NOORUL ISLAM COLLEGE OF ENGG, Kumaracoil DEPARTMENT OF ECE 2 MARKS & QUESTION- ANSWERS EC 1301 Communication Theory Class

: S5 ECE Prepared by :E.P.Kannan ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING SUBJECT CODE: EC 1301 SUBJECT: COMMUNICATION THEORY (FOR FIFTH SEMESTER ECE) TWO MARKS QUESTIONS 1. Define modulation? Modulation is a process by which some characteristics of h igh frequency carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous valu e of the modulating signal. 2.What are the types of analog modulation? Amplitude modulation. Angle Modulatio n 1. Frequency modulation 2. Phase modulation. 3.Define depth of modulation. It is defined as the ratio between message amplitude to that of carrier amplitude. m=Em/Ec 4. What are the degrees of modulation? Under modulation. m<1 Critical mo dulation m=1 Over modulation m>1 5.What is the need for modulation? Needs for mo dulation: Ease of transmission Multiplexing Reduced noise Narrow bandwidth Frequ ency assignment Reduce the equipments limitations.

6.What are the types of AM modulators? There are two types of AM modulators. The y are Linear modulators Non-linear modulators Linear modulators are classified a s follows Transistor modulator There are three types of transistor modulator. Co llector modulator Emitter modulator Base modulator Switching modulators Non-line ar modulators are classified as follows Square law modulator Product modulator B alanced modulator 7.Give the classification of modulation. There are two types o f modulation. They are Analog modulation Digital modulation Analog modulation is classified as follows Continuous wave modulation Pulse modulation Continuous wa ve modulation is classified as follows Amplitude modulation Double side band sup pressed carrier Single side band suppressed carrier Vestigial side band suppress ed carrier Angle modulation Frequency modulation Phase modulation Pulse modulati on is classified as follows

Pulse amplitude modulation Pulse position modulation Pulse duration modulation P ulse code modulation Digital modulation is classified as follows Amplitude shift keying Phase shift keying Frequency shift keying 8.What is single tone and multi tone modulation? If modulation is performed for a message signal with more than one frequency component then the modulation is c alled multi tone modulation. If modulation is performed for a message signal wit h one frequency component then the modulation is called single tone modulation. 9 .The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8A when only carrier is sent. It increases to 8.93A when the carrier is modulated by a single sine wave. Find the percentage modulation. Solution: Given: Ic =8A It=8.93A m=0.8 Formula: It=Ic (1+m2/2) 8.93=8(1+m2/2) m=0.701 It=8 (1+0.82/2) It=9.1A

10.Compare AM with DSB-SC and SSB-SC. AM signal Bandwidth=2fm DSB-SC Bandwidth=2fm SSB-SC Bandwidth=fm Contains USB, LSB, carrier Contains USB,LSB Contains LSB or USB More power is required for transmission Power required is less than that of AM. Power required is less than AM &DSB-SC 11 What are the advantages of VSB-AM? 1.It has bandwidth greater than SSB but le ss than DSB system. 2.Power transmission greater than DSB but less than SSB syst em. 3.No low frequency component lost. Hence it avoids phase distortion. 12 Compare linear and non-linear modulators. Linear modulators 1.Heavy filtering is not required. 2.These modulators are used in high level modulation. 3.The ca rrier voltage is very much greater than modulating signal voltage. 2.These modul ators are used in low level Modulation. 3.The modulating signal voltage is very much greater than the carrier signal voltage. Non-linear modulators 1.Heavy filt ering is required 13.How will you generating DSBSC-AM ? There are two ways of generating DSBSC-AM such as 1.balanced modulator 2.ring modulators

14. What are advantages of ring modulator? 1.Its output is stable. 2. It require s no external power source to activate the diodes. 3.Virtually no maintenance. 4 . Long life. 15. Define demodulation. Demodulation or detection is the process by which modul ating voltage is recovered from the modulated signal. It is the reverse process of modulation. 16. What are the types of AM detectors? 1. Nonlinear detectors 2. Linear detecto rs 17.What are the types of linear detectors? 1.Synchronous or coherent detector. 2 .Envelope or non coherent detector. 18.draw the block diagram of coherent detector. modulated signal Product modulator LPF OUTPUT Carrier Signal

19.Define multiplexing. Multiplexing is defined as the process of transmitting several message signals s imultaneously over a single channel. 20.Define sensitivity. It is defined as a measure of its ability to receive weak signals. 21.Define selectivity. Selectivity of a receiver is defined as its ability to se lect the desired signals among the various signals. 22. Define stability. It is the ability of the receiver to deliver a constant am ount of output for a given a given period of time. 23.Define super heterodyne principle. It can be defined as the process of operat ion of modulated waves to obtain similarly modulated waves of different frequenc y. This process uses a locally generated carrier wave, which determines the chan ge of frequency. 24.A transmitter supplies 8 Kw to the antenna when modulated. Determine the tota l power radiated when modulated to 30%. m=0.3;Pc=8 kw Pt=Pc(1+m2/2) =8.36 kw 25.What are the drawbacks of emitter modulator? 1.The amplifier is operated in c lass A mode, thus the efficiency is low. 2.The output power is very small. Thus it is not suitable for generating high level modulation.

26. Define frequency modulation. Frequency modulation is defined as the process by which the frequency of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the inst antaneous amplitude of the modulating or message signal. 27. Define modulation index of frequency modulation. It is defined as the ratio of maximum frequency deviation to the modulating frequency. = f/fm 28. What o you meant y multitone mo ulation? Mo ulation one for the message s ignal with more than one frequency component is calle multitone mo ulation. 29. Define phase mo ulation. Phase mo ulation is efine as the process of chang ing the phase of the carrier signal in accor ance with the instantaneous amplitu e of the message signal. 30. How FM wave can e converte to PM wave? Differentiator FM Signal PM Message signal Carrier 31. How PM wave can e converte to FM wave? Message Signal Integrator Phase Mo ulator FM Signal

Carrier 32. What are the types of Frequency Mo ulation? Base on the mo ulation in ex FM can e ivi e into types. They are Narrow an FM an Wi e an FM. If the mo ulation in ex is greater than one then it is wi e an FM an if the mo ulation in ex is less than one then it is Narrow an FM 33. What is the asic ifference etween an AM signal an a narrow an FM signal ? In the case of sinusoi al mo ulation, the asic ifference etween an AM signa l an a narrow an FM signal is that the alge raic sign of the lower si e freque ncy in the narrow an FM is reverse . 34. What are the two metho s of pro ucing an FM wave? Basically there are two me tho s of pro ucing an FM wave. They are, i) Direct metho In this metho the tra nsmitter originates a wave whose frequency varies as function of the mo ulating source. It is use for the generation of NBFM ii) In irect metho In this metho the transmitter originates a wave whose phase is a function of the mo ulation. Normally it is use for the generation of WBFM where WBFM is generate from NBFM 35 . Compare WBFM an NBFM. WBFM Mo ulation in ex is greater than 1 Frequency e viation 75 KHz Ban wi th 15 times NBFM Noise is more suppresse NBFM Mo ulation in ex less than 1 Frequency eviation 5 KHz Ban wi th 2fm Less suppressing of no ise

36. List the properties of the Bessel function. The properties of the Bessel fun ction is given y, i) ii) Jn ()=(-1)nJ-n() for all n, oth positive an negative. For small values of the mo ulation in ex ,we have J0 ()=1 J1 ()=/2 Jn()=0,n>2. iii) J2n ()=1 n = - 37. Give the average power of an FM signal. The amplitude of the fr equency modulated signal is constant .The power of the FM signal is same as that of the carrier power. P=1/2 Ec2 . 38. Define phase deviation. The maximum phase deviation of the total angle from the carrier angle is called phase deviation. 39. Define frequency Deviation. The maximum departure of the instantaneous frequ ency from the carrier frequency is called frequency deviation. 40. State the Carsons rule. An approximate rule for the transmission andwidth of an FM Signal generated y a single tone-modulating signal of frequency fm is de fined as B =2 f(1+1/ ) 41.Define the deviation ratio D for non-sinusoidal modulation.

The deviation ratio D is defined as the ratio of the frequency deviation f, which corresponds to the maximum possi le amplitude of the modulation signal m(t),to the highest modulation frequency . D = f / fm 42.What is the use of crystal controlled oscillator? The crystal-controlled osci llator always produces a constant carrier frequency there y enhancing frequency sta ility. 43. What are the disadvantages of FM system? 1. A much wider channel is required y FM. 2. FM transmitting and receiving equipments tend to e more complex and hence it is expensive 44. How will you generate message from frequency-modulated signals? First the fr equency-modulated signals are converted into corresponding amplitude-modulated s ignal using frequency dependent circuits. Then the original signal is recovered from this AM signal. 45. What are the types of FM detectors? Slope detector and phase discriminator. 46. What are the types of phase discriminator? Foster seely discriminator and ra tio detector. 47. What are the disadvantages of alanced slope detector? 1. Amplitude limiting cannot e provided 2. Linearity is not sufficient 3. It is difficult to align ecause of three different frequency to which various tuned circuits to e tuned. 4. The tuned circuit is not purely and limited.

48. Define pro a ility. The pro a ility of occurrence of an event A is defined a s, P(A)= num er of possi le favora le outcomes Total num er of equal likely outcome s 49.What are mutually exclusive events? Two possi le outcomes of an experiment ar e defined as eing mutually exclusive if the occurrence of one outcome precludes the occurrence of the other. 50. Define pro a ility density function. Pro a ility density function is defined as fx(x) is defined in terms of cumulative distri ution function Fx (x) as fx(x ) = d Fx (x) dx 51. Define noise. Noise is defined as any unwanted form of energ y, which tends to interfere with proper reception and reproduction of wanted sig nal. 52. Give the classification of noise. Noise is . They are External noise and internal noise. roadly classified into two types

53. What are the types of External noise? External noise can e classified into 1. Atmospheric noise 2. Extraterrestrial noises 3. Man made noises or industrial noises 54. What are types of internal noise?

Internal noise can e classified into 1. Thermal noise 2. Shot noise 3. Transit time noise 4. Miscellaneous internal noise 55. What are the types of extraterrestrial noise and write their origin? The two type of extraterrestrial noise are solar noise and cosmic noise Solar noise is the electrical noise emanating from the sun. Cosmic noise is the noise received from the center part of our galaxy, other distant galaxies and other virtual poi nt sources. 56. Define transit time of a transistor. Transit time is defined as the time tak en y the electron to travel from emitter to the collector. 57. Define flicker noise. Flicker noise is the one appearing in transistors oper ating at low audio frequencies. Flicker noise is proportional to the emitter cur rent and junction temperature and inversely proportional to the frequency. 58. State the reasons for higher noise in mixers. 1. Conversion transconductance of mixers is much lower than the transconductance of amplifiers. 2. If image fr equency rejection is inadequate, the noise associated with the image frequency a lso gets accepted. 59. Define signal to noise ratio. Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of signal p ower to the noise power at the same point in a system.

60. Define noise figure. S/ N at the input Nose figure F = S/ N at the output S/ N = Signal power / Noise Power 61. Explain thermal noise. Thermal noise is the name given to the electrical noi se arising from the random motion of electrons in a conductor. 62. Give the expression for noise voltage in a resistor. The mean square value of thermal noise voltage is given y Vn2 = 4 K T B R K Boltz man constant R resist ance T o solute temperature B - Bandwidth 63. Explain White Noise. Many types of noise sources are Gaussian and have flat spectral density over a wide frequency range. Such spectrum has all frequency co mponents in equal portion, and is therefore called white noise. The power spectr al density of white noise is independent of the operating frequency. 64. What is narrow and noise? The receiver of a communication system usually inc ludes some provision for preprocessing the received signal. The preprocessing ma y take the form of a narrow and filter whose andwidth is large enough to pass m odulated component of the received

signal essentially undistorted ut not so large as to admit excessive noise thro ugh the receiver. The noise process appearing at the output of such filter is ca lled narrow and noise. 65. Give the representation of omponents. Narrow and noise in r(t) cos (2fct + (t) ) r(t) e function r (t) and (t) are narrow and noise in terms of envelope and phase c terms of envelope and phase components as n(t) = = (nI 2(t) + nQ 2(t)) (t) = tan -1(nQ(t) / nI (t )) Th called envelo e and hase of n(t).

66. Give the ex ression for equivalent noise tem erature in terms of hy othetica l tem erature. The ex ression for equivalent noise tem erature in terms of hy ot hetical tem erature is Te = ( - 1) T0 Where, is the noise figure and T0 absol ute tem erature.

67. Give the riss formula in terms of noise tem erature. The riss formula in t erms of noise tem erature is Te = T1 + T2 / G1 + T3 / G1 G2 + G1 , G2 , Gain of am lifiers 68. What is called image frequency? Image frequency is defined as the si gnal frequency lus twice the intermediate frequency. This has the effect of two stations being received simultaneously and hence it is undesirable. fsi = fs + 2 fi

fsi - image frequency It can be eliminated by roviding adequate image signal se lectivity between antenna and mixer in ut. 69. What is intermediate frequency? Intermediate frequency (I ) is defined as th e difference between the signal frequency and the oscillator frequency. I = fs fo I = fo fs when fs > fo when fo > fs (or) 70. Define Partition noise. In an electron tube having one or more ositive grid s, this noise is caused by irratic artition of the cathode current among the o sitive electrodes. In a transistor, the artition noise is created from the rand om fluctuation in the division of current between the collector and base. 71. Give the ex ression for noise voltage when several sources are cascaded. Enr = Sqrt (4 KTB (R1 + R2 + ..) ) Where R1 , R2 --- are the resistances of the nois e resistors. K Boltz man constant T absolute tem erature B Bandwidth 72. Define random variable Random variable is defined as a rule or ma ing from the original sam le s ace to a numerical sam le s ace subjected to certain const raints. Random variable is also defined as a function where domain is the set of outcomes s and hos rang is R, is th r al lin . 73. D fin Random proc ss.

A Random proc ss X (s,t) is a function that maps ach l m nt of a sampl s spac into a tim function call d sampl function. Random proc ss is a coll ction of tim functions.

74. Giv th La s of probability. Additiv la of probability Cas i Wh n v nts ar mutually xclusiv , P (AB) = P(AB) = P(A) + P(B) Cas ii Wh n v nts ar not mutually xclusiv P(AB) = P(A) + P(B) - P (AB) Multiplication la of probability: Cas i Wh n v nts ar ind p nd nt P(AB) = P(A) P(B) Cas ii Wh n v nts ar d p nd nt P(AB) = P(A) P(B/A) = P(B) P(A/B) 75. What is fr qu ncy translation? Suppo s that a signal is band limit d to th fr qu ncy rang xt nding from a fr qu n cy f1 to a fr qu ncy f2. Th proc ss of fr qu ncy translation is on in hich th original signal is r plac d ith a n signal hos sp ctral rang xt nds fro m f1 to f2 and hich n signal b ars, in r cov rabl form th sam information as as born by th original signal.

76. What ar t o situations id ntifi d in fr qu ncy translations? Th t o situat ions id ntifi d in fr qu ncy translation ar i Up conv rsion In this cas th tr anslat d carri r fr qu ncy is gr at r than th incoming carri r fr qu ncy ii Do n conv rsion

In this cas th translat d carri r fr qu ncy is small r than th incoming carri r fr qu ncy. Thus, a narro band M signal r quir s ss ntially th sam transmi ssion band idth as th AM signal. 77. D fin Tracking. Tracking is th proc ss o f corr ctly tuning a numb r of tunabl circuits in a r c iv r. 78. What is TR r c iv r? Tun d Radio r qu ncy is also call d straight r c iv r.H r th r c iv r op rat s in straight for ard mann r ithout fr qu ncy conv rsion. 79.What ar th advantag s of sup rh t rodyn r c iv r ov r TR ? Th advantag s of sup rh t rodyn r c iv r ov r TR ar high s l ctivity ,improv d s nsitivity throughout t h carri r fr qu ncy band..It liminat s imag fr qu ncy. 80.What is th figur of m rit of DSBSC syst m ? Th figur of m rit of DSBSC signal is unity

81.Compar th nois p rformanc of an AM and M syst m? Th figur of m rit of AM syst m is 1/3 h n th modulation is 100 p rc nt and 2 that of M is(3/2)mf . Th us of M off rs improv d nois p rformanc ov r AM h n (3/2)mf2 > 1/3.mf mo dulation ind x in M. 82.What is Captur ff ct? Wh n th int rf r nc signal and M input ar of qua l str ngth, th r c iv r fluctuat s back and froth b t n th m .This ph nom non is kno n as th captur ff ct. 83.What is thr shold ff ct? As th input nois po r is incr as d th carri r t o nois ratio is d cr as d th r c iv r br aks and as th carri r to nois ratio is r duc d furth r crackling sound is h ard and th output SNR cannot b pr dic t d by th quation. This ph nom non is kno n as thr shold ff ct. 84.Ho is thr shold r duction achi v d in M syst m? Thr shold r duction is achi v d in M syst m by using an M d modulator ith n gativ f dback or by using a phas lock d loop d modulator.

85. What is Pr - mphasis? Th pr modulation filt ring in th transistor, to rais th po r sp ctral d nsity of th bas band signal in its upp r-fr qu ncy rang is call d pr mphasis (or pr distortion) Pr mphasis is particularly ff ct iv in M syst ms hich ar us d for transmission of audio signals. 86. D fin d - mphasis. Th filt ring at th r c iv r to undo th signal pr - mp hasis and to suppr ss nois is call d d - mphasis. 87.D fin Sampling th or m. A band limit d signal of finit n rgy, hich has no fr qu ncy compon nts high r than fm H rtz may b compl t ly r cov r d from a kno l dg of its sampl s tak n at th rat of 2fm sampl s p r s cond. 88.What do you inf r from th r c iv r output of a coh r nt d quation y(t)=1/2Cacm(t) +1/2nI(t) indicat s that th m ssag s nois compon nt of th filt r d nois app ar additiv ly at t. Th quadratur compon nt of th narro band nois is compl h coh r nt d t ctor.

t ctor? Th output signal and in-pha th r c iv r outpu t ly r j ct d by t

89.Wh n is th figur of m rit of SSBSC syst m 1? or th sam av rag transmitt d signal po r and th sam av rag nois po r in th m ssag band idth ,an SS B r c iv r ill hav xactly th sam output signal to nois ratio as a DSB-SC r c iv r h n both r c iv rs us coh r nt d t ction for th r cov ry of th m ssa g signal. 90.Compar th nois p rformanc of AM r c iv r ith that of DSB-SC r c iv r. Th figur of m rit of DSB-SC or SSB-SC r c iv r using coh r nt d t cti on is al ays unity,th figur of m rit of AM r c iv r using nv lop d t ction i s al ays l ss than unity.Th r for nois p rformanc of AM r c iv r is al ays in f rior to that of DSBSC du to th astag of po r for transmitting th carri r . 91.What is th figur of m rit of a AM syst m ith 100 p rc nt modulation? Th figur of m rit of a AM syst m ith 100 p rc nt modulation is 1/3.This m ans th at oth r factors b ing qual an AM syst m must transmit thr tim s as much av r ag po r as a suppr ss d syst m in ord r to achi v th sam quality of nois p rformanc .

92.What ar th charact ristics of a r c iv r? Th charact ristics of a r c iv r ar s nsitivity, s l ctivity, fid lity, signal to nois ratio. 96.Why is quival nt nois t mp ratur us d for nois m asur m nt? or lo nois d vic s th nois figur is clos to unity, hich mak s th comparison difficul t and h nc it is pr f rabl to us quival nt nois t mp ratur . 97.What is th function of amplitud limit r in M syst m? Th function of ampli tud limit r in M syst m is us d to r mov th amplitud variations by clipping th modulat d av at th filt r output almost to th z ro axis .Th r sultant av is round d off by anoth r BP that is an int gral part of th limit r th r by suppr ssing th harmonics of th carri r fr qu ncy.

98.What ar compon nts in a fr qu ncy discriminator? r qu ncy discriminator has got t o compon nts .Slop d t ctor or diff r ntiator ith a pur ly imaginary fr qu ncy r spons that vari s lin arly ith fr qu ncy. It produc s output h r t h amplitud and fr qu ncy vary ith th m ssag signal. An nv lop d t ctor th at r cov r th amplitud variations and produc s m ssag signal.

99.What is a post d t ction filt r? Th post d t ction filt r nam d asbas -band l o pass filt r has a band idth that is just larg nough to accommodat th high st fr qu ncy compon nt of th m ssg signal. 100. D fin lossl ss chann l. Th chann l d scrib d by a chann l matrix ith onl y on nonz ro l m nt in ach column is call d a lossl ss chann l. In th lossl ss chann l no sourc s information is lost in transmission. 101. D fin D t rministic chann l

A chann l d scrib d by a chann l matrix ith only on nonz ro l m nt in ach ro is call d a d t rministic chann l and this l m nt must b unity.

102. D fin nois l ss chann l. A chann l is call d nois l ss if it is both lossl ss and d t rministic. Th chann l matrix has only on l m nt in ach ro and i n ach column and this l m nt is unity. Th input and output alphab ts ar of t h sam siz . 103. Prov that I (xi xj) = I(xi) + I(xj) if xi and xj ar ind p nd nt. If xi and xj ar d nt. ind p n

P (xi xj) = P(xi) P(xj) I (xi xj) = log1/P(xi xj) = log 1/ P(xi) P(xj) = I(xi) + I(xj) 104. Explain Shannon- ano coding. An ffici nt cod can b obtain d by th follo ing simpl proc dur , kno n as Shannon- ano algorthim. 1. List th sour c symbols in ord r of d cr asing probability. 2. Partition th s t into t o s t s that ar as clos to quiprobabl as possibl , and sign 0 to th upp r s t and 1 to th lo r s t. 3. Continu this proc ss, ach tim partitioning th s ts ith as n arly qual probabiliti s as possibl until furth r partitioning is not possibl . 105. What ar th typ s of Corr lation? Th lation and Auto Corr lation typ s of Corr lation ar Cross Corr

106. What is th diff r nc b t n Corr lation and Convolution? 1. In Corr lati on physical tim t is dummy variabl and it disapp ars aft r solution of an int gr al. But in convolution s a dummy var able. 2. Convolut on s a funct on of delay parameter t but convolut on s a funct on of t. 3. Convolut on s commutat ve but c orrelat on s noncom mutat ve.

107. Def ne S gnal. A s gnal s def ned as any phys cal quant ty carry ng nform at on that var es w th t me. The value of s gnal may be real or complex. The typ es of s gnal are cont nuous s gnal and d screte t me s gnal. 108.Def ne entropy. Entropy s the measure of the average nformat on content pe r second. It s g ven by the express on H(X)=I P(x )log2P(x ) b ts/sample. 109.De f ne mutual nformat on. Mutual nformat on I(X,Y) of a channel s def ned by I( X,Y)=H(X)-H(X/Y) b ts/symbol H(X)- entropy of the source H(X/Y)- cond t onal ent ropy of Y. 110.State the propert es of mutual nformat on. 1. I(X,Y)=I(Y,X) 2. I(X,Y)>=0 3. I(X,Y)=H(Y)-H(Y/X) 4. I(X,Y)=H(X)+H(Y)-H(X,Y). 111.G ve the relat on between the d fferent entrop es. H(X,Y)=H(X)+H(Y/X) =H(Y)+ H(X/Y) H(X)- entropy of the source,H(Y/X),H(X/Y)-cond t onal entropy H(Y)-entrop y of dest nat on H(X,Y)- Jo nt entropy of the source and dest nat on 112.Def ne nformat on rate. If the t me rate at wh ch source X em ts symbols s r symbols per second. The nformat on rate R of the source s g ven by R=r H(X) b ts/second H(X)- entropy of the source 113.What s data compact on? For eff c ent s gnal transm ss on the redundant nformat on must be removed from the s gna l pr or to transm ss on .Th s nformat on w th no loss of nformat on s ord nar ly

116.What s the channel capac ty of a d screte s gnal? The channel capac ty of a d screte s gnal C= max I(X,Y) P(x ) I(X,Y)-mutual nformat on. 117. What s source cod ng and entropy cod ng? A convers on of the output of a D MS nto a sequence of b nary symbols s called source cod ng. he des gn of a var able length code such that ts average cod word length approaches the entropy o f the DMS s often referred to as entropy cod ng. 118.State Shannon Hartley theorem. The capac ty C of a add t ve Gauss an no se cha nnel s C=B log2 (1+S/N) B= channel bandw dth ,S/N=s gnal to no se rat o. 119.What s the entropy of a b nary memory-less source? The entropy of a b nary memory-less source H(X)=-p0 log2p0-(1-p0)log2(1-p0) p0-probab l ty of symbol 0,p1= (1- p0 ) =probab l ty of transm tt ng symbol 1 120.How s the eff c ency of the cod ng techn que measured? Eff c ency of the co de =H(X) /L

114.State the property of entropy. bet X of the source. 115.What s d ormat on per sample value of x(t) mple H(X) d fferent al entropy of

1.0< H(X) < log2K , s the rad x of the alpha fferent al entropy? The average amount of nf s measured by H(X)= - fx(x)log fx(x)dx b t/sa X.

performed on a s gnal n d g tal form and ossless data compress on.

s referred to as data compact on or l

L=p(x )l average code word length .l =length of the code word. 121.What happens when the number of cod ng alphabet ncreases? When the number o f cod ng alphabet ncreases the eff c ency of the cod ng techn que decreases. 122.What s channel d agram and channel matr x? The trans t on probab l ty d agr am of the channel s called the channel d agram and ts matr x representat on s called the channel matr x. 123.What s nformat on theory? Informat on theory deals w th the mathemat cal m odel ng and analys s of a commun cat on system rather than w th phys cal sources and phys cal channels 124.What s the channel capac ty of a BSC and BEC? For BSC the channel capac ty C=1+plog2 p +(1-p)log2(1-p). For BEC the channel capac ty C=(1-p) PART B 1. Der ve the express on for AM & ts Power and Eff c ency calculat on: A M Def n t on Let m(t) = Em Cos mt c(t) = Ec Cos ct EAM = Ec + Em Cos mt = Ec [ 1+ ( Em/Ec) Cos mt ] m= Em/Ec s(t)AM = EAM Cos ct = Ec (1 + m Cosmt) Cosct = Ec Cosct + mE c Cosmt Cosct

= Ec Cosct + mEc [Cos(c + m)t + Cos(c m)t] 2 = Carri r + USB + LSB Po r r lation in AM: Total Po r, Pt = PC + PUSB + PLSB PC - Carri r po r PUSB - Upp r Sid Band po r PLSB - Lo r Sid Band po r PC = E2 rms R = Ec2 2R PUSB = PLSB = m2Ec2 8R Pt = PC ( 1 + m2/2 ) Curr nt r lation in AM: Pt = I t2 R P C = I c2 R I t = I c Sqrt (1 + m2/2) Effic i ncy: % = Power in side band Total Power = m2 2+m2 m=1 = 33.33 % x 100 x 100

2. Describe t e generation of AM wave by Non-Linear modulators : Square law modu lator: AM wave Summer Non-Linear Element BPF Summer to add carrier & modulating signal. Non-Linear element active element (Diode) BPF - extracting desired modulating pr oducts To operate diode under Non-Linear region, magnitude of carrier component is ig er during positive cycle of t e modulating voltage and lesser during negative a lf cycle of t e modulating voltage. T e resulting current is, Io = a1 V1 + a2 V1 2 + V1 = Em Cosmt + Ec Cosct N gl cting s cond and high r ord r t rms, Io = a1 Em C osmt + a1 Ec Cosct + 2a2 EmEc Cosmt Cosct Aft r passing through BP , Io = a1 Ec Cosct +a2 EmEc Cosct Cosmt Balanc d Modulator: Diagram R f r Book Input to th transistor T1, Vb 1 = m(t) + c(t)

Input to th transistor T2, Vb 2 = m(t) c(t) m(t) = Em Cosmt c(t) = Ec Cosct ic1 = a1 Vb 1 + a2 Vb 12 + . ic2 = a1 Vb 2 + a2 Vb 22 +. Th output is giv n by, Vo = K[ ic1 ic2 ] Vo = K 2 [ a1 Ec Cosct + 2a2 Em Ec Cosct Cosmt ] m = ( 2a2 Em/a1 ) = modu lation ind x 3.Writ short not s on D Modulation of AM av : D Modulation d finition Typ s: 1. Env lop d t ctor 2. Squar la d t ctor Env lop d t ctor: R quir m nts to us nv lop d t ctor: 1. AM av has to b arro band 2. P rc ntag of modulation should b l ss than 100% Diagram - R f r book

During positiv half cycl of th input signal, diod is for ard bias d and capa citor C charg s to p ak valu , h n th input signal fall b lo th p ak valu , th diod is r v rs bias d and th capacitor C discharg s. Th discharging proc ss continu s until th n xt positiv half cycl .

Wh n th input signal is gr at r than th voltag across th capacitor, th diod conducts again and th proc ss is r p at d. Th charging tim constant ( rf + RS ) << 1/fc rf diod r sistanc RS sourc r sistanc C capacitor valu fc carri r fr qu ncy Discharging tim constant, 1/fc << R1 << 1/ m ssag band idth Squar la d t ctor:

s1(t)AM s12(t) Y1(t) Squar la d vic LP

s(t)AM = [ A + m(t) ] Cosct s2(t)AM = [ A + m(t) ]2 Cos2ct

or larg r carri r, [ m(t)/A ]2 is n gl ct d Blocking capacitor ill suppr ss th dc t rm A2/2 Th n th output is A m(t) 4. Compar th Synchronous D t ctor and th Costas PLL D t ctor. Synchronous or Coh r nt D t ctor. Th block diagram of synchronous d t ctor Op ration All typ s of lin ar modulation can b d t ct d b y using Synchronous d t ctor.Th incoming signal is first multipli d ith locall y g n rat d carri r signal and th n nt r d via a LP .Th LP band idth is usual ly sam as th m ssag BW or som tim s larg r. It is assum d that th local osci llator is xactly synchroniz d ith th carri r in both phas and v locity,h nc th nam . Writ th xpr ssion for m ssag signal from th modulat d signals us ing coh r nt d t ctor. Thus th synchronous d t ctor is capabl of d modulating DSB-SC and SSB-SC AM Costas PLL D t ctor ( or DSB-SC-AM) Th Block diagram of co stas PLL d t ctor Op ration It consists of t o synchronous d t ctor. 1)In phas coh r nt d t ctor or I chann l:- This d t ctor is suppli d ith DSB-SC-AM and a locally g n rat d carri r hich is in phas ith th transmitt d carri r. 2)Quad ratur phas coh r nt d t ctor or Q chann l:- This d t ctor is f d ith DSB-SC-A M and a locally g n rat d carri r hich is in phas ith th transmitt d carri r . Assum th local oscillator carri r signal is prop rly synchroniz d ith trans mitting carri r.So IChann l output contains th d sir d d modulat d signal h r as Q-chann l output is z ro. If th r is a phas shift of ; between local oscill ator carrier and transmitting carrier then I-channel output will remain in the s ame value but qchannel output contains some signal . Thus combining the I and Q channel

outputs in phase discrimination a dc signal is obtained that automatically corre cts the phase errors in VCO. Comparison In Synchronous detector the detection is e ective only when locally generated carrier is properly synchronized with the modulated signal Any shi t in phase or requency o the locally generated carri er results in phase or delay distortion. To avoid this distortions a pilot carri er is inserted. Costas PLL detector consists o two coherent detectors. These tw o detectors are coupled together to orm a negative eedback system designed in such a way to maintain the local oscillator synchronise with the carrier. 5. Compare Phase shi t method and modi ied Phase shi t method Phase Shi t Method :(SSB-SC-AM) Block diagram or phase shi t method Analysis The undesired side ba nd is removed by generating two side band components out o phase.I the undesir ed sideband is LSB then the two LSB are generated such that they are 180 out o p hase with each other.So that the USBs get added and the LSBs cancel each other. Sh ow the analysis using Expressions Thus one o the sideband is cancelled whereas the other is rein orced. Modi ied Phase Shi t Method or Weavers method. Block dia gram Operation Here a phase shi t is applied to AF carrier requency only and a ter the resulting vge has been applied to BM1 and BM2. Show the analysis using E xpressions Comparison Phase shi t Method: It can switch rom one Side Band to ot her Low audio modulating requency is used

 Generates SSB at any requency It does not require a SB ilter or any wide band audio phase shi t n/w Low requency signals r used. Side bands may be easily swi tched & System is complex Weavers Method: 6.Explain the Narrow Band Frequency Modulation Frequency Modulation. Frequency m odulation is de ined as the process o changing the requency o the carrier wav e in accordance with respect to the message signal keeping the amplitude and pha se as a constant one. Narrow Band Frequency Modulation: De inition I the modula tion index is less than one, then the FM signal is narrow and requency modulate d signal. BLOCK DIAGRAM coswmt Integrato r Product Modulator Summe r S(t)NBFM -90 degree phase shi t network Carrier(coswct) S(t)FM=Ec cos[wct+(K Em/wm)sinwmt]; Here m(t)=Em coswmt. Modulation index()=Kf E m/wm. S(t)FM=Ec cos[wct+sinwmt] Derivation Since B<1, S(t)NBFM=Ec[coswct- sinwct s inwmt]

7. Explain the Wide Band Frequency Modulation Definition: If the modulation index is greater than one, then the FM signal is w ide and frequency modulated signal.

Fourier Series Representation(aperiodic). S(t)=Ec cos(wct+sinwmt) =Re{Ec.e^jwct.e ^jsinwmt} Let S^(t)=(Ec.e^jsinwmt) S^(t)=Cn.e^j2fmnt Cn= ^(t).e^-j2fmnt. dt olving, Cn=Ec Jn() ^(t)=Ec J().e^j2fmnt (t)WBFM=Ec Jn().cos(wct+nwmt) (Complex Fourier eri s representation of periodic function) 8.Explain the method of Generation of FM signal . (1) Direct FM generation (2) I ndirect FM generation (1) Direct FM generation In this method the transmitter originates a wave whose frequency varies as function of the modulating source. It is used for the genera tion of NBFM (a)Varactor diode implementation of angle modulation. ( )Reactance tu e implementation of angle modulation. Diagram - explanation

Analysis (2) Indirect FM generation In this method the transmitter originates a wave whose phase is a function of the modulation. Normally it is used for the ge neration of WBFM where WBFM is generated from NBFM Diagram - explanation Analysi s 9. Write short notes on Foster seeley Discriminator. It is used for FM Detection Circuit Diagram Operation Advantages 1. It is much easier to design 2. Only two tuned circuits are necessary and they are tuned to same frequency 3. Linearity is etter Disadvantages: It requires Amplitude limiting circuit 10. What do you meant y Noise. Give the different types of noise explain. Noise Definition Nois e Classification 1. Internal Noise 2. External Noise Internal noise - Explanatio n Internal Noise types a. Thermal nose Explanation . hot noise - Explanation c . Transist time noise Explanation d. Miscellaneous noise Explanation External No ise Explanation

1. Natural noise Explanation 2. Man made noise Explanation Natural noise types a . Terrestial noise Explanation . Extra tyerrestian noise Explanation 11. Explai n in detail a out Noise temperature: Noise performance of any system is indicate d y noise figure. Noise figure is not applica le when we are dealing with VHF & microwave amprs. Because noise power and signal power o tained in these devices are close to unity. Hence comparison is rather difficult. o Noise temperature is used. - Diagram - Explanation - Calculation. - Equivalent noise temperature T e = T(F-1) o tain an expression for Noise figure when networks are in cascade Diagram - Calculation F 2 1 F 3 1 F 4 1 + + + ... F = F1 + G1 G1G 2 G1G 2G3 12. Explain the effect of Noise when amplifiers are connected in cascade Fig. sh ows a number of amplifier stages in cascade each having a resistance at its inpu t and output. We proceed to find the equivalent input noise voltage and its equi valent noise resistance for the complete receiver. Diagram Consider the first tw o stages of the multi stage amplifier having gains A1 and A2 and input resistanc es R1 and R2 respectively R3forms the output resistance. The rms noise voltage a t the output due to R3 is given by, Vn 3 4kTBR 3 The same noise voltage is prese nt in the output if instead of R3 we have resistance R3 at the input of stage 2, where R3 is given by, Vn 3 Vn 3 = Substituting vn3 and simplify A2 R Hence R3 = 3 A2 2 The noise resistance already present at the input of the second stage i s R2. Hence the net noise resistance.

R3 A2 2 This resistance R2t may be transferred to the input of the first stage. R R 2+ 3 2 R2t R A2 R = 2 + 23 2 R2 = 2 = 2 2 A1 A1 A1 A1 A2 Substitute R2t an d simplify. R 2 t = R2 R3 = R 2 + Hence the not noise resistance at the input of the first stage is given by 1 R 0 = R1 + R2 = R1 + R R2 + 23 2 2 A1 A1 A2 13. Describe the effect of noise in reactive circuits Consider the circuit of Fi g. in which a physical resistor R is placed in parallel with a parallel tuned ci rcuit. The tuned circuit is theoretically noiseless. The presence of this tuned circuit does not affect the noise generated by the resistor R. Diagram Next cons ider the practical case when this tuned circuit is non ideal i.e. the inductor L of the tuned circuit possesses a small resistive element Rs an shown in Fig. Th is resistive element Rs generates noise. In preceding sections, we have consider ed physical input resistor as the source of noise. It may, however, be clearly u nderstood that the noise producing resistance need not necessarily be a physical resistor. Thus the series resistance Rs of the coil forms the noise source gene rating a noise voltage Vn as shown in Fig. We are required to calculate the nois e voltage across the capacitor O. Calculation _ V = 4 kTBRs . 14. Define Noise figure and obtain an expression for Noise figure of an amplifie r The noise figure F is defined aqs the ratio of signal to noise power supplied to the input terminals of the system (amplifier or receiver) to the signal to nois e power supplied by the system to the output load impedance.

 

 

Thus Noise Figure F = Calculation of Noise Figure Diagram S/N at the input/ at the output. S/N i. Determine input signal power Si ii. Determine the input noise power Ni iii. C alculate the input signal to noise power ratio Si/Ni iv. Determine the output si gnal power So v. Determine the output noise power No vi. Calculate the output si gnal to noise power ratio So/No vii. From steps (iii) calculate the noise figure F. Calculation. F= RL N o ( Ra + Rt ) 4 k TBA 2 R aT t _ 15. Obtain an expression for Noise Figure in Terms of Equivalent Noise Resistanc e In order to correlate the noise figure and the equivalent noise resistance we de fine the term Req as the noise resistance not including Rt. Req = R eq R t The total equivalent noise resistance of this receiver is then given by, Ra Rt Ra + Rt The equivalent noise voltage effective at the input of the receive r is given by, R = Req + _ Vni = 4 k TBR Calculate the output noise power and calculate Noise Figure. F = 1 + Req Ra + Rt R a .R t extreme condition Rt > Ras the ratio (Ra + Ri) Rt approaches unity and

 

 

  

Ra 16. Explain in detail how noise figure is measured ? At high frequencies where transit time becomes dominant, such a calculation is n ot possible. In such a case, it becomes necessary to make measurements which ena ble us to determine the noise figure. One such method makes use of the diode noi se generator. Diagram Calculation F = 1+ R eq F= Ra I a (1.6 x1019 ) = 19.3Ra I p 2 x1.38 x103 x300

Definition of receiver Functions of receiver Features of receiver Receiver Block Diagram Explanation of Block Diagram 17. Prove that the figure of merit of DSB SC system is unity.

Block Diagram refer Simon Haykins S(t) DSB SC = c Ac co c signal Po r = c2 Ac2 P / 2 Input nois Po r = N0 Calculat r / Input nois Po r) -------------- (1) Output signal Po r tput nois Po r = N0 Calculat (Output signal Po r / Output ---(2) (1) ---- = igur of m rit

16. Super heterodyne receiver

Explanation


t m(t) Analysis Input (Input signal Po = c2 Ac2 P / 2 Ou nois Po r)-----

(2) 18. Nois in AM r c iv rs - AM syst m using nv lop

Block Diagram - r f r Simon Haykins AM av quation Input signal Po r = Ac2 (1 + ka2 P) / 2 Av rag po r of nois in th m ssag band idth = N0 = Input nois Po r

ilt r d signal = AM signal + nois signal Analysis Output signal Po r = Ac2 ka 2 P/ 2 Output nois Po r = N0 Calculat (Input signal Po r / Input nois Po r) -------------- (1) Calculat (Output signal Po r / Output nois Po r)-------(2) (1) ---- = igur of m rit (2) in angl modulation Syst m M av Analysis Output signal Po r = 2 kf2 P An

19. Nois

Block Diagram R pr s ntation of lysis

2 N0 2 w3 Output noise Power = -------------3A2 Output sign l Power 3kf2 P ---------------------- = -------Output noise Power w

d t ction

OR Figure of merit = (3/2) 2 20. Expl in FM threshold reduction. Threshold effect As the input noise power is incre sed the c rrier to noise r ti o is decre sed the receiver re ks nd s the c rrier to noise r tio is reduced further cr ckling sound is he rd nd the output SNR c nnot e predicted y the e qu tion. This phenomenon is known s threshold effect. Reduction method: Block d i gr m Expl n tion . 21. Expl in the procedure of Sh nnon F no Coding Algorithm nd Huffm n Coding l gorithm

1. Arr nge the sym ol pro ility in the descending order . 2. Com ine the pro ilities of the two sym ols h ving the lowest pro ilities nd reorder the resu lt nt pro ilities; this step is reduction 1 . This procedure is repe ted until there re two ordered pro ilities rem ining. 3. St rt encoding with the l st reduction, which consists of ex ctly two ordered pro ilities .Assign 0 s the first digit in the code words for ll the source sym ols ssoci ted with the fir st pro ility; ssign 1 to the second pro ility

Sh nnon F no Coding Algorithm 1. Arr nge the sym ol pro ility in the descendin g order . 2. P rtition the set into two sets th t re s close to equipro le s possi le , nd ssign 0 to the upper set nd 1 to the lower set 3. Continue th is process, e ch time p rtitioning the sets with s ne rly equ l pro ilities s possi le until further p rtitioning is not possi le Huffm n Coding lgorithm

 

 

 

 

  

   

 

 

 

    

4. Now go ck nd ssign 0 nd 1 to the second digit for the two pro ilities th t were com ined in the previous reduction step ,ret ining ll ssignments m d e in step 3. 5. Keep regressing this w y until the first column is re ched. 22. .St te nd prove the properties of mutu l inform tion. 1. Mutu l inform tion I (xi yj) is symmetric. i.e. I (xi yj) = I (yj xi) Proof 2 . Mutu l inform tion I (xi yj) is m ximum when p (xi / yj) = 1 Proof 3. I (X,Y) 0 Proof . 4. Mutu l inform tion is rel ted to the joint entropy of the ch nnel i nput nd ch nnel output y Proof I(X,Y) = H (X) + H (Y) H(X,Y) 23. Expl in the different types of ch nnel. Loss less Ch nnel H (X/ Y) = 0 , I(X,Y) = H (X) Ch nnel c p city = M x (I(X,Y)) = H (X) Ch nnel di gr m - Expl n tion Deterministic ch nnel H (Y/ X) = 0 I(X,Y) = H (Y) Ch nnel c p city = M x (I(X,Y)) = H (Y) , Ch nnel di gr m - Expl n tion Noise less Ch nnel H (X/ Y) = 0 H (Y/ X) = 0 Ch nnel c p city = M x (I(X,Y)) = H (Y) = H (X)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

  

     

 

 

Ch nnel di gr m - Expl n tion Bin ry Symmetric Ch nnel Ch nnel c p city = M x (I(X,Y)) = H (Y) = Plog2 P + (1- P) log2 (1-P) Ch nnel di gr m - Expl n tion

St te the Theorem ,C p city = log2 (1 + S/N) bits/ symbol Analysis - r f r not s 25.. ind th chann l capacity of binary rasur chann l P (x1 ) = Dr w the ch nnel di gr m of the in ry Er sure ch nnel nd get the ch nnel m tri x. P (y1/ x1) = 1-P P (y2/ x1) = P P (y2/ x2) = P P (y3/ x2) = 1-P Ch nnel c p c ity = M x (I(X,Y)) = H (Y) - H (Y/ X) i. Find H (Y/ X) using formul H (Y/ X) = - (Plog2 P + (1- P) log2 (1-P)) ii. Find H (Y) using formul H (Y) = - (1-P) [ l og 2 + log2 (1-P) + log 2(1- ) - log 2(1- ) ] - Plog2 P iii . I(X,Y) = (1-P) H (Y) i v. Ch nnel c p city = M x (I(X,Y)) = 1-P

  

 

 

24.C lcul te the c p city of

g ussi n ch nnel.