandwidth is f
H
f
L
f
H
.
_
I
ds
1

_
I
ds
2
=
_
1
2
k
n
W
L
v
s
(6.10)
and
I
ds
2
= I
Q
I
ds
1
(6.11)
Substituting I
ds
2
, given by the last eqn, in eqn 6.10 we can write:
_
I
ds
1

_
I
Q
I
ds
1
=
_
1
2
k
n
W
L
v
s
Squaring both parts of the last eqn we get:
I
Q
1
2
k
n
W
L
v
2
s
= 2
_
I
ds
1
(I
Q
I
ds
1
) (6.12)
After squaring again we can write:
4 I
2
ds
1
4 I
ds
1
I
Q
+
_
I
Q
1
2
k
n
W
L
v
2
s
_
2
= 0 (6.13)
solving to obtain I
ds
1
we get
1
:
I
ds
1
=
I
Q
2
+
1
2
I
2
Q
_
I
Q
1
2
k
n
W
L
v
2
s
_
2
=
I
Q
2
+
_
I
Q
k
n
W
L
v
s
2
1
v
2
s
/4 k
n
W
L
I
Q
Using eqn 6.11 we have
I
ds
2
=
I
Q
2

_
I
Q
k
n
W
L
v
s
2
1
v
2
s
/4 k
n
W
L
I
Q
1
Note that the other solution for I
ds
1
is not valid since I
ds
1
increases with the increase of v
s
!
Figure 6.17 shows the equivalent circuit for DC analysis. Assuming that all transistors operate in the
Q
2
V
SS
(5 V)
Q
4
Q
3
Q
1
R
D
R
D
(6 k)
(6 k)
(5 V) V
DD
(3 k)
R
S
I
Q
I
Q
V
G
I
Q
/2
I
Q
/2
Figure 6.17: Equivalent circuit for DC analysis.
saturation region we can write:
I
Q
=
1
2
k
n
W
L
(V
GS
4
V
Th
)
2
V
GS
4
= V
G
V
SS
V
G
= I
Q
R
S
that is:
I
Q
=
1
2
k
n
W
L
(
I
Q
R
s
V
SS
V
Th
)
2
Solving we obtain
_
_
I
Q
= 1 mA and V
GS
4
= 2 V
or
I
Q
= 1.8 mA and V
GS
4
= 0.4 V
(6.14)
The second solution is not valid since V
GS
4
< V
Th
. The current that ows through Q
3
is I
Q
and
V
GS
3
= V
GS
4
. The current that biases Q
1
and Q
2
is I
Q
/2 and V
GS
1
= V
GS
2
= 1.71 V. Note that
all transistors operate in the saturation regime as assumed initially.
The voltage gain is
A
v
=
g
m
(R
D
[[r
o
)
2
=
I
Q
2(V
GS
2
V
Th
)
_
R
D
[[
2 V
A
I
Q
_
= 4.1
g
m
3
v
gs
3
+
v
gs
1
= v
gs
2
+

+
v
gs
3
g
m
2
v
gs
2
g
m
1
v
gs
1
v
ds
1
i
t
+
r
o
1
||R
r
o
3
v
t
r
o
2
Figure 6.18: Small-signal equivalent circuit for the current mirror.
Figure 6.18 shows the small-signal equivalent circuit for the current mirror where we apply a test
voltage source v
t
. The output resistance is given by
R
o
=
v
t
i
t
For this circuit we can write:
i
t
= g
m
3
v
gs
3
+
v
t
v
gs
2
r
o
3
(6.15)
i
t
= g
m
2
v
gs
2
+
v
gs
2
r
o
2
(6.16)
v
gs
3
= v
ds
1
v
gs
2
= (r
o
1
[[R) g
m
1
v
gs
2
v
gs
2
(6.17)
Assuming that all three transistors are equal we have r
o
1
= r
o
2
= r
o
3
= r
o
and g
m
1
= g
m
2
=
g
m
3
= g
m
.
Solving the set of eqns 6.156.17 to obtain v
t
/i
t
we get:
R
o
= r
o
2 (g
m
r
o
+ 1) +g
2
m
r
o
(r
o
[[R)
g
m
r
o
+ 1
Assuming that g
m
r
o
>> 1 and that r
o
<< R we can write the last eqn as follows:
R
o
g
m
r
2
o
g
m
r
o
+ 2
g
m
r
o
. .
1
g
m
r
2
o
Chapter 7
RF circuit analysis techniques
V (kx)
V ([k 1]x)
=
_
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
4
j
Lx
2
_
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
4
+j
Lx
2
=
_
_
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
2
_
2
+
2
L
2
x
2
_
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
4
_
L
C
exp
_
_
j tan
1
_
_
Lx
_
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
4
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
2
_
_
_
_
We increase the number of sections, N , and decrease the length of each section, x 0, in
such a way that the product l = xN is kept constant. Hence, we have:
lim
k
x0
k x = x
where x is now a continuous variable representing the physical length. H(f, x) can be written as:
lim
k
x0
H(f, k x) = lim
k
x0
_
V (kx)
V ([k 1]x)
_
k
= lim
k
x0
_
_
_
_
L
C
_
2
L
C
_
_
k
lim
k
x0
exp
_
_
j tan
1
_
_
Lx
_
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
4
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
2
_
_
k
_
_
= 1 lim
k
x0
exp
_
_
j tan
1
_
_
Lx
_
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
4
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
2
_
_
k
_
_
Expanding the arc-tangent in a series as follows:
tan
1
() =
1
2
3
24
5
+. . .
with
=
Lx
_
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
4
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
2
7. RF circuit analysis techniques 142
then, the only term of the series, multiplied by k, that does not vanish when k and x 0 is
the rst one, that is,
lim
k
x0
exp
_
_
j tan
1
_
_
Lx
_
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
4
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
2
_
_
k
_
_
= exp
_
j
LC x
_
The current in a particular section of the line k x can be written as
I(k x) =
V (k x)
Z
L
=
_
V (kx)
V ([k 1]x)
_
k
V (0)
Z
L
=
_
V (kx)
V ([k 1]x)
_
k
V (0)
jLx +
_
L
C

2
L
2
x
2
4
Taking the limits N and x 0 and using the results of the previous problem we have:
I(x) =
e
j
LC x
_
L
C
Z
in
(d) =
V (d)
I(d)
= Z
o
1 + (d)
1 (d)
= Z
o
1 +
o
e
2 j d
1
o
e
2 j d
= Z
o
1 +
Z
L
Z
o
Z
L
+Z
o
e
2 j d
1
Z
L
Z
o
Z
L
+Z
o
e
2 j d
= Z
o
(Z
L
+Z
o
) e
j d
+ (Z
L
Z
o
) e
j d
(Z
L
+Z
o
) e
j d
(Z
L
Z
o
) e
j d

e
j d
e
j d
= Z
o
Z
L
_
e
j d
+e
j d
_
+Z
o
_
e
j d
e
j d
_
Z
o
(e
j d
+e
j d
) +Z
L
(e
j d
e
j d
)
= Z
o
Z
L
cos( d) +j Z
o
sin( d)
Z
o
cos( d) +j Z
L
sin( d)
= Z
o
Z
L
+j Z
o
tan( d)
Z
o
+j Z
L
tan( d)
The characteristic impedance is
Z
o
=
_
L
C
= 74.2
For = 2 300 rad/s we have:
=
LC
= 1.4 10
5
rad/m
and
Z
in
(d = l) = Z
o
Z
L
+j Z
o
tan( l)
Z
o
+j Z
L
tan( l)
= 25 +j 0.01
In other words, the line impedance barely affects the input impedance making Z
in
(d = l) Z
L
.
For = 2 5 10
8
rad/s we have:
=
LC
= 23.3 rad/m
and
Z
in
(d = l) = Z
o
Z
L
+j Z
o
tan( l)
Z
o
+j Z
L
tan( l)
= 137.5 +j 96.3
At this high frequency the input impedance is greatly changed with respect to the load impedance.
10
7.5
5
2.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.5
1.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.5
1.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.5
1.0
1.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
10
7.5
5
2.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
|Zin(d)/Zo|
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
d/
d/
(Zin(d))/
(Zin(d))/
d/
d/
1
|Zin(d)/Zo|
|Zin(d)/Zo|
(Zin(d))/
a)
b)
c)
Figure 7.1: Magnitude and angle of Z
in
(d)/Z
o
; a) Z
L
= Z
o
/10. b) Z
L
= Z
o
. c) Z
L
= 10 Z
o
.
The input impedance normalised to the characteristic impedance can be written as
Z
in
(d)
Z
o
=
Z
L
+j Z
o
tan( l)
Z
o
+j Z
L
tan( l)
=
Z
L
Z
o
+j tan( l)
1 +j
Z
L
Z
o
tan( l)
Figure 7.1 a) shows the magnitude and angle of Z
in
(d)/Z
o
when Z
L
= Z
o
/10. It can be seen that
for 0 < d < /2 and for < d < 3/2 the input impedance features an inductive component
while for /2 < d < and for 3/2 < d < 2 the input impedance features a capacitive
component.
Figure 7.1 b) shows the magnitude and angle of Z
in
(d)/Z
o
when Z
L
= Z
o
. Since the line is
matched the input impedance is Z
o
regardless of the value for d.
Figure 7.1 c) shows the magnitude and angle of Z
in
(d)/Z
o
when Z
L
= 10 Z
o
. It can be seen
that for 0 < d < /2 and for < d < 3/2 the input impedance is capacitive while for
/2 < d < and for 3/2 < d < 2 the input impedance is inductive.
The characteristic impedance of the quarter-wave transform must be:
Z
o
=
30 50
= 38.7
tot
=

AB
(1 +
BL
BA
)
BL
T
AB
T
BA
1 +
BL
BA
=
Z
oB
Z
oA
Z
oB
+Z
oA
_
1 +
Z
L
Z
oB
Z
L
+Z
oB
Z
oA
Z
oB
Z
oB
+Z
oA
_
1 +
Z
L
Z
oB
Z
L
+Z
oB
Z
oA
Z
oB
Z
oB
+Z
oA
Z
L
Z
oB
Z
L
+Z
oB
2 Z
oB
Z
oA
+Z
oB
2 Z
oA
Z
oA
+Z
oB
1 +
Z
L
Z
oB
Z
L
+Z
oB
Z
oA
Z
oB
Z
oB
+Z
oA
Simplifying this eqn we obtain
tot
=
Z
2
oB
Z
oA
Z
L
Z
2
oB
+Z
oA
Z
L
The current in a particular section of the line k x can be written as
I(k x) =
V (k x)
Z
L
=
_
V (kx)
V ([k 1]x)
_
k
V (0)
Z
L
with Z
L
given by (see example 7.3.6):
Z
L
=
(R +j L) x
2
+
_
(R +j L)
2
x
2
+ 4
R+j L
G+j C
2
Taking the limits N and x 0 and using the results derived in example 7.3.6 we obtain:
I(x) =
e
j
LC x
_
R+j L
G+j C
and since V (x) = I(x) Z
o
we can write:
Z
o
=
R +j L
G+j C
1. The complex propagation constant for a lossy transmission line can be expressed as:
=
RG
_
1 +
jL
R
__
1 +
jC
G
_
=
RG
1 +j
_
L
R
+
C
G
_

2
LC
RG
(7.1)
If R >> L and G >> C we have
1 >>
_
L
R
+
C
G
_
>>

2
LC
RG
and we can write:

RG
1 +j
_
L
R
+
C
G
_
Taking into account that
1 +x 1 +x/2 if x << 1 we can write:

RG
_
1 +j
_
L
R
+
C
G
__
=
RG
. .
LF
+j
1
2
_
C
_
R
G
+L
_
G
R
_
. .
LF
If R >> L and G >> C we can also write
Z
o
=
R +j L
G+j C
_
R
G
2. The complex propagation constant for a lossy transmission line can also be expressed as:
=
(jL)(jC)
_
1 +
R
jL
__
1 +
G
jC
_
= j
LC
1 j
_
R
L
+
G
C
_
RG
2
LC
If R << L and G << C we have
1 >>
_
R
L
+
G
C
_
>>
RG
2
LC
and we can write:
j
LC
1 j
_
R
L
+
G
C
_
j
LC
_
1 j
1
2
_
R
L
+
G
C
__
=
1
2
_
R
_
C
L
+G
_
L
C
_
. .
HF
+j
LC
. .
HF
For R << L and G << C we have
Z
o
=
R +j L
G+j C
j L
j C
=
_
L
C
Z
in
(d) =
V (d)
I(d)
= Z
o
1 + (d)
1 (d)
= Z
o
1 +
o
e
2 d
1
o
e
2 d
= Z
o
1 +
Z
L
Z
o
Z
L
+Z
o
e
2 d
1
Z
L
Z
o
Z
L
+Z
o
e
2 d
= Z
o
(Z
L
+Z
o
) e
d
+ (Z
L
Z
o
) e
d
(Z
L
+Z
o
) e
d
(Z
L
Z
o
) e
d

e
d
e
d
= Z
o
Z
L
_
e
d
+e
d
_
+Z
o
_
e
d
e
d
_
Z
o
(e
d
+e
d
) +Z
L
(e
d
e
d
)
= Z
o
Z
L
cosh( d) +Z
o
sinh( d)
Z
o
cosh( d) +Z
L
sinh( d)
= Z
o
Z
L
+Z
o
tanh( d)
Z
o
+Z
L
tanh( d)
assuming that
W
d
< 2 we have that
W
d

8 e
A
e
2A
2
= 1.164
where
A =
Z
o
60
_
r
+ 1
2
+

r
1
r
+ 1
_
0.23 +
0.11
r
_
= 1.968
Hence, we have:
W = d 1.164
= 1.51 mm
Figure 7.2 a) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of S
11
and S
21
. S
11
is calculated as
Z
o
a)
+
Z
o
Z
o
Z
o
Z
o
V
S
1
+
Z
o
b)
V
S
1
R
R
C
Z
o
C
V
2
(l
2
)
+
+
Z
o
V
1
(l
1
)
I
1
(l
1
)
I
2
(l
2
)
I
2
(l
2
)
I
1
(l
1
)
+
V
2
(l
2
)
V
1
(l
1
)
+
Z
o
Z
IN
1
Z
IN
2
Figure 7.2: a) Calculation of S
11
and S
21
. b) Calculation of S
12
and S
22
.
S
11
=
Z
IN
1
Z
o
Z
IN
1
+Z
o
with:
Z
IN
1
=
1
j C
+ (R[[ Z
o
)
=
R +Z
o
+j C RZ
o
j C (R +Z
o
)
and S
11
can be written as
S
11
=
R +Z
o
(1 Z
o
j C)
2 j C RZ
o
+R +Z
o
(1 +j C Z
o
)
S
21
is calculated as
S
21
=
b
2
(l
2
)
a
1
(l
1
)
a
2
(l
2
)=0
=
V
2
(l
2
) Z
o
I
2
(l
2
)
V
1
(l
1
) +Z
o
I
1
(l
1
)
It is known that:
V
1
(l
1
) = Z
IN
1
I
1
(l
1
)
=
R +Z
o
+j C RZ
o
j C (R +Z
o
)
I
1
(l
1
)
Also, V
2
(l
2
) can be related to V
1
(l
1
) by the voltage divider expression:
V
2
(l
2
) =
R[[ Z
o
1
j C
+ (R[[ Z
o
)
V
1
(l
1
)
=
j C RZ
o
j C RZ
o
+R +Z
o
Now, a
2
(l
2
) = 0 implying that V
2
(l
2
) = Z
o
I
2
(l
2
) and we have
S
21
=
2 V
2
(l
2
)
V
1
(l
1
)
_
1 +
Z
o
Z
IN
1
_
=
2 j C RZ
o
2 j C RZ
o
+R +Z
o
(1 +j C Z
o
)
Figure 7.2 b) shows the equivalent circuit for the calculation of S
22
and S
12
. S
22
is calculated as
S
22
=
Z
IN
2
Z
o
Z
IN
2
+Z
o
with:
Z
IN
2
=
_
1
j C
+Z
o
_
[[ R
=
R(1 +j C Z
o
)
1 +j C (Z
o
+R)
and S
22
is
S
22
=
R Z
o
(1 +j C Z
o
)
2 j C Z
o
R +R +Z
o
(1 +j C Z
o
)
S
12
is given by
S
12
=
b
1
(l
1
)
a
2
(l2)
a
1
(l1)=0
=
V
1
(l
1
) Z
o
I
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
) +Z
o
I
2
(l
2
)
(7.2)
Since a
1
(l
1
) = 0 V
1
(l
1
) = Z
o
I
1
(l
1
), the last eqn can be written as
S
12
=
2 V
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
) +Z
o
I
2
(l
2
)
(7.3)
V
1
(l
1
2
(l
2
) using the impedance voltage divider formula:
V
1
(l
1
) = V
2
(l
2
)
j C Z
o
1 +j C Z
o
Using the result of the last eqn and since V
2
(l
2
) = Z
IN
2
I
2
(l
2
), we can calculate S
12
as follows:
S
12
=
2 V
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
)
_
1 +
Z
o
Z
IN
2
_
=
2 j C Z
o
R
2 j C Z
o
R +R +Z
o
(1 +j C Z
o
)
circuit a): Figure 7.3 a) shows the circuit for the calculation of S
11
and S
21
. S
11
is calculated
Z
1
Z
o
Z
1
a)
Z
o
Z
o
Z
o
Z
o
+
Z
o
b)
V
S
1
+
V
1
(l
1
)
+
V
1
(l
1
)
+
Z
o
Z
2
Z
2
Z
o
V
2
(l
2
)
V
S
2
V
2
(l
2
)
I
1
(l
1
)
I
1
(l
1
) I
2
(l
2
)
I
2
(l
2
)
+
Z
o
+
Z
IN
1
Z
IN
2
11
and S
21
12
and S
22
.
as
S
11
=
Z
IN
1
Z
o
Z
IN
1
+Z
o
with:
Z
IN
1
= Z
1
+ (Z
2
[[ Z
o
)
=
Z
1
(Z
2
+Z
o
) +Z
2
Z
o
Z
2
+Z
o
and S
11
is
S
11
=
Z
1
Z
2
+Z
o
(Z
1
Z
o
)
Z
o
Z
2
+ (Z
2
+Z
o
) (Z
1
+Z
o
)
S
21
is calculated as
S
21
=
b
2
(l
2
)
a
1
(l
1
)
a
2
(l
2
)=0
=
V
2
(l
2
) Z
o
I
2
(l
2
)
V
1
(l
1
) +Z
o
I
1
(l
1
)
a
2
(l
2
) = 0 implying that V
2
(l
2
) = Z
o
I
2
(l
2
). Also, it is known that:
V
1
(l
1
) = Z
IN
1
I
1
(l
1
)
Hence, we have
S
21
=
2 V
2
(l
2
)
V
1
(l
1
)
_
1 +
Z
o
Z
IN
1
_
V
2
(l
2
1
(l
1
) by the voltage divider expression:
V
2
(l
2
) =
Z
o
Z
2
Z
o
Z
2
+Z
1
(Z
2
+Z
o
)
V
1
(l
1
)
therefore, we have
S
21
=
2 Z
o
Z
2
Z
o
Z
2
+ (Z
2
+Z
o
) (Z
1
+Z
o
)
Figure 7.3 b) shows the circuit for the calculation of S
22
and S
12
. S
22
is calculated as
S
22
=
Z
IN
2
Z
o
Z
IN
2
+Z
o
=
Z
1
Z
2
Z
o
(Z
1
+Z
o
)
Z
o
Z
2
+ (Z
2
+Z
o
) (Z
1
+Z
o
)
with:
Z
IN
2
=
(Z
o
+Z
1
) Z
2
Z
o
+Z
1
+Z
2
S
12
is given by
S
12
=
b
1
(l
1
)
a
2
(l2)
a
1
(l1)=0
=
V
1
(l
1
) Z
o
I
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
) +Z
o
I
2
(l
2
)
(7.4)
Since a
1
(l
1
) = 0 V
1
(l
1
) = Z
o
I
1
(l
1
), and since V
2
(l
2
) = Z
IN2
I
2
(l
2
) the last eqn can
be written as
S
12
=
2 V
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
)
_
1 +
Z
o
Z
IN
2
_ (7.5)
V
1
(l
1
2
(l
2
) using the impedance voltage divider formula:
V
1
(l
1
) = V
2
(l
2
)
Z
o
Z
o
+Z
1
Using the result of the last eqn calculate S
12
as follows:
S
12
=
2 Z
o
Z
2
Z
o
Z
2
+ (Z
2
+Z
o
) (Z
1
+Z
o
)
circuit b): Figure 7.4 a) shows the circuit for the calculation of S
11
and S
21
. S
11
is calculated
as
S
11
=
Z
IN
1
Z
o
Z
IN
1
+Z
o
=
Z
1
Z
2
Z
o
(Z
2
+Z
o
)
Z
1
Z
o
+ (Z
o
+Z
1
) (Z
o
+Z
2
)
with:
Z
IN
1
=
Z
1
(Z
2
+Z
o
)
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
o
S
21
is calculated as
S
21
=
2 V
2
(l
2
)
V
1
(l
1
)
_
1 +
Z
o
Z
IN
1
_
=
2 Z
1
Z
o
Z
1
Z
o
+ (Z
o
+Z
1
) (Z
o
+Z
2
)
a)
Z
1
Z
2
Z
o
+
Z
o
Z
o
V
S
1
+
V
1
(l
1
)
+
Z
o
V
2
(l
2
)
I
1
(l
1
)
Z
o
I
2
(l
2
)
Z
1
Z
2
Z
o
+
V
S
2
Z
o
Z
o
b)
+
V
1
(l
1
)
Z
o
V
2
(l
2
)
Z
o
I
1
(l
1
)
I
2
(l
2
)
Z
IN
2
Z
IN
1
11
and S
21
12
and S
22
.
22
and S
12
.
S
22
=
Z
IN
2
Z
o
Z
IN
2
+Z
o
=
Z
1
Z
2
+Z
o
(Z
2
Z
o
)
Z
o
Z
1
+ (Z
2
+Z
o
) (Z
1
+Z
o
)
with:
Z
IN
2
=
Z
2
(Z
1
+Z
o
) +Z
1
Z
o
Z
1
+Z
o
S
12
is given by
S
12
=
2 V
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
)
_
1 +
Z
o
Z
IN
2
_
=
2 Z
1
Z
o
Z
1
Z
o
+ (Z
o
+Z
1
) (Z
o
+Z
2
)
with
V
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
)
=
Z
1
Z
o
Z
2
(Z
1
+Z
o
) +Z
1
Z
o
circuit c): Figure 7.5 a) shows the circuit for the calculation of S
11
and S
21
. For this circuit
we can write:
V
2
(l
2
) = A
fi
I
1
(l
1
) (R
o
[[ Z
o
)
and
V
1
(l
1
) = I
1
(l
1
) R
i
+A
rv
V
2
(l
2
)
= I
1
(l
1
)[R
i
+A
rv
A
fi
(R
o
[[ Z
o
)]
+
A
rv
V
o
A
fi
I
i
A
rv
V
o
A
fi
I
i
R
o
Z
o
+
Z
o
R
o
b)
a)
Z
o
I
i
= I
1
(l
1
)
R
i
R
i
+
I
i
= I
1
(l
1
)
V
1
(l
1
)
V
S
1
I
2
(l
2
)
+
V
o
= V
2
(l
2
)
+
V
1
(l
1
)
+
V
o
= V
2
(l
2
)
Z
o
Z
o
Z
o
Z
o
Z
o
Z
o
V
S
2
+

11
and S
21
12
and S
22
.
Now, S
11
can be calculated as:
S
11
=
b
1
(l
1
)
a
1
(l
1
)
a
2
(l
2
)=0
=
V
1
(l
1
) Z
o
I
1
(l
1
)
V
1
(l
1
) +Z
o
I
1
(l
1
)
=
R
i
+A
rv
A
fi
(R
o
[[ Z
o
) Z
o
R
i
+A
rv
A
fi
(R
o
[[ Z
o
) +Z
o
=
(R
i
Z
o
) (R
o
+Z
o
) +A
rv
A
fi
R
o
Z
o
(R
i
+Z
o
) (R
o
+Z
o
) +A
rv
A
fi
R
o
Z
o
S
21
S
21
=
b
2
(l
2
)
a
1
(l
1
)
a
2
(l
2
)=0
=
2 V
2
(l
2
)
V
1
(l
1
) +Z
o
I
1
(l
1
)
=
2 A
fi
R
o
Z
o
(R
i
+Z
o
) (R
o
+Z
o
) +A
rv
A
fi
R
o
Z
o
22
and S
12
.
We can write the following eqns:
V
1
(l
1
) =
Z
o
Z
o
+R
i
A
rv
V
2
(l
2
) (7.6)
V
1
(l
1
) = I
1
(l
1
) R
i
+A
rv
V
2
(l
2
) (7.7)
I
2
(l
2
) =
V
2
(l
2
)
R
o
A
fi
I
1
(l
1
) (7.8)
From eqns 7.6 and 7.7 we have
I
1
(l
1
) = V
2
(l
2
)
A
rv
Z
o
+R
i
(7.9)
and now we can write eqn 7.8 as follows.
I
2
(l
2
) =
V
2
(l
2
)
R
o
+A
fi
V
2
(l
2
)
A
rv
Z
o
+R
i
S
22
S
22
=
b
2
(l
2
)
a
2
(l
2
)
a
1
(l
1
)=0
=
V
2
(l
2
) Z
o
I
2
(l
2
)
V
2
(l
2
) +Z
o
I
2
(l
2
)
=
(R
i
+Z
o
) (R
o
Z
o
) A
rv
A
fi
R
o
Z
o
(R
i
+Z
o
) (R
o
+Z
o
) +A
rv
A
fi
R
o
Z
o
S
12
S
12
=
b
1
(l
1
)
a
2
(l
2
)
a
1
(l
1
)=0
=
2 V
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
) +Z
o
I
2
(l
2
)
=
2 A
rv
R
o
Z
o
(R
i
+Z
o
) (R
o
+Z
o
) +A
rv
A
fi
R
o
Z
o
circuit d): Figure 7.6 a) shows the circuit for the calculation of S
11
and S
21
. S
11
can be
I
1
(l
1
)
Z
3
Z
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z
2
Z
1
Z
o
a)
b)
V
S
1
Z
o
+
V
1
(l
1
)
+
V
1
(l
1
)
+
V
2
(l
2
)
V
2
(l
2
)
Z
o
Z
o
Z
o
+
Z
o
V
S
2
Z
o
Z
o
+
I
2
(l
2
)
Z
o
Z
o
I
1
(l
1
)
I
2
(l
2
)
Z
IN
1
Z
IN
2
11
and S
21
12
and S
22
.
calculated from the following eqn:
S
11
=
Z
IN
1
Z
o
Z
IN
1
+Z
o
with:
Z
IN
1
= [ (Z
3
[[ Z
o
) +Z
2
] [[ Z
1
= Z
1
Z
o
(Z
3
+Z
2
) +Z
3
Z
2
Z
3
(Z
1
+Z
2
) +Z
o
(Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
)
S
21
can be calculated from the following eqn
S
21
=
2 V
2
(l
2
)
V
1
(l
1
)
_
1 +
Z
o
Z
IN
1
_
with
V
2
(l
2
)
V
1
(l
1
)
=
Z
3
Z
o
Z
3
Z
o
+Z
2
(Z
3
+Z
o
)
22
and S
12
. S
22
can be calculated from
the following eqn:
S
22
=
Z
IN
2
Z
o
Z
IN
2
+Z
o
with:
Z
IN
2
= [ (Z
1
[[ Z
o
) +Z
2
] [[ Z
3
= Z
3
Z
o
(Z
1
+Z
2
) +Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
(Z
3
+Z
2
) +Z
o
(Z
3
+Z
2
+Z
1
)
and S
12
S
12
=
2 V
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
)
_
1 +
Z
o
Z
IN
2
_
with
V
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
)
=
Z
1
Z
o
Z
1
Z
o
+Z
2
(Z
1
+Z
o
)
circuit e): Figure 7.7 a) shows the circuit for the calculation of S
11
and S
21
. S
11
can be
calculated from the following eqn:
S
11
=
Z
IN
1
Z
o
Z
IN
1
+Z
o
with:
Z
IN
1
= Z
1
+ [Z
3
[[ (Z
2
+Z
o
)]
= Z
1
+
Z
3
(Z
2
+Z
o
)
Z
3
+Z
2
+Z
o
S
21
S
21
=
2 V
2
(l
2
)
V
1
(l
1
)
_
1 +
Z
o
Z
IN
1
_
with
V
2
(l
2
)
V
1
(l
1
)
=
V
2
(l
2
)
V
V
1
(l
1
)
=
Z
o
Z
o
+Z
2
Z
3
[[ (Z
2
+Z
o
)
Z
1
+ [Z
3
[[ (Z
2
+Z
o
)]
=
Z
o
Z
o
+Z
2
Z
3
(Z
2
+Z
o
)
Z
3
(Z
2
+Z
o
) +Z
1
(Z
3
+Z
2
+Z
o
)
=
Z
3
Z
o
Z
3
(Z
2
+Z
o
) +Z
1
(Z
3
+Z
2
+Z
o
)
Z
2
Z
3
Z
1
Z
1
a)
b)
Z
o
+
Z
o
V
S
2
+
Z
o
Z
o
Z
o
Z
o
V
S
1
I
1
(l
1
)
+
V
1
(l
1
)
+
V
1
(l
1
)
I
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
)
Z
o
Z
o
V
2
(l
2
)
+
I
2
(l
2
)
Z
o
I
2
(l
2
)
Z
IN
2
Z
IN
1
Z
3
+
+
Z
2
V


11
and S
21
12
and S
22
.
22
and S
12
. S
22
can be calculated from
the following eqn:
S
22
=
Z
IN
2
Z
o
Z
IN
2
+Z
o
with:
Z
IN
2
= Z
2
+ [Z
3
[[ (Z
1
+Z
o
)]
= Z
2
+
Z
3
(Z
1
+Z
o
)
Z
3
+Z
1
+Z
o
and S
12
S
12
=
2 V
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
)
_
1 +
Z
o
Z
IN
2
_
with
V
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
)
=
V
1
(l
1
)
V
V
2
(l
2
)
=
Z
o
Z
o
+Z
1
Z
3
[[ (Z
1
+Z
o
)
Z
2
+ [Z
3
[[ (Z
1
+Z
o
)]
=
Z
3
Z
o
Z
3
(Z
1
+Z
o
) +Z
2
(Z
3
+Z
1
+Z
o
)
Figure 7.8 a) shows the circuit for the calculation of S
11
and S
21
. S
11
can be calculated from the
Z
o
Z
o
+
Z
o
Z
o
I
2
(l
2
)
I
1
(l
1
)
v
gs
v
o
C
gd
+
g
m
v
gs
a)
Z
IN
1
+
Z
o
V
1
(l
1
)
r
o
+
v
gs
v
o
C
gs
C
gd
+
g
m
v
gs
r
o
||Z
o
i
s
v
s
Z
IN
1
b)
V
S
1
+
V
2
(l
2
)
C
gs
11
and S
21
IN
1
= v
s
/i
s
and of A
v
1
= v
o
/v
s
.
following expression
S
11
=
Z
IN
1
Z
o
Z
IN
1
+Z
o
(7.10)
where Z
IN
1
can be calculated from the circuit of gure 7.8 b). For this circuit we can write the
following set of eqns
_
_
_
i
s
= v
s
j C
gs
+ (v
s
v
o
) j C
gd
(v
s
v
o
) j C
gd
= g
m
v
s
+v
o
/(r
o
[[Z
o
)
(7.11)
Solving to obtain v
s
/i
s
we get
Z
IN
1
=
r
o
+Z
o
+j C
gd
r
o
Z
o
j [(C
gd
+C
gs
) (r
o
+Z
o
) +C
gd
g
m
r
o
Z
o
]
2
C
gd
C
gs
r
o
Z
o
(7.12)
From which S
11
can be found.
S
21
can be calculated from the following expression
S
21
=
2 A
v
1
1 +
Z
o
Z
IN
1
where A
v
1
is given by
A
v
1
=
V
2
(l
2
)
V
1
(l
1
)
A
v
1
can be obtained from the circuit of gure 7.8 b) as follows:
A
v
1
=
v
o
v
s
Solving again the set of eqns, given by 7.11, to obtain v
o
/v
s
we get:
A
v
1
=
r
o
Z
o
(j C
gd
g
m
)
j C
gd
r
o
Z
o
+r
o
+Z
o
(7.13)
Figure 7.9 a) shows the circuit for the calculation of S
12
and S
22
. S
22
can be calculated from the
+
v
s
i
s
Z
o
+
Z
o
V
2
(l
2
)
+
I
2
(l
2
)
Z
IN
2
Z
o
I
1
(l
1
)
v
gs
v
o
C
gd
+
g
m
v
gs
r
o V
S
2
Z
o
Z
o
v
gs
C
gd
+
r
o
g
m
v
gs
Z
o
Z
IN
2
a)
b)
C
gs
+
C
gs
V
1
(l
1
)
Z
o
v
i
22
and S
12
IN
2
= v
s
/i
s
and of A
v
2
= v
i
/v
s
.
following expression
S
22
=
Z
IN
2
Z
o
Z
IN
2
+Z
o
(7.14)
where Z
IN
2
can be calculated from the circuit of gure 7.9 b). For this circuit we can write the
following set of eqns
_
_
_
i
s
= v
s
/r
o
+g
m
v
i
+ (v
s
v
i
) j C
gd
(v
s
v
i
) j C
gd
= v
i
j C
gs
+v
i
/Z
o
(7.15)
Solving to obtain v
s
/i
s
we get
Z
IN
2
=
r
o
[j (C
gd
+C
gs
) Z
o
+ 1]
1 +j (C
gd
+C
gs
) Z
o
+j C
gd
r
o
(g
m
Z
o
+ 1)
2
C
gd
C
gs
r
o
Z
o
(7.16)
S
12
can be calculated from the eqn below:
S
12
=
2 A
v
2
1 +
Z
o
Z
IN
2
(7.17)
=
2 Z
1
Z
o
Z
1
Z
o
+ (Z
o
+Z
1
) (Z
o
+Z
2
)
with
A
v
2
=
V
1
(l
1
)
V
2
(l
2
)
A
v
2
can be calculated by solving the set of eqns 7.15 (see also gure 7.9 b)) to obtain v
i
/v
s
A
v
2
=
j C
gd
Z
o
1 +j (C
gd
+C
gs
) Z
o
(7.18)
The transconductance can be calculated as follows:
g
m
=
_
k
n
W
L
2 I
D
= 6.3 mA/V (7.19)
The drain-source resistance r
o
can be determined as follows:
r
o
=
V
A
I
D
= 12 k (7.20)
We use eqns 7.10-7.18 to plot the S-parameters shown in gure 7.10.
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
9
10
10
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
9
10
10
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
9
10
10
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
9
10
10
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
9
10
10
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
9
10
10
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
9
10
10
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
9
10
10
|S
21
| (dB)
|S
12
| (dB)
|S
22
| (dB)
|S
11
| (dB)
1
1
3
2
0.5
30
25
20
15
10
35
10
8
6
4
2
2
0
0
0
(S
21
)/
(S
12
)/
(S
22
)/
(S
11
)/
0
0.5
1
1
0.5
0
0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0
1
0.5
f (Hz)
f (Hz)
f (Hz)
f (Hz) f (Hz)
f (Hz)
f (Hz)
f (Hz)
Figure 7.10: S-parameters (magnitude and phase) plotted versus frequency. a) S
11
. b) S
22
. c) S
12
.
d) S
21
.
The chain parameters can be dened by the set of eqns:
_
_
_
V
1
= A
11
V
2
A
12
I
2
I
1
= A
21
V
2
A
22
I
2
(7.21)
and the S-parameters can be dened by the set of eqns below:
_
_
_
b
1
= S
11
a
1
+S
12
a
2
b
2
= S
21
a
1
+S
22
a
2
(7.22)
that is
_
_
_
(V
1
Z
o
I
1
) = S
11
(V
1
+Z
o
I
1
) +S
12
(V
2
+Z
o
I
2
)
(V
2
Z
o
I
2
) = S
21
(V
1
+Z
o
I
1
) +S
22
(V
2
+Z
o
I
2
)
(7.23)
This set of eqns can be rewritten as
_
_
_
V
1
(1 S
11
) = Z
o
(1 +S
11
) I
1
+V
2
S
12
+I
2
Z
o
S
12
V
2
(1 +S
22
) = V
1
S
21
+I
1
Z
o
S
21
+Z
o
(1 +S
22
) I
2
(7.24)
Solving the second eqn of 7.24 in order to obtain I
1
we get:
I
1
= V
2
1 S
22
Z
o
S
21
V
1
1
Z
o
I
2
1 +S
22
S
21
Substituting I
1
in the rst eqn of 7.24 and solving to obtain V
1
we get:
V
1
=
(1 S
22
)(1 +S
11
) +S
12
S
21
2S
21
V
2
Z
o
(1 +S
22
)(1 +S
11
) S
12
S
21
2S
21
I
2
(7.25)
Substituting V
1
, given by the last eqn, in the second eqn of 7.24 and solving in order to obtain I
1
we
get:
I
1
=
(1 S
22
)(1 S
11
) S
12
S
21
2Z
o
S
21
V
2
(1 +S
22
)(1 S
11
) +S
12
S
21
2S
21
I
2
(7.26)
Comparing eqns 7.25 and 7.26 with eqn 7.21 we conclude that:
A
11
=
(1 S
22
)(1 +S
11
) +S
12
S
21
2S
21
A
12
= Z
o
(1 +S
22
)(1 +S
11
) S
12
S
21
2S
21
A
21
=
(1 S
22
)(1 S
11
) S
12
S
21
2Z
o
S
21
A
22
=
(1 +S
22
)(1 S
11
) +S
12
S
21
2S
21
We normalise the impedances to Z
o
= 50 . Hence we have:
z
1
= 0.2 j 0.6
z
2
= 1.5 +j 0.4
z
3
= 1.2 j 0.8
z
4
= 0.1 j 1.4
z
5
= j 1
z
6
= j 3.6
We represent these normalised impedances on the Smith chart of gure 7.11 and we nd the corre-
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
20
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
0.5
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
20
z
4
z
6
z
5
y
1
y
5
y
6
z
2
y
3
z
3
y
2
z
1
y
4
Figure 7.11: Representation of the normalised impedances.
sponding normalised admittances:
y
1
= 0.5 +j 1.5
y
2
= 0.62 j 0.16
y
3
= 0.58 +j 0.38
y
4
= 0.05 +j 0.71
y
5
= j 1
y
6
= j 0.3
The admittances are obtained multiplying each y
k
by Y
o
= 1/Z
o
(20 mS);
Y
1
= 10 +j 30 mS
Y
2
= 12.4 j 3.2 mS
Y
3
= 11.6 +j 7.6 mS
Y
4
= 1 +j 14.2 mS
Y
5
= j 20 mS
Y
6
= j 6 mS
We normalise the admittances to Y
o
= 1/50 = 20 mS;
y
1
= j 0.2
y
2
= 0.08 j 3
y
3
= 0.2 +j 2
We represent these normalised admittances on the Smith chart of gure 7.12. From the chart, we
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
20
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
0.5
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
20
y
1
z
1
y
2
z
2
z
3
y
3
Figure 7.12: Representation of the normalised admittances.
nd the corresponding normalised impedances:
z
1
= j 5
z
2
= 0.009 +j 0.333
z
3
= 0.05 j 0.5
The impedances are obtained multiplying each z
k
by Z
o
= 1/Y
o
= 50;
Z
1
= j 250
Z
2
= 0.45 +j 16.7
Z
3
= 2.5 j 25
Figure 7.13 a) shows the calculation, using the Smith chart, of the L-section which transforms an
impedance of 50 into an impedance Z
L
= 25 j 15 . Z
o
= 50 . Figure 7.13 b) shows the
L-section obtained.
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
20
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
0.5
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
20
Z
a
j 40
j 50
50
Z
L
z
a
y
a
z
L
b)
a)
Figure 7.13: a) Calculation of the L-section using the Smith chart. b) L-section.
Figure 7.14 a) shows S
11
and S
22
in the Smith chart (polar coordinates) while gure 7.14 b) shows
S
12
and S
21
also in polar coordinates. f
a
= (2 RC)
1
/10 and f
b
= 10 (2 RC)
1
.
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
20
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
0.5
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
20
0 1 1
1
1
f
a
f
b
S
12
= S
21
Real
Imag
b)
S
11
S
22
f
b
f
a
f
a
a)
Figure 7.14: a) S
11
and S
22
. b) S
12
and S
12
.
Figure 7.15 a) shows the calculation, using the Smith chart, of the L-section which transforms an
impedance of Z
s
= 60 +j 20 into an impedance Z
L
= 40 +j 30 . Z
o
= 40 . Figure 7.13 b)
shows the L-section obtained.
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
20
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
0.5
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
20
b)
Z
L
Z
s
j 62
j 58
Z
a
a)
y
s
z
a
z
s
z
L
y
a
Figure 7.15: a) Calculation of the L-section using the Smith chart. b) L-section.
Figure 7.16 shows the calculation of the matching circuit using transmission lines. Z
o
= 45 .
l
1
= 0.279 , l
2
= 0.105 .
0 0.5 1 2 4 8
20
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
0.5
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
20
l
1
l
2
z
s
y
a
z
a
j 1.29
j 1.29
a)
b)
y = 1
0.4 + j 0.6
l
1
l
2
45
45 y
a
= 1 + j1.29
y = j1.29
z
s
Figure 7.16: a) Calculation of the matching circuit using the Smith chart. b) The circuit.
Chapter 8
Noise in electronic circuits
1. P[X > 3] can be calculated as follows:
P[X > 3] =
_

3
1
2
e
(x)
2
2
2
dx
Using the variable transformation indicated below:
=
x
we can write P[X > 3] as

P[X > 3] =
_

3
2
e
2
2
2
d
= Q
_
3
_
= 0.046
2. P[X > 3] can be calculated as follows:
P[X > 3] =
_

3
1
2
e
(x)
2
2
2
dx
= 1
_
3
2
e
(x)
2
2
2
dx
Using the variable transformation y = x we can write the last eqn as
P[X > 3] = 1
_

3
1
2
e
(y+)
2
2
2
dy
and now by using the variable transformation
=
y
we can write P[X > 3] as

P[X > 3] = 1
_

3+
2
e
2
2
2
d
= 1 Q
_
3 +
_
= 0.85
8. Noise in electronic circuits 176
3. P[2 < X < 3] can be calculated as follows:
P[2 < X < 3] =
_
3
2
1
2
e
(x)
2
2
2
dx
= 1
_

3
1
2
e
(x)
2
2
2
dx
_
2
2
e
(x)
2
2
2
dx
= 1 Q
_
3
_
Q
_
2 +
_
= 0.68
4. P[X < 2] can be calculated as follows:
PX < 2] =
_
2
2
e
(x)
2
2
2
dx
= Q
_
2 +
_
= 0.28
1. The mean can be calculated as follows:
=
1
5
_
3
2
xdx
=
1
5
x
2
2
3
2
=
1
2
2. The variance can be calculated as follows:
2
=
1
5
_
3
2
_
x
1
2
_
2
dx
=
1
5
_
x
1
2
_
3
3
3
2
= 2.08
The third moment can be calculated as follows:
E[X
3
] =
1
5
_
3
2
x
3
dx
=
1
5
x
4
4
3
2
= 3.25
The characteristic function can be determined as
C(2 ) =
_

k=0
k
k!
(x k) e
j 2 x
dx
= e
k=0
k
k!
e
j 2 k
The mean can be determined as
E[X] =
1
j 2
d
d
C(2 )
=0
= e
k=0
k
k!
k
. .
e
= = 0.8
The PDF of the random variable resulting from the sum of the three uniform PDFs can be expressed
by;
P
Y
(y) =
_
_
(y + 3A)
2
16A
3
3A y < A
(y
2
3A
2
)
8A
3
A y A
(y 3A)
2
16A
3
A < y 3A
0 elsewhere
(8.1)
with A = 3. Hence, P[Y > 4] can be written as
P[Y > 4] =
_
9
4
(y 3A)
2
16A
3
dy
= 96.5 10
3
and P[Y > 8.9] can be written as
P[Y > 8.9] =
_
9
8.9
(y 3A)
2
16A
3
dy
= 77.16 10
8
We use now the central limit theorem to estimate these probabilities. The variance of each uniform
random variable is
2
=
6
2
12
= 3 while the mean is zero. P[Y > 4] can be estimated as follows:
P[Y > 4] = Q
_
4
3
_
= 91.2 10
3
and P[Y > 8.9] can be estimated according to
P[Y > 8.9] = Q
_
8.9
3
_
= 1.5 10
3
The central limit theorem (CLT) provides a good estimation for P[Y > 4] since the error is about
5.4%. However, for P[Y > 8.9] the CLT provides a poor estimation with a very large error.
The mean can be calculated as follows:
E[a(t)] =
_

e
3 x t
p
X
(x) dx
=
1
3
_
2
1
e
3 x t
dx
=
1
9 t
_
e
6 t
e
3 t
_
=
1
9 t
e
3 t
2
cosh
_
9 t
2
_
The autocorrelation function can be calculated as follows:
E[a(t
1
) a
(
t
2
] =
_

e
3 x (t
1
+t
2
)
p
X
(x) dx
=
1
3
_
2
1
e
3 x (t
1
+t
2
)
dx
=
1
9 (t
1
+t
2
)
_
e
6 (t
1
+t
2
)
e
3 (t
1
+t
2
)
_
=
1
9 (t
1
+t
2
)
e
3 (t
1
+t
2
)
2
cosh
_
9 (t
1
+t
2
)
2
_
The power spectral density S
vv
(f) can be obtained calculating the Fourier transform of R
v
(), that
is
S
vv
(f) =
_

R
v
() e
j 2 f
d (8.2)
R
v
() is a triangular function. Hence, by consulting the Fourier transform table provided in ap-
pendix A we obtain:
S
vv
(f) =
2
Asinc
2
(f A)
The equivalent noise bandwidth, B
N
, can be calculated as
B
N
1
=
1
2
_

[H()[
2
d (8.3)
[H
1
()[
2
can be written as
[H
1
()[
2
=
k
1
2
p
1
+
k
2
2
p
2
with
p
1
= (1 2
2
+ 2 j
_
1
2
)
2
n
= (
_
1
2
+j )
2
2
n
p
2
= (1 2
2
2 j
_
1
2
)
2
n
= (
_
1
2
j )
2
2
n
k
1
=
j
2
n
4
_
1
2
k
2
=
j
2
n
4
_
1
2
It is known that
_
k
1
2
p
1
d =
K
1
p
1
tanh
1
_

p
1
_
It is also known that
lim
z
tanh
1
(z) =
_
_
_
j
2
if Imag [z] > 0
j
2
if Imag [z] < 0
(8.4)
Using the results above we can solve eqn 8.3 to obtain:
B
N
=

n
4
[H
2
()[
2
can be written as
[H
2
()[
2
=
k
1
2
p
1
+
k
2
2
p
2
with
p
1
= (1 2
2
+ 2 j
_
1
2
)
2
n
= (
_
1
2
+j )
2
2
n
p
2
= (1 2
2
2 j
_
1
2
)
2
n
= (
_
1
2
j )
2
2
n
k
1
= 4
2
n
2
p
1
p
1
p
2
k
2
= 4
2
n
2
p
2
p
2
p
1
Using the results above we can solve eqn 8.3 to obtain:
B
N
2
=
n

The equivalent noise bandwidth for H
1
() +H
2
() is
B
N
3
= B
N
1
+B
N
2
=
n
_
+
1
4
_
Figure 8.1 shows the equivalent noise bandwidths determined above, normalised to
n
, versus
.
B
N
3
B
N
1
B
N
2
0.2
0.5
1.5
2.0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
B
N
/
n
1.0
0
0
Figure 8.1: Equivalent noise bandwidths normalised to
n
versus .
We assume that the amplier of gure 8.2 has an input impedance Z
in
and a current gain A
i
= i
o
/i
i
.
Contribution of u
n
to the output current: From gure 8.2 b) we can write:
i
i
=
u
n
Z
in
+Z
s
and
i
o
= A
i
i
i
= A
i
u
n
Z
in
+Z
s
Contribution of i
n
to the output current: From gure 8.2 c) we can write:
i
i
=
i
n
Z
s
Z
in
+Z
s
and
i
o
= A
i
i
i
= A
i
i
n
Z
s
Z
in
+Z
s
Contribution of i
ns
to the output current: From gure 8.2 d) we can write:
i
i
=
i
ns
Z
s
Z
in
+Z
s
and
i
o
= A
i
i
i
= A
i
i
ns
Z
s
Z
in
+Z
s
Since the total current gain, A
i
s
is
A
i
s
=
i
o
i
s
= A
i
Z
s
Z
in
+Z
s
we can obtain the equivalent input noise current as follows:
i
n
eq
=
A
i
u
n
Z
in
+Z
s
+A
i
i
n
Z
s
Z
in
+Z
s
+A
i
i
ns
Z
s
Z
in
+Z
s
A
i
s
=
u
n
Z
s
+i
n
+i
ns
Z
s
i
n
i
i
i
o
+
u
n
Z
s
i
i
i
i
Z
s
i
ns
+
u
n
+ i
s
v
i
a)
b)
c)
d)
i
o
i
o
i
i
i
n
i
o
Z
in
Z
s
i
ns
Figure 8.2: a) Noisy amplier. a) Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution of u
n
to
the output current. b) Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution of i
n
to the output
current. c) Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution of i
ns
to the output current.
We assume that the amplier, shown here in gure 8.3, has an input impedance Z
in
and a voltage
gain A
v
= v
o
/v
i
.
Contribution of u
n
to the output voltage: From gure 8.3 b) we can write:
v
i
= u
n
Z
in
Z
in
+Z
s
and
v
o
= A
v
v
i
= A
v
u
n
Z
in
Z
in
+Z
s
Contribution of i
n
to the output voltage: From gure 8.3 c) we can write:
v
i
= i
n
Z
in
Z
s
Z
in
+Z
s
and
v
o
= A
v
v
i
= A
v
i
n
Z
in
Z
s
Z
in
+Z
s
Contribution of u
ns
to the output voltage: From gure 8.3 d) we can write:
v
i
= u
ns
Z
in
Z
in
+Z
s
and
v
o
= A
v
v
i
= A
v
u
ns
Z
in
Z
in
+Z
s
Since the total voltage gain, A
v
s
is
A
v
s
=
v
o
v
s
= A
v
Z
in
Z
in
+Z
s
we can obtain the equivalent input noise voltage as follows:
u
n
eq
=
A
v
u
n
Z
in
Z
in
+Z
s
+A
v
i
n
Z
in
Z
s
Z
in
+Z
s
+u
ns
Z
in
Z
in
+Z
s
A
v
s
= u
n
+i
n
Z
s
+u
ns
The PSD can now be obtained calculating

i
n
eq
i
n
eq
_
, that is:
u
n
eq
u
n
eq
_
=
(u
n
+i
n
Z
s
+u
ns
) (u
n
+i
n
Z
s
+u
ns
)
_
Since u
ns
is not correlated with u
n
and i
n
we can write:
u
ns
u
n
) = u
n
u
ns
) = 0
u
ns
i
n
) = i
n
u
ns
) = 0
In addition we have:
(i
n
Z
s
) u
n
) +u
n
(i
n
Z
s
)
) = 2 Real [u
ns
i
n
) Z
s
]
Finally, we can write:
u
n
eq
u
n
eq
_
= u
n
u
n
) +u
ns
u
ns
) +i
n
i
n
) [Z
s
[
2
+ 2 Real [u
ns
i
n
) Z
s
]
v
s
Z
s
u
n
u
ns
i
n
+ +
+
v
o
Z
in
Z
s
u
n
+
v
o
Z
in
+
V
i
Z
s
+
v
o
Z
in
u
ns
+
V
i
a)
b)
c)
d)
Z
s
i
n v
o
Z
in V
i
+
Figure 8.3: a) Noisy amplier. a) Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution of u
n
to
the output voltage. b) Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution of i
n
to the output
voltage. c) Equivalent circuit for the calculation of the contribution of u
ns
to the output voltage.
Figure 8.4 a) shows the non-inverting voltage amplier including the various the noise sources.
Contribution of u
R
2
to the output voltage: Figure 8.4 b) shows the equivalent circuit. Since
there is no voltage difference across R
1
there is no current owing through R
1
. Since the
op-amp does not draw any current there is no current owing through R
2
. Hence,we can write
v
o
= u
R
2
(8.5)
Contribution of u
n
to the output voltage: From gure 8.4 c) we can write:
v
o
=
R
2
+R
1
R
1
u
n
(8.6)
Contribution of i
n
to the output voltage: From gure 8.4 d) we can write:
v
o
= R
2
i
n
(8.7)
Contribution of u
R
1
to the output voltage: From gure 8.4 e) we can write:
v
o
=
R
2
R
1
u
R
1
(8.8)
The equivalent input noise voltage source can be obtained dividing the sum of the contributions
calculated above by the voltage gain 1 +R
2
/R
1
, that is:
u
eq
=
u
R
2
+
R
2
+R
1
R
1
u
n
R
2
i
n
R
2
R
1
u
R
1
1 +
R
2
R
1
(8.9)
that is
u
eq
= u
R
2
R
1
R
2
+R
1
+u
n
R
2
R
1
R
2
+R
1
i
n
R
1
R
2
+R
1
u
R
1
(8.10)
Since all the noise sources are uncorrelated we have:
u
eq
u
eq
) =
R
2
1
(R
2
+R
1
)
2
u
R
2
u
R
2
) +u
n
u
n
)
+
(R
2
R
1
)
2
(R
2
+R
1
)
2
i
n
i
n
) +
R
2
1
(R
2
+R
1
)
2
u
R
1
u
R
1
) (8.11)
For this amplier we have:
u
R
1
u
R
1
) = 2 /T R
1
= 8.0 10
18
V
2
/Hz
u
R
2
u
R
2
) = 2 /T R
2
= 7.2 10
17
V
2
/Hz
The PSD of the equivalent input noise voltage is:
u
eq
u
eq
) = 4.4 10
18
V
2
/Hz
Figure 8.5 a) shows the inverting voltage amplier including the noise sources. The contributions of
each noise source to the output voltage are the same as those calculated above, that is:
v
o
= u
R
2
+
R
2
+R
1
R
1
u
n
R
2
i
n
R
2
R
1
u
R
1
(8.12)
0 V
+
R
1
R
1
+
u
R1
+
v
o
e)
c)
b)
d)
v
o
a)
R
1
v
o
v
o
+
0 V
v
o
+
u
n
v
R
2
R
1
u
n
+
R
2
R
2
R
1
i
n
R
2
+
i
n
+
+
R
2
u
R2
+
+
u
R1
u
R2
Figure 8.4: a) Non-inverting amplier. b) Contribution of u
R
2
to the output voltage. c) Contribution
of u
n
to the output voltage. d) Contribution of i
n
to the output voltage. e) Contribution of u
R
1
to
the output voltage.
0 V
+
R
1
b)
R
2
u
R2
+
+
+
R
1
+
u
R1
+
v
o
e)
c)
d)
v
o
v
o
+
0 V
v
o
+
v
R
2
R
1
u
n
+
R
2
R
1
i
n
R
2
a)
+
R
1
R
2
u
R2
i
n
+
u
n
u
R1
v
o
Figure 8.5: a) Inverting amplier. b) Contribution of u
R
2
to the output voltage. c) Contribution of
u
n
to the output voltage. d) Contribution of i
n
to the output voltage. e) Contribution of u
R
1
to the
output voltage.
The equivalent input noise voltage source can be obtained dividing the sum of the contributions
calculated above by the voltage gain R
2
/R
1
, that is:
u
eq
=
u
R
2
+
R
2
+R
1
R
1
u
n
R
2
i
n
R
2
R
1
u
R
1
R
2
R
1
(8.13)
that is
u
eq
= u
R
2
R
1
R
2
u
n
R
2
+R
1
R
2
+R
1
i
n
+u
R
1
(8.14)
Since all the noise sources are uncorrelated we have:
u
eq
u
eq
) = u
R
2
u
R
2
)
R
2
1
R
2
2
+u
n
u
n
)
(R
2
+R
1
)
2
R
2
2
+ i
n
i
n
) R
2
1
+u
R
1
u
R
1
)
= 1.3 10
17
V
2
/Hz
The noise factor can be expressed as
F = 1 +
i
n
i
n
) + 2 Real[u
n
i
n
) Y
s
()] +u
n
u
n
) [Y
s
()[
2
2 /T Real[Y
s
()]
that is;
F = 1 +
g
n
G
s
+
R
n
(G
2
s
+W
2
s
)
G
s
+ 2
Real [u
n
i
n
)]
2 /T
2
Imag [u
n
i
n
)] W
s
2 /T G
s
(8.15)
with:
2 /T g
n
= i
n
i
n
)
2 /T R
n
= u
n
u
n
)
Y
s
() = G
s
+j W
s
The optimum value for W
s
can be obtained by differentiating eqn 8.15 and setting the differential to
zero, that is
d F
W
s
= 0
W
s
opt
=
Imag [u
n
i
n
)]
2 /T R
n
(8.16)
The optimum value for G
s
can be obtained by differentiating eqn 8.15 and setting the differential
to zero, that is
d F
G
s
= 0
G
s
opt
=
g
n
+R
n
W
2
s
2
Imag[u
n
i
n
]
2 KT
W
s
R
n
(8.17)
Using the result in eqn 8.16 we obtain:
G
s
opt
=
g
n
R
n
W
2
s
opt
R
n
g
n
= R
n
(G
2
s
opt
+W
2
s
opt
)
g
n
= R
n
[Y
s
opt
[
2
It is known that
i
n
i
n
) = 2 /T g
n
u
n
u
n
) = 2 /T R
n
and u
n
i
n
) = i
n
i
n
)
. The quantity u
n
i
n
) satises the following eqn:
F
min
= 1 +
2 /T g
n
2 /T G
s
opt
+
2 /T R
n
[Y
s
opt
[
2
2 /T G
s
opt
+
2 G
s
opt
Real [u
n
i
n
)] 2 W
s
opt
Imag [u
n
i
n
)]
2 /T G
s
opt
= 1 +
4 /T g
n
2 /T G
s
opt
+
2 G
s
opt
Real [u
n
i
n
)] 2 W
s
opt
Imag [u
n
i
n
)]
2 /T G
s
opt
(8.18)
From problem 8.11 it is known that:
Imag [u
n
i
n
)] = 2 /T R
n
W
s
opt
(8.19)
Now eqn. 8.18 can be written as follows:
F
min
= 1 +
4 /T g
n
2 /T G
s
opt
+
2 G
s
opt
Real [u
n
i
n
)] 4 /T W
2
s
opt
R
n
2 /T G
s
opt
(8.20)
It is also known from problem 8.11, that
W
2
s
opt
R
n
= g
n
R
n
G
2
s
opt
Using this result in eqn 8.20 we can write:
F
min
= 1 +
4 /T g
n
2 /T G
s
opt
+
2 G
s
opt
Real [u
n
i
n
)] 4 /T (g
n
R
n
G
2
s
opt
)
2 /T G
s
opt
Solving this eqn to obtain Real [u
n
i
n
)] we get;
Real [u
n
i
n
)] = 2 /T
_
F
min
1
2
R
n
G
s
opt
_
(8.21)
Using the result of eqn 8.19 we can now write
Real [u
n
i
n
)] +j Imag [u
n
i
n
)] = 2 /T
_
F
min
1
2
R
n
(G
s
opt
j W
s
opt
)
_
that is:
u
n
i
n
) = 2 /T
_
F
min
1
2
R
n
Y
s
opt
_
and
u
n
i
n
) = i
n
u
n
)
= 2 /T
_
F
min
1
2
R
n
Y
s
opt
_
DC analysis: For this circuit we can write:
_
_
I
D
=
1
2
K
n
W
L
(V
GS
V
Th
)
2
V
D
= V
GS
V
D
= V
CC
R
D
I
D
(8.22)
Solving we obtain
I
D
= 1.1 mA and V
GS
= 4.4 V
AC and noise analysis:
g
m
=
2 I
D
V
GS
V
Th
= 0.76 mS
r
o
=
V
A
I
D
= 45.4
Figure 8.6 shows the AC equivalent circuit including the various noise sources. The FET intrinsic
noise sources are characterised by PSDs given by:
i
nd
i
nd
) = 2 /T
2
3
g
m
i
nf
i
nf
) = 2 /T
2
3
g
m
f
c
f
i
ng
i
ng
) = q I
G
These sources are uncorrelated.
+
+
i
nd
a)
C
i
i
ng
v
gs
C
gd
g
m
v
gs
r
o
C
gs
+
R
f
S
D G
u
R
L
u
R
f
i
nf
R
L
= R
D
Figure 8.6: Amplier AC equivalent circuit
The load impedance, R
L
, represented in gure 8.6 is effectively equal to the drain impedance;
R
L
= R
D
= 10 k. The noise voltage sources of R
f
and R
L
are characterised by PSDs given by:
i
R
L
i
R
L
) = 2 /T R
L
u
R
f
i
R
f
) = 2 /T R
f
Figure 8.7 shows the amplier as the interconnection of elementary two-ports circuits. Y
gd
can be
S
D G
+
+
C
gs
+
i
ng
v
gs
r
o i
nd
i
nf
C
i
g
m
v
gs
R
f
C
gd
R
L
u
Rf
u
RL
VCCS
R
L
C
i
Y
gd
Figure 8.7: The amplier as an interconnection of two-ports
characterised by an admittance representation as follows (see also appendix C):
_
Y
Y
gd
=
_
_
Y
gd
Y
gd
Y
gd
Y
gd
_
_
(8.23)
where Y
gd
corresponds to the admittance of the parallel connection of C
gd
with R
f
:
Y
gd
=
1
R
f
+j C
gd
(8.24)
_
C
Y
Y
gd
_
= 2 /T
_
_
R
1
f
R
1
f
R
1
f
R
1
f
_
_
(8.25)
The admittance representation for VCCS is given by:
[Y
VCCS
] =
_
_
j C
gs
0
g
m
r
1
o
_
_
(8.26)
and
[C
Y
VCCS
] =
_
_
q I
G
0
0 2 /T
2
3
g
m
_
1 +

c
_
_
_ (8.27)
where
c
= 2 f
c
.
The two-port circuit describing the parallel connection of VCCS with Y
gd
is designated by FET
and can be characterised by an admittance representation given by:
[Y
FET
] =
_
Y
C
gd
+ [Y
VCCS
] (8.28)
[C
Y
FET
] = [C
Y
Y
gd
] + [C
Y
VCCS
] (8.29)
that is
[Y
FET
] =
_
_
j C
gs
+Y
gd
Y
gd
g
m
Y
gd
r
1
o
+Y
gd
_
_
(8.30)
[C
Y
FET
] =
_
_
q I
G
+ 2 /T R
1
f
2 /T R
1
f
2 /T R
1
f
2 /T
_
2
3
g
m
_
1 +

c
_
+R
1
f
_
_
_ (8.31)
The two-port C
i
is connected in chain with FET and with R
L
. C
i
can be described by a chain
representation as follows:
[A
C
i
] =
_
_
1 (j C
i
)
1
0 1
_
_
(8.32)
We consider this capacitor as an ideal element such that
_
C
A
C
i
_
= [0] with [0] representing the null
matrix.
The chain representation for R
L
is given by :
[A
R
L
] =
_
_
1 0
R
1
L
1
_
_
(8.33)
_
C
A
R
L
_
= 2 /T
_
_
0 0
0 R
1
L
_
_
(8.34)
It is convenient to represent the two-port FET using a chain representation which can be obtained
as follows:
[A
FET
] =
_
_
r
1
o
+Y
gd
Y
gd
g
m
1
Y
gd
g
m
(j C
gs
+Y
gd
)(r
1
o
+Y
gd
)
Y
gd
g
m
Y
gd
j C
gs
+Y
gd
Y
gd
g
m
_
_ (8.35)
and
[C
A
FET
] = [T
(YA)
FET
] [C
Y
FET
] [T
(YA)
FET
]
+
(8.36)
with
[T
(YA)
FET
] =
_
_
0
1
Y
gd
g
m
1
j C
gs
+Y
gd
Y
gd
g
m
_
_ (8.37)
The amplier can now be characterised according to a chain representation as follows:
[A
AMP
] = [A
C
i
] [A
FET
] [A
R
L
]
[C
A
aux
] = [A
FET
]
_
C
A
R
L
_
[A
FET
]
+
+ [C
A
FET
]
[C
A
AMP
] = [A
C
i
] [C
A
aux
] [A
C
i
]
+
(8.38)
The equivalent input noise sources PSDs can now be obtained as follows:
u
eq
u
eq
) = C
A
AMP
11
i
eq
i
eq
) = C
A
AMP
22
u
eq
i
eq
) = C
A
AMP
12
Figure 8.8 shows the rms values of these sources versus the frequency. The noise factor can be
calculated as indicated below:
F = 1 +
[Y
s
] [C
A
AMP
] [Y
s
]
2 /T Real [Y
s
]
where Y
s
is the source output admittance and is equal to (2 k)
1
= 0.5 mS.
[Y
s
] = [Y
s
1]
and
[Y
s
]
=
_
Y
s
1
_
(8.39)
10
10
10
8
10
6
10
4
10
2
10
0
10
10
10
8
10
6
10
4
10
2
10
0
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
10
10
10
10
8
10
6
10
4
10
2
10
0
u
eq
u
eq
1
2 i
eq
i
eq
1
2
u
eq
i
eq
/
10
10
10
9
10
11
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
10
10
11
|u
eq
i
eq
|
1
2
10
9
0
0.5
0.25
10
13
10
12
10
11
(V/
Hz) (A/
Hz)
(
VA/
Hz)
f (Hz)
f (Hz)
(Hz)
f
f
(Hz)
Figure 8.8: a) u
eq
u
eq
)
1
2
. b) i
eq
i
eq
)
1
2
. c) u
eq
i
eq
)
1
2
. d) i
eq
i
eq
).
Figure 8.9 shows the noise gure (in dB) versus the frequency. It is interesting to note that the
noise gure is a strong function of frequency and features minimum values in the frequency range
1 kHz to 2 MHz. This range of frequencies would be the operating range recommended for the
amplier.
10
10
10
8
10
6
10
4
10
2
10
0
Noise Figure (dB)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
f (Hz)
Figure 8.9: Noise gure.

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Introduction to

Linear Circuit Analysis

x(t ) y() d (3.25)

Figure 4.4: a) Equivalent circuit for t < 0 b)Equivalent circuit for t 0.

Figure 5.10: a) Calculation of Y

Figure 6.5: Instrumentation amplier.

Figure 6.7: Calculation of the high-frequency time constants.

. Again the voltage source v

= 0 the voltage controlled

>> 1 we can write:

Introduction to linear circuit analysis and modelling Moura and Darwazeh

. c) Calculation of time constant associated with C

where, according to the open-circuit time-constants method, i

is also replaced by an open-circuit. R

is also replaced by an open-circuit. For this

1 +x 1 +x/2 if x << 1 we can write:

Figure 7.5: a) Calculation of S

Figure 7.7: a) Calculation of S

we can write P[X > 3] as

we can write P[X > 3] as

Introduction to linear circuit analysis and modelling Moura and Darwazeh

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