F2 1st Term Maths Teaching Material (1st Edition)

S.
2 Mathematics Study Group

Designed by Yu Yat Tin Sunny
Unit 1 Estimation and Approximation

A. Introduction
Measurements only give approximate values. Instruments with a finer
graduation give a more precise result. Precision have to be specified if we
want to get the same result in measurements.
B. Measurement with different precisions

Example 1.1
Measure the length of the line segments.
A B
X Y
Precisions
Line segments 0.1cm 0.5cm cm
AB 8.8cm 9.0cm 9cm
XY 5.4cm 5.5cm 5cm
Difference between “9.0cm” and “9cm”

As an estimated value, the precision of
“9.0cm” is less than 1cm and that of “9cm”
is or greater than 1cm. In other words,
“9.0cm” is more precise.
C. Numerical Estimation
1. Reformulation
Rounding
Round off the numbers to the nearest unit before doing the calculation.
Example 1.2
3.775+2.145-2.603
≈4+2-3
=3
1
S.2 Mathematics Study Group
Compensation
Choose a clustered value to represent all the numbers for estimation.
Example 1.3
61+58+63+59+57+59
≈60+60+60+60+60+60
=60x7
=420
Using Compatible numbers

Change the numbers to make the estimation easier.
Example 1.4
0.3356x181
≈(1 ÷ 3)x180
=60
2. Compensation
Make adjustments in calculations.
Example 1.5
2217x8.03
=(2000x8.03)+(217x8.03)
≈(2000x8)+(200x8)
=16000+1600
=17600
Note: The remains 217x8.03 is also considered so that the estimated value
will be more precise.
3. Translation
Change the structure of the problem.
Example 1.6
(56.4x3) ÷ 22
=56.4x(3 ÷ 22)
≈56x(3 ÷ 21)
=56 ÷ 7
=8
2
4. Rounding up/ Rounding Down

Rounding up
Choose slightly greater values to replace the original values.
Example 1.7a
13+26+18+22+34+48+15
≈20+30+20+30+40+50+20
=210
Rounding down
Choose slightly smaller values to replace the original values.
Example 1.7b
13+26+18+22+34+48+15
≈10+20+10+20+30+40+10
=140
Note: Rounding up is to estimate the greatest possible value of the sum of

numbers and rounding down is to estimate the smallest possible value of it.
Therefore, it is very important to know whether the greatest or smallest
possible value should be estimated before answering some long questions.
Example 1.8
There are 8 people in a lift. The maximum loading of the lift is 600kg and the
people’s weights are 67.3kg, 88.5kg, 53.2kg, 41.1kg, 107.3kg, 56.6kg, 48.9kg
and 50.3kg respectively. Estimate whether the lift will be overload.
Solution:
Rounding up the weights,
The sum of weight
=67.3+88.5+53.2+41.1+107.3+ 56.6+48.9+50.3
≈70+90+60+50+110+60+50+60
=550kg
Since the estimated value is lower than 600kg, the lift will not be overload.
Note: As all the weights of the people have been rounded up, the estimated
sum of weight must be greater than the real value of the sum. Therefore, if the
estimated sum is less than the maximum loading, the lift will not be overload.
3
Example 1.9
Peter, John, Joe and James have $7.1, $6.5, $8.4 and $9.9 respectively. A
football costs $30. Do they have enough money to buy it?
Solution:
Rounding down the values,
The sum of money
=7.1+6.5+8.4+10.9
≈7+6+8+10
=31
Since the estimated sum of money is greater than the price of the football,
they have enough money to buy it.
Note: Rounding down the amount of money each person has, the real sum of
money is greater the estimated one. As the estimated sum is greater than the
price of football, they must have enough money to buy it.
D. Significant numbers
One method of rounding off a number is to take their nearest units. Another
method is to take a few significant numbers (or significant figures) from
the number and delete all the less important digits.
Rules of selecting significant figures from a number

Numbers Rule
For numbers greater than 1 Starting from the first digit, all the digits in the
number are significant.
For numbers between 0 and 1 Digits starting from the first non-zero digit are
significant.
Example 1.10a
Find the first significant figure of the following numbers:
2.737154 1504331 0.093234 1.05113 0.90911
Solution:
2.737154 1504331 0.093234 1.05113 0.90911
4
Example 1.10b
Find the first three significant figures of the following numbers:
2.737154 1504331 0.093234 1.05113 0.90911
Solution:
2.737154 1504331 0.093234 1.05113 0.90911
Rounding off numbers to a certain number of significant figures

To round off a number, we can take the first few significant figures from a
number.
Example 1.11
Correct the following numbers to four significant figures.
637547 1.630299 0.00903993 1.800012 17.7371
Solution:
637500 1.630 0.009040 1.800 17.74
E. Errors
Absolute Error
The absolute error is the difference between the actual value and the
measured value. The error is “absolute” because it is always positive.
Example 1.12
Find the absolute errors of the following cases.
The length of a string The weight of a person
Actual value 13.75cm 115.3kg
Measured value 14cm 115kg
Solution:
The length of a string The weight of a person
Actual value 13.75cm 115.3kg
Measured value 14cm 115kg
5
Absolute error 14cm-13.75cm 115.3kg-115kg

=0.25cm =0.3kg
Maximum absolute error, upper and lower limit

However, since the actual figures are usually unknown, we often have to find
out the maximum absolute error so that we can obtain the range of values
of the actual value.
Maximum Absolute Error = ( Upper limit – Lower limit ) ÷ 2
Upper Limit = Measured value + (Max. absolute error)

Lower Limit = Measured Value - (Max. absolute error)
When the precision of a measurement and the measured value are stated, we
can find out the upper limit and lower limit of the actual figure, as well as the
maximum absolute error. The greater the maximum absolute error, the less
precise the figure is.
For example, the length of a line is estimated to be 9cm, correct to the nearest
cm.
In the range of 8.5cm and 9.5cm, the estimated length of the line will be 9cm.
Therefore, the actual length of the line will between 8.5cm and 9.5cm because
only such a range of values can be estimated at 9cm. The upper and lower
limits of the actual value will be 9.5cm and 8.5cm respectively.
6
Example 1.13
Find the upper limit, the lower limit and the maximum absolute error of the
actual values.
Height of a person Weight of a ball
Measured value 173.0cm 793g
Correct to the nearest… 0.5cm 1g
Solution:
Height of a person Weight of a ball
Measured value 173.0cm 793g
Correct to the nearest… 0.5cm 1g
Upper Limit 173.25cm 793.5g
Lower Limit 172.75cm 792.5g
Maximum absolute error (173.25-172.75) ÷ 2 (793.5-792.5) ÷ 2
=0.5cm =1g
Relative error & percentage error

A relative error and percentage error can represent the comparison between
the absolute error and the true value or that between the maximum
absolute error and the measured value.
AbsoluteError MaximumAbsoluteError
Relative Error = or
TrueValue MeasuredValue
Percentage error = Relative error × 100%
Note: The value of a relative error and the corresponding percentage error are
the same. However, a relative error is represented by a fraction or a decimal
number and a percentage error is represented by a percentage.
7
Example 1.14a
The weight of a watermelon is measured to be 2.73kg, and the actual weight
of it is 2.7255kg. Find
i) The absolute error
ii) The relative error (corr. to 3 sig. fig.)
iii) The percentage error (corr. to 3 sig. fig.)
Solution:
i) The absolute error
=2.73-2.7255
=0.0045kg
ii) The relative error
0.0045
= 2.7255
=0.001651073…
=0.00165 (corr. to 3 sig. fig.)
iii) The percentage error
0.0045
= 2.7255 x100%
=0.1651073....%
=0.00165% (corr. to 3 sig. fig.)
Example 1.14b
The weight of a watermelon is measured to be 2.73kg, correct to the nearest
0.01kg. Find
i) The upper and lower limit
ii) The maximum absolute error
iii) The relative error (corr. to 3 sig. fig.)
iv) The percentage error (corr. to 3 sig. fig.)
i) The upper limit

=2.735kg
8
The lower limit

=2.725kg
ii) The maximum absolute error
=(2.735-2.725) ÷ 2
=0.005kg
iii) The relative error

0.005
= 2.73
=0.00183150183…
=0.00183 (corr. to 3 sig. fig.)
iv) The percentage error
0.005
= 2.73 x100%
=1.83150183…%
=1.83% (corr. to 3 sig. fig.)
F. Abbreviations
Correct to 3 significant figures  corr. to 3 sig. fig.
Correct to 2 decimal places  corr. to 2 d.p.
G. Exercise
1. Round off the following numbers.
corr. to 3 d.p. corr. to 3 sig. corr. to 4 sig. corr. to the
fig. fig. nearest
tenth
1.25703
0.89099
12.7356
0.004504504
corr. to the corr. to the corr. to 3 sig. fig.

nearest 10 nearest 1000
49509
290999
195034
13507
2. Round off 2090.999 to
9
the nearest ten

the nearest integer
1 decimal place
2 significant figures
3. Estimate the following.

i) 9.9+10.4+10.6+9.5+10.1+10.2+9.7
ii) 0.334  32.95
iii) (82.9  13)  64.6
iv) 2447  7.93
v) 43  52  89  103  77  23
10
vi) 398.2  0.336
vii) 6.407  2.032  16.01
viii) 1204  0.247
7.03
ix) 39.17 
12.54
11
x) 8477  20.15
xi) 14.89  2.54  6.98  2.47
4. Complete the following table.

Time for running 100m Length of a chopstick
Absolute error
Measured value 12.93s 9.81cm
Actual value 12.937s 9.83cm
Relative error (in a form
of fraction)
Percentage error (corr.
to 3 sig. fig.)
5. The length of a piece of string is estimated at 10.3cm, correct to the

nearest 0.1cm.
i) Find the range of the actual length.
12
ii) Find the maximum absolute error.
iii) Find the relative error (corr. to 3 sig. fig. when necessary).
iv) Find the percentage error (corr. to 3 sig. fig. when necessary).
6. The length, width and height of a rectangular board are 12.7cm, 15.8cm
& 18.3cm respectively, correct to the nearest 0.1cm.
i) Find the greatest possible volume of the board.
13
ii) Find the least possible volume of the board.
iii) Find the maximum absolute error of the volume of the board.
iv) Find the relative error and the percentage error of the volume of the
board (corr. to 3 sig. fig.).
14
v) Find the maximum absolute error of the total surface area of the
board.
<<END OF UNIT 1>>
Unit 2 Polynomials
A. Monomials
A monomial is a polynomial containing 1 term only and satisfies one of the
following conditions.
Conditions Examples
It contains numbers only. 1
-8, 0, 45, 2.7,
2
It is a product of number and x 2 , -6xy, 3x y
3
variables. The power of the variable

must be positive integers
Examples of non-monomials
Conditions Examples
The expression contains more than x  3 , 3p  q2
1 term.
The expression is divided by a 1 x 3x
variable, i.e. the denominator of the , , 3
4n y 2pq
expression contains a variable.
The powers are variables. 2x , 4 xy
15
Degree of monomials
Conditions Method to find out the Example Degree of
degree monomial
Containing The degree of the 2 0
numbers only monomial is 0 because 5
the power of the
variables is 0.
Product of The degree of the 6x 3 3
numbers and one monomial equals to the
variable power of the variable. 3y 4 4 (as

5 3y 4 3
   y4 )
5 5
Product of The degree of the 3xy 5 1+5=6
numbers and monomial equals to the
more than one sum of power of the
variable variables. 4ab5r 2 1+5+2=8

5
B. Polynomials
Polynomials are the sum of 1 or more than 1 monomial.
Monomial, binomial and trinomial

Polynomials Definition Examples
Monomial Polynomial containing 1 13
x ,  xy 2
term only 5
Binomial Polynomial containing 2 1
terms x  3 , y 2  z3
4
Trinomial Polynomial containing 3 a  b  c , a2  b4  7
terms
Terms of polynomials
Polynomials can be separated into different terms. It can be done by finding
all the monomials in the polynomial.
Examples Terms No. of terms

2x  y  1 2x, +y, +1 3
x2  y2 x2 , y
2
2
1 2 1 1 2 1 4
xy  xy  3y  xy ,  xy , -3y, 
3 7 3 7
6abc 2
6abc 2
1
16
Degree of polynomials
The degree of a polynomial equals to the degree of the term with the highest
degree.
Example 2.1
1 2
Find the degree of the polynomial 2 xy  6xy  7z  3 .
5
Solution:
1 2
There are four terms in the polynomial. They are 2 xy , 6xy , 7z and -3.
5
Terms Degree
1 2 1+2=3
xy
2
6xy 1+1=2
7z 5
5
-3 0
Since 7z5 has the highest degree and its degree is 5, the degree of the
polynomial is also 5.
Coefficients of a term
The coefficient of a term is the number multiplied to the variables. The term
with no variables is called a constant term.
Example 2.2
Find the coefficients of the terms in the polynomial.
Polynomials Coefficient Constant
x2 y2 xy x2y x y term
17
1 3xy
 x2   y2
3 2
3y
4xy   4xy 2  7
5
Solution:
Polynomials Coefficient Constant
x2 y2 xy x2y x y term
1 3xy 1 1 2 0 -4 0 0
 x2   y 2  4x 
3 2 3 3
3y 0 0 4 0 0 3 7
4xy   4xy 2  7 
5 5
C. Addition and subtraction of polynomials

The addition and subtraction of polynomials can be done by adding up the
coefficients of the like terms together.
Like terms
Like terms are the terms having the same variables. Their coefficients can be
different. Here are some examples of like terms and unlike terms.
Like terms Reasons

x 2 , 2x 2 Same variable multiplied.
3xy 2
5xy 2 ,
8
2abc , abc 3
3
Unlike terms Reasons

2x , 2xy Even though the coefficients are the
same, they are not like terms if they
have different variables multiplied.
4x 2 , 6x 5 Same variables but with different
powers cannot be regarded as like
4x 2 y , 5xy 2 terms.
18
Addition and subtraction of polynomials in a row

This can be done by adding or subtracting the like terms in the polynomials. If
there are brackets, they have to be removed first.
Example 2.3
Simplify the following.
(x  3  2y)  (3x  4  3y)
Solution:
(x  3  2y)  (3x  4  3y)
= x  3  2y  3x  4  3y
= 2x  7  5y
Example 2.4
Simplify the following.
(3x 2  7  x)  (2x  6)  (x 2  4)
Solution:
(3x 2  7  x)  (2x  6)  (x 2  4)
= 3x  7  x  2x  6  x  4
2 2
= 4x 2  x  17
Note: Since x 2 and x are not like terms, they cannot be added together.
Addition and subtraction of polynomials in a column

This can be done by putting the like terms in the same column, and the
addition or subtraction can be done.
Example 2.5
Evaluate the following.
19
Solution:
 x 3y 1
Example 2.6
Evaluate the following.
Solution:
3x 2 10x 9
D. Multiplication of polynomials
Distributive Law
Some multiplication of polynomials can be done with the distributive law.
The distribution law
Formula of multiplication of polynomials

c d
a
I II
b III IV
Consider the figure above. Find the total area of the rectangle.
First solution:
Area of the figure
20
=Area of I + Area of II + Area of III + Area of IV

= ac  ad  bc  bd
Second solution:
Area of the figure
=Width x Length
= (a  b)(c  d)
From the solutions above, since the area of the rectangle doesn’t change, we
can conclude that (a  b)(c  d)  ac  ad  bc  bd .
Also from the distributive law, considering (a+b) as one term,

(a  b)(c  d)
=(a+b)c+(a+b)d
= ac  ad  bc  bd
Conclusion: formulas for multiplying polynomials

They are:
1. x(a  b)  ax  bx
2. (a  b)(c  d)  ac  ad  bc  bd
Example 2.7
1
Expand 2 x(x  3) .
1 law,
With the distributive 2
x
2
Solution:
3
1
x(x  3) x
2 2
1 2 3
=2x  2x
Example 2.8
Expand (x  1)(x  2) .
Solution:
Using the distributive law,
(x  1)(x  2)
21
= x(x  2)  (x  2)
= (x 2  2x)  (x  2)
= x2  x  2
Or using the formula (a  b)(c  d)  ac  ad  bc  bd
(x  1)(x  2)
= (x  1)(x  2)
= x 2  2x  x  2
= x2  x  2
Example 2.9
Expand (x  1)(x  2)(x  3) .
Solution:
(x  1)(x  2)(x  3)
= [(x  1)(x  2)](x  3) Expand the first two brackets at
= (x 2  3x  2)(x  3) the beginning.
= x(x 2  3x  2)  3(x 2  3x  2)
= x  3x  2x  3x  9x  6
3 2 2
= x  6x  11x  6
3 2
Example 2.10
Expand (x  y  1)(x  y  2) .
Treat the first two terms in each
Solution: bracket as one term.
(x  y  1)(x  2y  2)
= [(x  y)  1][(x  2y)  2]
= (x  y)(x  2y)  2(x  y)  (x  2y)  2
22
= (x 2  3xy  2y 2 )  (2x  2y)  (x  2y)  2
= x 2  3xy  2y 2  2x  2y  x  2y  2
= x 2  3xy  3x  2y 2  4y  2
E. Exercise
1. Complete the following table.
Polynomials No. of Coefficients Constant
terms x2 x xy y 2
y term
x2  y2
2x  2xy  7xy 2  3
5x  y  6
4x 2  y 1
 7xy 
3 2
2. Classify the following expressions.

4a 4x-3-ay -9 4ab2+bc-d a3+b 2  m a10+b+c7 b2-4ac
(a) Monomials :
(b) Binomials :
(c) Trinomials :
(d) None of the above:
In question 3 to 5, arrange the terms of the following polynomials in
descending powers of the variables.
3. 3y + 2 – 5y3 + y5 =
4. 7 + 3x3 – x – x5 =
5. 4c2 – 5c3 + 3 + 2c =
In question 6 to 8, arrange the terms of the following polynomials in ascending

powers of the variables.
6. p4 + 3p3 – 5p2 + p =
7. 2x3 – 4x6 + 7 – 9x =
8. –r2 + 8 – 10r5 – 6r3 =
Expand and simplify the following.

9. 2x 2  x  7  3x  x 2
23
10. (3x 2  y  5  x)  (x  2x  2x 2 )
11. 2(2x 2  1)  x(5x  4)  3(2x  5)
12. x(x  2)
13. (x  1)(x  3)
24
14. x 2 (x  y  3)
15. (x  2)(x  1)(x  3)
16. (x  y  2)(x 2  y  3)
17. (x 2  3)(x  2)
25
18. (x  2  y)(y  1)
19. x(x  1)(x  2)
20. Complete the following table. Put a tick under “monomial”, “binomial”,
“trinomial” and write down the degree of polynomial and number of terms if
they are polynomials. If not, put a tick under the column “not a polynomial”.
Algebraic Polynomial Not a Degree of Number
expressions Monomial Binomial Trinomial polynomial polynomial of terms
x3  x 2 y2  7
x  y2
3
y
 x3
x
881903
x 2y  7  y
7
 x 2 y3 z6
2
<<END OF UNIT 2>>
Unit 3 Use of Formulae

26
A. Algebraic fraction
Algebraic fraction is a fraction in which the denominator is not a constant, i.e.
contains variables. Also, it is assumed that the denominator in an algebraic
fraction is not equal to 0.
2 a 1
,
x b and a  3 are some examples of algebraic fractions.
B. Addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions
The addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions can be done by the
following steps.
2 1
For example, now we have to simplify the algebraic fraction 5x  10x .
S Description Example
tep
1 Find the lowest common multiple of 2 1

the denominators. The lowest common 5x 10x
multiple should be obtained by
multiplying the fraction with a non-zero 2 2 11
number. = 5x 2  10x 1
4 1
= 10x  10x
2 Add or subtract the numerators. 4 1

10x 10x
5
= 10x
3 Simplify the fraction. 5
10x
1
= 2x
27
Example 3.1
1 3
Simplify 2x  2x .
Solution:
1 3

2x 2x
1 3 Simply add the numerators when the
= 2x
denominators are the same.
4
= 2x
2 Simplify the sum of the fractions.

=x
Example 3.2
1 2
Simplify a  1  a  1 .
Solution:
1 2

a 1 a 1
1 2
= a 1
3
= a 1
Example 3.3
12 1
Simplify 1  n  n  1 .
Solution:
12 1

1 n n  1
12

1  n  1  (1  n)
= 1  n (1  n)
12 1
= 1 n  1 n
13
= 1 n
28
Example 3.4
1 1
Simplify 2n  3  2(2n  3) .
Solution:
1 1

2n  3 2(2n  3)
1 2 1 The lowest common multiple of (2n  3) and

= (2n  3)  2 2(2n  3) 2(2n  3) is 2(2n  3) . Multiply (2n  3) by 2 to
2

1 obtain 2(2n  3) .
= 2(2n  3) 2(2n  3)
3
= 2(2n  3)
Example 3.5
1 1
Simplify n  n  3 .
Solution:
1 1

n n3
1(n  3) 1n If there is not any common factor between two
= n (n  3)  (n  3) n
denominators, the common denominator will be
n3 n the product of the two denominators.
= n(n  3)  n(n  3)
(n  3)  n
= n(n  3)
(n  3)  n
= n(n  3)
2n  3
= n(n  3)
29
C. Basic concept of factorization

The idea of factorization is to take out the common factor from different terms.
The common factor may be a number or a variable.
Factorization by taking common factors

A number or a monomial is multiplied by some factors. Common factors
indicate the same numbers or variables contained in both monomials at the
same time.
For example, in the algebraic expression pq  qr ,

The factors of pq are p and q. (1 is also a factor of this monomial, but it is
meaningless to be taken out in factorization.)
The factors of qr are q and r.
Therefore they have a common factor q.
Taking out the common factor,
pq  qr = q(p  r)
Therefore the result of factorizing pq  qr is q(p  r) .

Example 3.6
Factorize 2a  2b .
Solution:
2a  2b 2 is the common of the factor of 2a and 2b.
= 2(a  b)
30
Example 3.7
Factorize 2a  6 .
Solution:
2a  6
= 2a  2  3 2 is a factor of 6 because 2  3  6 .
= 2(a  3)
Example 3.8
Factorize a  ab  ac .
Solution:
a  ab  ac
= a  1 a  b  a  c
= a(1  b  c)
Example 3.9
Factorize (n  1)  2(n  1) .
Solution:
(n  1)  2(n  1)
= (n  1)  1  (n  1)  2
= (n  1)(1  2) Treat (n-1) as a term.
= (n  1)  ( 1)
= (n  1)
Example 3.10
Factorize 2x 3  x 2 .
Solution:
2x 3  x 2
= 2 x x x  x x In the expression 2x  x , 2x  2 x x x and
3 2 3
= x x(2 x  1)  x 2   x x .You may convert the expression into

= x 2 (2x  1) this form to avoid mistakes.
Example 3.11
Factorize 2x 2 y  4xy 2 .
Solution:
2x 2 y  4xy 2 Take out the common factors of the variables.
= 2 x x y  4 x y y Take out the common factors of the numbers.
31
= xy(2x  4y)
= 2xy(x  2y)
D. Formulae and substitution
Substitution is to put the values of the variables into a formula.
Example 3.12
ab2
Given that S  , find the value of S
n
when a=3, b=7 and n=-2.
Solution:
ab2 Simply substitute the values
S
n into the values to find the
(3)(7)2 unknown.
= ( 2)
147
= 2
Example 3.13
Given that a  bc  d , find the value of b
2
when a=2, c=-7 and d=-1.
Solution:
a  bc 2  d
2  b ( 7)2  ( 1)
2  49b  1
1
b
49
E. Change the subject of the formula

Dis tance d
Do you still remember the formula of distance - Speed  Time , or s ?
t
This formula helps us to find the speed when the distance and time are given.
However, when the value we want to find is the distance but not the speed,
we have to change the subject of the formula to help us find it out more
easily.
32
Example 3.14
Change the subject of
d  3a  b to a.
Solution:
d  3a  b
3a  b  d Put the terms containing the subject to the left
side in order to separate them from the other
terms.
bd Divide the both side by the coefficient (-3) of
a
3 the subject (a).
bd Usually, the denominator of a fraction will not
a
3 be a negative number.
Example 3.15
Change the subject of the
following formula.
r  wx  2wy  4  3z [w] The symbol [w] means to change the subject
of the formula to w.
Solution:
r  wx  2wy  4  3z
r  w(x  2y)  4  3z Take out the terms containing the subject (w).
w(x  2y)  r  3z  4 Put the terms containing the subject to the left.
r  3z  4 Divide both sides by the term multiplied by the
w
x  2y subject.
Example 3.16
Change the subject of the
following formula.
3 2 1
   3 [n]
n m mn
33
Solution:
3 2 1 When there are fractions in the formula,
  3
n m mn multiply both side by the lowest common
3 2 1 multiple of the denominator.
mn  mn  mn  3mn
n m mn
3m  2n  1  3mn
2n  3mn  1  3m Put the terms containing the subject to the left.
n(2  3m)  1  3m Take out the subject from the terms.
1  3m Divide both sides by the term multiplied by the
n
2  3m subject.
F. Exercise
1. Factorize the following expressions.
a. 2c  4 b. ab  ac  2abc
c. 6x 2 y  3xy 2 d. 3x 3  x 2  x
e. 2a2  a3b  4a2b2 f. 2a2  4ab
g. 21x 2  7xy  14x h. 2a  4ab  8b
34
2. Simplify the following expressions.

1 1 3 6 1
a.  b.   2
2n 3n 4a 11ab 2a
2a 1 abc 2  ab
c.  d.
4a  4 4 3abc 2  3ab
1 3 a 2a
e.  f. 
ab  1 2  2ab 2ab 2
b
4n 6 1 1 1
g.  h.  
n  3 10  2(n  2) c d e
35
3. Change the subject of the following formulae.

1 1 2 1 b. 2xy  x  3y  7 [x]
a.    [b]
a 2b c 2
1 ab
c. 2x  y  z  z [z] d.  2a  7 [c]
2 c
z f. a(bc  d)  a(c  bd)  x [b]

e. xy   6 [x]
y
36
(n  1)d 1 1 x
g.  a  1 [n] h.   [a]
n2 a b ab
4. The Body Mass Index (BMI) is used to indicate whether a person is

obese or not. The relationship between the BMI (B), the weight of a
m
person in kilograms (m) and his height in meters (h) is B  2 .
h
a. Change the subject of the formula to m.
b. Given that the BMI of a healthy person is 21. If his height is 1.7m, using
the formula in (a), find his ideal weight.
c. Amy’s height is 160cm, find her weight in terms of B.
37
d. Given that people with their BMI over 23 is regarded is overweight. If

Mary is 155cm tall and weighs 120 pounds, is she overweight (given that
1kg is equal to 2.2 pounds)?
e. Alex’s height is 210cm, if his weight is 90kg, find the difference between
the BMI of Alex and Mary (corr. to 3 sig. fig.)
f. Hiromi is overweight. Her height is 160cm and her weight is 70kg. She
wants to decrease her BMI to 21.5. Find the weight she needs to lose in
order to achieve this target.
38
5. It is known that the volume of a cone can be calculated with the formula
1
V  r 2h , where V, r and h represents the volume (in cm3 ), radius of the
3
base (in cm) and the height (in cm) respectively.
22
a. When   7 , r  1.4 and h  3 , find V.
3
b. When the base radius and the volume are 3cm and 66 cm respectively,
22
find the height of the cone. (Take   7 )
<<END OF UNIT 3>>
Unit 4 Identities and factorization

A. The concept of identity
An equation is only true for one or a few special values of the unknowns.
However, an identity is true for all values of the unknowns.
How to prove and disprove an identity

An identity can be proved or disproved with the following steps.
Example 4.1
Determine whether the equation is an
identity.
(x  3)(x  2)  x 2  5x  6
Solution:
L.H.S. = (x  3)(x  2)
= x(x  2)  3(x  2) Expand both sides to see
39
= x  2x  3x  6
2
whether the coefficient of every
= x  5x  6
2
term is the same.
R.H.S = x  5x  6
2
Therefore, L.H.S.=R.H.S.
Therefore the equation is an identity.
Example 4.2
Determine whether the equation is an
identity.
x 2  (x  5)(x  1)  4(x  1)
Solution:
L.H.S. = x 2  (x  5)(x  1)
= x 2  (x 2  4x  5)
= 4x  5
R.H.S.= 4(x  1)
= 4x  4
Therefore, L.H.S  R.H.S.

Therefore the equation is not an
identity.
Finding a counter example is also a method to disprove an identity. However,
since an identity satisfies all values of unknowns, giving examples is not
enough to prove an identity. Therefore, giving an example can only disprove
an identity but cannot prove one.
Example 4.3
Determine whether the following
equation is an identity.
x 2  4x  x(x  3)
Solution:
When x  1 , Substitute one value of the
L.H.S. = (1)2  4(1) unknown into the both sides of the
equation. If the value of both sides
= 3 are the same, use the method in
40
R.H.S.  (1)[(1)  3] example 4.1 and 4.2 to prove or

=4 disprove the identity and do not
Since L.H.S  R.H.S, use this method to prove an
the equation is not an identity. identity. You may continue to try
other values if you think that the
equation is not an identity.
Comparing coefficients of like terms

You may use this method to find some unknowns in the identity.
Example 4.4
If (x  2)(x  3)  x 2  Ax  B , find the
values of A and B.
Expand the left hand side so the
L.H.S. = (x  2)(x  3) coefficients of the terms of both
= x(x  3)  2(x  3) sides can be compared.
= x  3x  2x  6
2
= x  5x  6
2
Therefore, x  5x  6 = x 2  Ax  B .
2
Therefore, A=5 and B=6.
Method of substitution
This method can also find some unknowns in an identity. Since it is an identity,
the coefficients of all terms are always unchanged. Therefore this method can
be used.
Example 4.5
If (x  1)(x  5)  x 2  Ax  B , find the
values of A and B.
Solution:
When x=0,
41
L.H.S. = (0  1)(0  5)
=5 Find a value so that one of the
R.H.S.  0  0  A  B
2
unknown will be multiplied by 0 (so
=B that it will be eliminated).
Therefore, B=5.
Therefore the identity is
(x  1)(x  5)  x 2  Ax  5 .
”1” is used because this makes
the calculation easier. You may also
When x  1 , substitute other values.
L.H.S. = (1  1)(1  5)
= 12
R.H.S.  1  1 A  5
2
=A 6
Since both L.H.S.=R.H.S.,

A  6  12
Therefore A=6.
 A=6, B=5
B. Some important algebraic identities

The following identities can be used to expand and factorize some algebraic
expressions.
1. (x  y)(x  y)  x 2  y2
[Proof]
L.H.S. = (x  y)(x  y)
= x(x  y)  y(x  y)
42
= (x 2  xy)  (xy  y 2 )
= x 2  xy  xy  y 2
= x2  y2
R.H.S.  x 2  y 2
Q L.H.S  R.H.S. ,
 (x  y)(x  y)  x 2  y 2 is true.
2. (x  y)2  x 2  2xy  y2
[Proof]
L.H.S. = (x  y)2
= (x  y)(x  y)
= x(x  y)  y(x  y)
= (x 2  xy)  (xy  y 2 )
= x 2  xy  xy  y 2
= x 2  2xy  y 2
R.H.S.  x 2  2xy  y 2
Q L.H.S  R.H.S.
(x  y)2  x 2  2xy  y 2 is true.
3. (x  y)2  x 2  2xy  y2
[Proof]
L.H.S. = (x  y)2
= (x  y)(x  y)
= x(x  y)  y(x  y)
43
= (x 2  xy)  (xy  y 2 )
= x 2  xy  xy  y 2
= x 2  2xy  y 2
R.H.S.  x 2  2xy  y 2
Q L.H.S  R.H.S.
(x  y)2  x 2  2xy  y 2 is true.
Expanding expressions using the algebraic identities

Example 4.6
Expand (a  2)(a  2) .
Solution:
(a  2)(a  2)
=a  2
2 2
Use the identity (x  y)(x  y)  x 2  y 2 .
=a  4
2
Treat and .
xa y2
Example 4.7
Expand (4p  3q)(4p  3q) .
Solution:
(4p  3q)(4p  3q)
= (4p)2  (3q)2
Use the identity (x  y)(x  y)  x 2  y 2 .
= 16p2  9q2 Treat and . Add a bracket
x 4p
outside y
4pand 3q in3q
order to show a
clear work and avoid mistakes.
Example 4.8
1
Expand ( 2 t  3w) .
2
Solution:
1
( t  3w)2
2
44
1 2 1 Use the identity (x  y)2  x 2  2xy  y 2 .

= ( 2 t)  2( 2 t)(3w)  (3w)
2
Treat and .
1 2 1
= 4 t  3tw  9w
2
x t y  3w
2
Example 4.9
Expand (x 2  4)2 .
Solution:
(a2  4)2
= (a2 )2  2  4(a2 )  42
 Use the identity (x  y)2  x 2  2xy  y 2
= a  8a  16
4 2
. Treat and .
xa 2 y4
Example 4.10
Expand (a  b  2)(a  b  2) .
Solution:
(a  b  2)(a  b  2)
= [(a  2)  b][(a  2)  b] Use the identity (x  y)(x  y)  x 2  y 2 .
= (a  2)2  b2 Treat and .
x a2 y b
Use the identity (x  y)2  x 2  2xy  y 2 .
= (a2  2  2  a  22 )  b2 Treat and .
xa y2
= (a2  4a  4)  b2
= a  4a  4  b
2 2
C. Factorization
Factorization, the reverse of expansion, is the process rewriting an algebraic
expression in a form of the product of its factors. An algebraic expression
can be factorized by taking common factors, grouping terms, using
algebraic identities. The method of taking common factors has been
introduced in Unit 3 so only the remaining two will be talked about in this unit.
45
Factorization by grouping terms

Not every term in an algebraic expression has one common factor. There may
be two groups of terms that have their own common factors.
Example 4.11
Factorize pq  qr  ap  ar .
Solution I:
pq  qr  ap  ar
= (pq  qr)  (ap  ar) Put pq and qr in one group, ap and ar
into another group.
= q(p  r)  a(p  r) Taking out the common factors from both
groups.
= (a  q)(p  r) Taking out the common factor - (p  r)
from both groups.
Solution II:
pq  qr  ap  ar
= (pq  ap)  (qr  ar) You may also put pq and ap into one
= p(a  q)  r(a  q) group, qr and ar into another group.
= (p  r)(a  q)
Example 4.12
Factorize ax  bx  ay  by .
Solution:
ax  bx  ay  by
= (ax  bx)  (ay  by) Separate the terms into 2 groups.
= x(a  b)  y(a  b) Take out the common factors from the
groups.
= (x  y)(a  b) Take out the common factor (x  y) .
Example 4.13
Factorize 17ab  b  34ab  2 .
2
Solution:
17ab2  b  34ab  2
= 17ab  34ab  b  2
2
Arrange the terms to make the
= (17ab2  34ab)  (b  2) calculation easier.
= 17ab(b  2)  (b  2)
46
= (17ab  1)(b  2)
Example 4.14
Factorize 3b  6ab  9b c  6ab c .
2 2
Solution:
3b  6ab  9b2c  18ab2c Find the common factors of all terms
= 3b(1  2a  3bc  6abc) first, and then separate the terms into
= 3b[(1  2a)  (3bc  6abc)] groups.
= 3b[(1  2a)  (3bc  6abc)]
= 3b[(1  2a)  3bc(1  2a)]
= 3b(1  2a)(1  3bc)
Example 4.15 (Non-essential)

Factorize
pq  2qr  4p2q2  2p2q  8p3 q2  4pqr .
Solution:
pq  2qr  4p2q2  2p2q  8p3 q2  4pqr Take out the common factor among
= q(p  2r  4p2q  2p2  8p3 q  4pr) these six terms.
Group the terms into groups. (Other
groupings are also possible)
= q[(p  2r  4p2q)  (2p2  4pr  8p3 q)]
Take out the common factor
(p  2r  4p2q) .
= q[(p  2r  4p2q)  2p(p  2r  4p2q)]
= q(1  2p)(p  2r  4p2 q)
47
Example 4.16
Factorize ax  bx  2a x  2abx .
2
Try to separate the first and last two

Solution: terms into two groups first.
<Trial I> However, after taking the common
ax  bx  2a2 y  2aby factors from each bracket, there are no
= (ax  bx)  (2a2 y  2aby) common terms left.
Try to put the first and third term into one

= x(a  b)  2ay(a  b) group and the remaining ones into another.
However, there is still no common factor
<Trial II> left. Therefore the expression cannot be
ax  bx  2a2 y  2aby factorized.
= (ax  2a2 y)  (bx  2aby)
= a(x  2ay)  b(x  2ay)
Therefore, this expression cannot be

factorized.
Note: Before using the method of grouping terms, it is necessary to check

whether there are any common factors of all terms.
Factorization by using identities

We have learnt three identities. They are:
1. (x  y)(x  y)  x 2  y 2 or x 2  y2  (x  y)(x  y)
2. (x  y)2  x 2  2xy  y 2 or x 2  2xy  y2  (x  y)2
3. (x  y)2  x 2  2xy  y 2 or x 2  2xy  y2  (x  y)2
We can apply these identities to factorize algebraic expressions apart from

expanding them.
48
Example 4.17
Factorize a  25 .
2
Solution:
a2  25
=a  5
2 2
Change the terms in the form of x 2  y 2 .
= (a  5)(a  5)
Use the identity x 2  y 2  (x  y)(x  y) . Treat x  a
Example 4.18 and .
Factorize 4a  9b .
2 2 y5
Solution:
4a2  9b2
= (2a)2  (3b)2
= (2a  3b)(2a  3b) Change the terms in the form of x 2  y 2 .
Example 4.19 Use the identity x 2  y 2  (x  y)(x  y) . Treat

Factorize 72ab  2a .
2
and .
x  2a y  3b
Solution:
72ab2  2a
= 72ab  2a
2
= 2a(36b2  1)
= 2a[(6b)2  12 ] Take out the common factor of the terms before

using the identities.
= 2a(6b  1)(6b  1) Change the terms in the form of x 2  y 2 .
Use the identity x 2  y 2  (x  y)(x  y) . Treat

and .
Example 4.20 x  6b y 1
Factorize a  4ab  4b .
2 2
Solution:
a2  4ab  4b2
49
= a2  2  a  2b  (2b)2
= (a  2b)2
Change the expression in the form of x 2  2xy  y 2 .
Example 4.21 Use the identity x 2  2xy  y 2  (x  y)2 . Treat x  a

Factorize 16a b  72ab  9b .
2 2 3
and .
y  2b
Solution:
16a2b  24ab2  9b3
= b(16a2  24ab  9b2 )
Take out the common factor of all terms. Take -1

2
= b[(4a)2  2  4a  3b  (3b)2 ] out of the expression so that the coefficient of a
won’t be a negative number.
= b(4a  3b)2 Change the expression in the form of x 2  2xy  y 2 .
Use the identity x 2  2xy  y 2  (x  y)2 . Treat

Example 4.22 and .
Factorize (a  b)2  c 2 . x  4a y  3b
Solution:
(a  b)2  4
= (a  b)2  22
Change the expression in the form of x 2  y 2 .
= (a  b  2)(a  b  2)
Use the identity x 2  y 2  (x  y)(x  y) . Treat
Example 4.23 and .
Factorize a  16 .
4
x ab y2
Solution:
a 4  16
= (a2 )2  42
= (a2  4)(a2  4) Change the expression in the form of x 2  y 2 .
50
 Use the identity x 2  y 2  (x  y)(x  y) . Treat

= (a2  4)(a2  22 ) and .
xa 2 y4
= (a2  4)(a  2)(a  2) Change the expression in the form of x 2  y 2 .
 Use the identity x 2  y 2  (x  y)(x  y) . Treat x  a

Example 4.23 (Non-essential) and .
Factorize 4a  4ab  b  9 .
2 2 y2
Solution: Factorize the first three terms first.

4a2  4ab  b2  9 Change first three terms in the form of x 2  2xy  y 2
= (4a2  4ab  b2 )  9 .
= [(2a)2  2  2a  b  b2 ]  9  Use the identity x 2  2xy  y 2  (x  y)2 . Treat

and .
= (2a  b)2  9 x  2a y b
 Change expression in the form of x 2  y 2 .
= (2a  b)2  32 Use the identity x 2  y 2  (x  y)(x  y) . Treat

and .
= [(2a  b)  3][(2a  b)  3] x  2a  b y3
= (2a  b  3)(2a  b  3)
D. Simplification, multiplication and division of algebraic

fractions
The simple addition and subtraction of algebraic expression has been
introduced in the previous unit, and we will go further in this unit.
Simplification of algebraic fractions

The simplification of algebraic fractions is to cancel the common factors
between the numerator and the denominator.
Example 4.24
5mn
Simplify 6m3n2 .
Solution:
51
5mn
6m3n2 Take out the common factor mn from the
5(mn) numerator and the denominator.
= (mn)(6m2n)
Cancel the common factor.
5 (mn)
= (mn) (6m2n)
5
= 6m2n
Example 4.25
2ab  3ab2
Simply .
a 2b 2
Solution:
2ab  3ab2
a 2b 2 Take out the common of the terms of the
ab(2  3b) numerator.
= a 2b 2
ab(2  3b)
= (ab)(ab)
Cancel the common factors between the
ab (2  3b) numerator and the denominator.
= (ab) (ab)
2  3b
= ab
Example 4.26
4b  2ab
Simplify b2  ab 2 .
Solution:
4b  2ab
2b2  ab2 Factorize the numerator and the
2b(2  a) denominator.
= b2 (2  a)
Cancel the common factor (2  a) from
2b (2  a) the numerator and the denominator.
= b2 (2  a)
52
2b Cancel the common factor b from the

= b2 numerator and the denominator.
b
2
=b
Example 4.27
2x 2  8x  8
Simplify .
4x 2  16
Solution:
2x 2  8x  8
4x 2  16 Factorize the numerator and the
2(x 2  4x  4) denominator by taking out the common
= 4(x 2  4)
factors in all terms.
2(x 2  2 2 x  22 )
= 4(x 2  22 ) Factorize the numerator and the
2(x  2) 2
denominator using identities.
= 4(x  2)(x  2)
2 (x  2) 2 Cancel the common factors.

= 4 (x  2) (x  2)
2
x2
= 2(x  2)
Multiplication and division of algebraic fractions

With factorization, we can simplify the product and quotient of algebraic
fractions and make the calculation easier.
Example 4.28
4c 2 9b2
Simplify  .
3ab 2c
Solution:
53
4c 2 9b2

3ab 2c
2 3
4c 2 9b 2
= 1
 Cancel the common factors between
3 a b 2c
the numerator and denominator of the
2c fractions.
= a  3
6c
= a
Example 4.29
5b  b2 ac  a2c 2 ac  1
Simplify   .
2ac 2 3b  15 3
Solution:
5b  b2 ac  a2c 2 ac  1
 
2ac 2 3b  15 3 Change all the division signs to times
5b  b ac  a c
2
3 2 2
signs first.
=  
2ac 2
3b  15 ac  1
b(b  5) ac(ac  1) 3 Factorize the numerators and
= 2ac 2  3(b  5)  ac  1
denominators of all fractions.
b (b  5) ac (ac  1) 1
3
= 2 a c 2   Cancel the common factors.
3 (b  5) ac  1
b
= 2  ( 1)
b
=2
Example 4.30
3x  6 3
Simplify 2x 2  12x  18  2x  6 .
Solution:
3x  6 3

2x  12x  18 2x  6
2
3x  6 2x  6 Change the division sign to a times

= 2x 2  12x  18  3
sign first.
54
3(x  2) 2(x  3)
= 2(x  6x  9)
2

3
3(x  2) 2(x  3)
= 2(x  2 3 x  3 )
2 2

3 Factorize the numerators and
3(x  2) 2(x  3) denominators of the fractions.
= 2(x  3)2  3
Cancel all the common factors.
3 (x  2) 2 (x  3)
= 
2 (x  3) 2 3
x2
= x 3
E. Exercise
1. Expand the following.
a. (x  2)(x  3) b. (5a  2b)(5a  2b)
c. (4a  3b)2 d. (a  b  c)2
e. (2a  3c  7d)(2a  3c  7d) 1

f. ( x  0.4y)
2
55
g. (x 2  3)2 h. (4a  7)2
i. (p  3r)(3p  9r) 12
j. (ab  )
7
2. Determine whether the following equations are identities.

a. (x  3)(x  6)  x 2  9x  18
56
b. (x  y  3)(x  y  3)  x 2  2xy  y 2  9
c. a(a  6)  9  (a  3)2
3. Factorize the following.

a. 4x 2  81 b. (a  2)2  49
c. ap  a2p2  abpq  bq d. a2  6ab  9b2  16
57
e. a3 x  a4 x 2  2axy  2a2 x 2 y f. a2  b2  a  ab
g. x 2  4x  4y 2 h. (x  2)2  (y  3)2
i. 2x(x  8)  32 j. (x 2  9)  (x  3)
k. 2x 2  96 l. (x 2  9)  6x
m. x 3  10x 2  100x n. a2  b2  ab  ab3
58
o. 2a4  162 p. (a  3)2  2(a  3)(b  2)  (b  2)2
q. r 2  9  6r r. 3m2  108
s. 2a2bc  3ab  6a2c t. a3  36a
4. If x 2  6x  8  x 2  Ax  B , find A and B.
59
5. If (x  3)(x  3)  x 2  (A  B)x  B , find A and B.
6. Answer the following questions.

a. Factorize a  6ab  9b .
2 2
b. Factorize 9c  18c  9 .
2
c. Using the result of (a) and (b), factorize x 2  6x(y  1)  9y 2  18y  9 .
7. Simplify the following.
60
9a 2a3  8a2  8a
a. b.
2a2b a  2
2a2 16b2  16 3a2b  12ab  12b 3a

c.  d.  2
4b2  4b 8 a2 a 4
a2  1 2ab  abc
e.  (a  1) f.
2 c 2  2c
2ab  ab2c  2bc  b2c 2 a3  4a a2

g. h. 2 
a2  2ac  c 2 a  4a  4 a  2
61
4a2  b2 2b2  b 2a

i. j. 2 
b  2a a  4 4b  4b  1
2
a a2  4 a2  4a  4
k. (2a  a) 
2
l.  2
2a  1 a a  4a  4
62
<<END OF UNIT 4>>
Unit 5 Pythagoras’ Theorem

A. Square and square roots
There are two rules about square roots:
1. If x 2  y , then x is the square root of y.
2. The square roots of x are x and  x . x is the positive root and  x is

the negative root.
Example 5.1
Find the square roots of 16, 0.64,
9
25 .
4 and
Solution:
Q 16  4 and  16  4 , the
square roots of 16 are 4 and -4.
Q 0.64  0.8 and  0.64  0.8 ,

the square roots of 0.64 are 0.8
and -0.8.
9 9 3
Q  
4 4 2,
9 9 3
Q   ,
4 4 2
9 3
The square roots of 4 are 2
3
and  2 .
There are no real square roots for a
negative number.
Q 25 is a negative number,
there is no real square roots of
25 .
63
B. Values of square roots

Some square roots cannot be expressed as a fraction or an integer when its
square is not a perfect square number. They can only be expressed as surd
forms. The numbers that can only be expressed as surd forms are surds.
5
Examples of surd forms: 7 , 0.97 and .
7
Estimation of square roots

We can use two consecutive square numbers to estimate the value of a
square root. If a  x  b , then a  x  b .
2 2
Example 5.2
Find two consecutive numbers
between which lies.
3
Find two consecutive perfect square

Q1 3  4 , numbers between which 3 lies.
 1 3  4
1  3  2
Therefore lies between 1 and 2.
3
Example 5.3
Find two consecutive numbers
between which lies. ,,
199 ,
Q 196  199  225 ,

 196  199  225
14  199  15
Therefore lies between 14 and
199
15.
64
Operations of square roots

There are two rules about the operations of square roots
1. x  y  xy , where x  0 and y  0 .
x x
 x  0 and y  0 .
2. y y , where
Example 5.4
5
Simplify 3 .
Solution:
35
= 3 3 3
2 2
= 3  3  3  xy  x  y
2 2
=
9 3
Example 5.5
Simplify 24 .
Solution:
24 Express in the form of
24
product of prime factors.
= 2 3
3

= 2 3  2
2 xy  x  y
=
2 6
Example 5.6
25
Simplify .
72
Solution:
65
72
x x
25  y  y
72
=
25
23 32
=
52
 xy  x  y
2 2  3
2 2
=
52
6 2
=
5
Example 5.7
7 28
Simplify .
49
Solution:
7 28
 x  y  xy
49
7  28
= x x
49  y  y
7  28
=
49
7  4 28
=
7 49
= 4
=2
C. Pythagoras’ Theorem
Pythagoras’ Theorem
66
In ABC , if C  90 , then a  b  c . (Pyth. Theorem)

2 2 2
Converse of Pythagoras’ Theorem
In ABC , if a  b  c , then C  90 . (Converse of Pyth. Theorem)

2 2 2
Example 5.8
Determine whether the following
triangles are right-angled triangles.
Solution:
In ABC ,
AB2  BC2 Only check whether the sum of
= 15  20
2 2
squares of the shorter sides
= 225  400 (AB2  BC2 ) is equal to the square of
= 625 the longest side . Other
AC2 groupings such as and
(AC2 )
2
= 25 are not needed.
= 625 AB2  AC2 BC2
Q AB2  BC2  AC2 ,
 ABC is a right-angled triangle.
67
(Converse of Pyth. Theorem)

In PQR ,
PR2  PQ2
= 8  ( 17)
2 2
As , only check

17  8  12
= 17  64 whether is correct
= 81 or not. PR  PQ  QR
2 2 2
QR2
= 122
=144
Q PR 2  PQ2  QR 2 , PQR is not a
right-angled triangle.
Example 5.9
Find AC.
Solution:
In ABC ,
AB2  BC2  AC2 (Pyth. Theorem)
52  122  AC2
AC2  169
AC  169
 AC  13
Example 5.10
Even though ( 13)2  169 is also
correct, as AC must be positive, only
is possible.
AC  169
68
Find the unknown.
Solution:
In ABC ,
AB2  BC2  AC2 (Pyth. Theorem)
a2  (4 2)2  92
a2  32  81
a2  49
a  7
Example 5.11
A ladder is leaning against the wall.

The distance between the foot of
the ladder and the top of the wall is
69
4m and the height of the wall is

2.4m. Find the distance between
the foot of the ladder and the wall.
Solution:
Let the distance be x m.
x 2  2.42  42 (Pyth. Theorem)
x 2  5.76  16
x 2  16  5.76 Remember to add back the unit
x 2  10.24 after solving the equation.
x  3.2
Therefore the distance is 3.2m.
D. Rationalization of denominators
We can rationalize the denominator of a fraction so that its denominator will
not be an irrational number.
Example 5.12
4
Rationalize 11 .
Solution:
4
11
4  11 Multiply the denominator by .
= 11
11  11
4 11
=
11 Check if the denominator is a
rational number after the fraction is
Example 5.13 rationalized.
8
Rationalize .
27
70
Solution:
8
27
8
= x x
27  y  y
2 2
=
3 3
2 2 3
=
3 3 3 Multiply the denominator by 3 .
2 6
=
3 3
2 6
=
9
E. Exercise
1. Simplify the following. Rationalize the denominator if necessary. Your
answer should be in a surd form.
a. 200 b. 29
c.  0.09 49
d.
25
71
27 3 10 17
e. 
8 f. 102 1
9
g. 2 8 h. 19  38  2  76
2. Find two consecutive numbers between which the following numbers.

a.
109
b.
407
72
3. Rationalize the denominator of the following fractions.

4 5
a. b.
3 35
5 2
c.  d.
18 3 8
3 2 3 2
e. f.
15 24
73
4. Determine whether the following triangles are right-angled triangles.

a.
b.
c.
74
5. Find the unknowns in the figures.

a.
b.
c.
75
d.
6. ABCDEFGH is a cuboid.
a. Find BD.
b. Find BE.
76
7. There is a ladder lying against the wall. The length of the ladder is 4.2m
and its foot is 2.5cm apart from the wall. If it moves 0.5m farther from the
wall, how far will the top of the ladder slide down? (correct your answer to
3 significant figures)
8. Mr. Wong bought a TV. Its length is 65cm and its width is 58cm, correct to
the nearest cm. Find the upper and lower limit of the length of its
diagonal. (correct your answer to 3 significant figures)
77
<<END OF UNIT 5>>
Unit 6 Analysis of Statistical Graphs

A. Grouping of data
Frequency distribution
Suppose the scores of a group of 50 students has been recorded and shown
in the following table.
25 71 44 58 61 73 90 81 61 57
40 45 42 62 74 68 77 70 49 51
53 60 77 48 33 39 88 22 49 47
56 55 60 62 83 79 78 54 51 49
48 51 53 90 82 60 52 48 30 42
A few steps should be done in order to see the trend of the data.
1. Find the largest and smallest values of the data.

From the data above, the largest value and the smallest value are 90 and 22
respectively.
2. Decide the number of classes and the range of each class. The
classes should cover all data.
Suppose the range of each class is 10. They are 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, 51-60,
61-70, 71-80 and 81-90. You may also use other ranges but the classes
should cover all data.
3. Use tallies to record the number of data in each class.

The following table shows the data separated into different classes.
Score Tally Frequency

21-30 3
78
31-40 3
41-50 11
51-60 14
61-70 6
71-80 7
81-90 6
B. Terminologies about classes

There are some terminologies about classes.
(1) Range – The difference between the maximum and the minimum value of
the data. The largest value and the smallest value are 90 and 22
respectively. Therefore the range in this example is (90-22)=68.
(2) Class interval – Intervals with equal length cover the range of data
between the maximum and the minimum without overlapping. For
example, the class interval of the first class is 21-30.
(3) Class limit – Two ends of each class interval. The smaller value is the
lower class limit and the greater value is the upper class limit. For
example, the lower class limit of the second class is 31 and the upper
class limit is 40.
(4) Class mark – The average of the upper class limit and the lower class
31  40
limit. For example, the class limit of the second class is 2  35.5 .
(5) Lower class boundary – The minimum possible value in the class. For
example, the lower class boundary of the second class is 30.5.
(6) Upper class boundary – The maximum possible value in the class. For
example, the upper class boundary of the second class is 40.5.
(7) Class width – The difference between the upper class boundary and the
lower class boundary. For example, the class width of the second class is
40.5  30.5  10 .
79
C. Histogram
The data in a histogram is presented by rectangular bars with no gaps and
each bar is divided by its class boundaries. The following figure is the
histogram showing the score of the 50 students referring to the table in part A.
Before drawing the histogram, we use this frequency distribution table to
present the data.
Score Class mark Frequency
21-30 25.5 3
31-40 35.5 3
41-50 45.5 11
51-60 55.5 14
61-70 65.5 6
71-80 75.5 7
81-90 85.5 6
Something that you should be careful with:

(1) A title must be given.
(2) The vertical axis (y-axis) represents frequency.
(3) The horizontal (x-axis) and vertical axes (y-axis) should be labelled clearly
with suitable units.
80
(4) There should be no gaps between 2 bars. Each bar is perpendicular to

the horizontal axis (x-axis).
(5) Only class mark is marked for each class.
(6) The area of each bar is proportional to the frequency of the
corresponding class. If the class width of all classed are equal, the height
of the bar is proportional to the frequency of the corresponding class.
D. Frequency polygons and frequency curves
We can also use a frequency polygon to present the grouped data. Two class
intervals with zero frequency have to be added to both ends of the data when
constructing the frequency polygon. Therefore, the frequency distribution
polygon based on the scores of the 50 students will be as follows:
Score of 50 students
16
14
12
Frequency
10
8
6
4
2
0
15.5 25.5 35.5 45.5 55.5 65.5 75.5 85.5 95.5
Score
Process of constructing a frequency polygon:

1. Construct a frequency distribution table with the class mark of each class.
2. Mark the class mark of each class on the x-axis. Mark the frequency on
the y-axis.
3. Give the title to the frequency polygon.
4. Mark the frequency corresponding to its class mark on the graph.
5. Join the points to form a frequency polygon.
A frequency polygon can also be drawn by smoothing the frequency polygon.
81
Score of 50 students
16
14
12
Frequency
10
8
6
4
2
0
15.5 25.5 35.5 45.5 55.5 65.5 75.5 85.5 95.5
Score
Something you should be careful with:

1. If a frequency polygon is marked with the crosses (X), the frequencies can
be read from them and the total number of data can be calculated. If not,
we can only know the trend of the data but cannot know the frequencies.
Therefore, in examinations, when constructing a frequency polygon, the
crosses should be marked unless special instructions are given.
2. We can construct two or a few frequency polygons in one graph in order to
compare the sets of data but we cannot use a histogram to do so.
E. Cumulative frequency polygons and cumulative frequency

curves
A cumulative frequency polygon or cumulative frequency curve is used to
present cumulative quantities. The following table shows the height of 50
students.
Height (cm) Class boundaries (cm) Frequency
141-145 140.5-145.5 3
146-150 145.5-150.5 4
151-155 150.5-155.5 4
156-160 155.5-160.5 6
161-165 160.5-165.5 12
166-170 165.5-170.5 11
171-175 170.5-175.5 7
176-180 175.5-180.5 3
The frequency distribution table above can be changed to the following

cumulative frequency table:
82
Height less than (cm) Cumulative frequency

140.5 0
145.5 3
150.5 7
155.5 11
160.5 17
165.5 29
170.5 40
175.5 47
180.5 50
From the table, we can know the number of students who get less than a
certain score. Note that the phrase “cumulative frequency” is used to
describe the number of data with their values lower than a certain level.
Using the data above, we can construct a cumulative frequency polygon.
Height of 50 students
60
Cumulative frequency
50
40
30
20
10
0
140.5 145.5 150.5 155.5 160.5 165.5 170.5 175.5 180.5
Height (cm)
(Note that the unit should be added to the frequency distribution table and the
label of the x-axis.)
Also, a cumulative frequency curve can be obtained.
83
Height of 50 students
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
140.5 145.5 150.5 155.5 160.5 165.5 170.5 175.5 180.5
Height (cm)
F. Percentiles
The percentile indicates the percentage of data with their values lower than
that datum. The following graph is the cumulative frequency polygon of the
height of 100 students.
Weight of 100 students

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
40.5 45.5 50.5 55.5 60.5 65.5 70.5 75.5
Weight (kg)
For example, when we want to find the weight for which 40% of the students’
weights are under it (i.e. to find the 40th percentile, P , we have to do the
40
following steps:
1. Find its corresponding cumulative frequency.

The cumulative frequency
= 100  40%
=40
84
2. Find the weight corresponding to the cumulative frequency.
From the yellow line, the weight is 55.5kg. Therefore P  55.5kg . Do you
40
know how to find out with the graph above?
P 90
Also, some percentiles can be represented by quartiles. They are

a. The lower quartile, Q , where Q  P .
1 1 25
b. The median, Q , where Q  P .

2 2 50
c. The upper quartile, Q , where Q  P .

3 3 75
Example 6.1
Weight of 50 students
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
40.5 45.5 50.5 55.5 60.5 65.5 70.5 75.5
Weight (kg)
The cumulative frequency polygon shows the weight of 50 students. Find
85
(a) Q ;
1
(b) the median;

(c) P .
90
Solution:
(a) (b) (c)

The cumulative frequency The cumulative frequency The cumulative frequency
= 50  25% = 50  50% = 50  90%
=12.5 =25 =45
From the graph above, From the graph above, the From the graph above,
Q  52kg .
1
median is 58kg. P  70.5kg .
90
G. Abuse of statistics
These are the common abuses of statistics:
1. The scales of the axes are adjusted to exaggerate the relative change.
Description Example
86
The values of
Daily sales of different newspapers
the markings 17
on the y-axis 16.8
do not start 16.6
16.4
Sales (million)
from 0. 16.2
16
15.8
15.6
15.4
15.2
15
Sun Daily Moon Daily Star Daily
New spapaer
2. The sizes of the figures are overcastted to exaggerate the differences.

Description Example
A bar in the
chart is wider
than the others
so that the area
of the bar will
be much larger
than the others.
3. There may be hidden information in the figures which would lead the
readers to make wrong conclusions.
Description Example
87
Only a part of
Sales of Megazines
the values are 350000
compared. (The 300000
sales of 250000
magazines with 200000
Sales
higher rankings 150000
are not shown.) 100000
50000
0
Rank 7 Magazine Rank 6 Magazine Rank 5 Magazine New Sunday
Megazine
Magazines
Regard some
Result of a model polling
values as
“others”. (In this
700, 58% 200, 17%
pie chart, some
Candidate A
of the “other”
candidates may
Candidate B
have more
supporters than Others
Candidate B
does.) 300, 25%
Only present the

Percentage increase of sales of soft drinks
”percentage
increase” but not 25.00%
Percentage increase
the actual value.

20.00%
(The actual
15.00%
sales of the soft
drinks are not 10.00%
shown.) 5.00%
0.00%
Coco-cola Wita Popsi Funta Splite
Soft drinks
Example 6.2
The following chart shows the percentage increase of sales of different brands
of video games.
88
Percentage increase of sales of video games
38.00%
Percentage increase
37.00%
36.00%
35.00%
34.00%
33.00%
32.00%
Ouendan Taiko-no-tatsujin Mario Kart Cooking Mama
Video games
a. List two misleading points of the bar chart.

b. State the objective of the bar chart.
a. The vertical axis does not start from zero. Therefore it overstates the
percentage increase of sales Ouendan. Also, only the percentage
increase, but not the actual sales, is shown, we cannot conclude which
video game sells better.
b. To let the readers think that Ouendan sells better.
H. Exercise
1. Here are the weights, in kg, of 50 newborn babies in King’s Hospital.
2.3 1.9 3.4 3.5 3.2 2.9 3.6 2.8 1.8 3.1
3.0 3.1 3.3 2.4 2.7 1.7 1.8 2.4 0.9 1.6
89
2.3 2.2 3.0 3.2 3.1 3.0 4.1 3.7 3.3 1.4
3.5 3.6 3.7 2.7 2.9 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.0 2.1
2.4 2.9 3.4 4.2 3.3 2.8 2.6 1.7 4.0 2.2
a. Use the above data to complete the following table.

Weight Class boundaries Class mark Tally Frequency
(kg) (kg) (kg)
0.6-1.0
1.1-1.5
1.6-2.0
2.1-2.5
2.6-3.0
3.1-3.5
3.6-4.0
4.1-4.5
b. Construct a frequency polygon using the above data.
c. Construct a histogram using the above data.
d. Construct a cumulative frequency polygon using the above data.
e. Find the first quartile, median and P80 using the cumulative frequency
polygon.
2. The following frequency polygon shows the monthly income, in $1000, of

100 people. Given that the class interval of the first class is $0-$5000.
90
Monthly income of 100 people

40
35
30
Frequency
25
20
15
10
5
0
2.5 7.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5
Monthly income ($1000)
a. Which class interval has the highest frequency?
b. How many people have the income between $20000.5 and $24999.5?
c. Find the number of people who has the income below $14999.5.
d. Use the above data to complete the following table.

Income lower than ($) Cumulative frequency
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
e. Use the above data to construct a cumulative frequency polygon and find
the median.
91
3. The following graph shows the sales of different magazines.
a. From the figure above, what can you say about the sales between 88
Magazine and the others?
b. State two misleading points of the graph.
4. Here is the cumulative frequency polygon showing the scores of F.2A and
F.2B students in a mathematics test.
Score of F.2A and F.2B students

40
35
30
Frequency
25 F.2A
20
F.2B
15
10
5
0
25.5 35.5 45.5 55.5 65.5 75.5 85.5 95.5 100.5
Score
a. Find the lower quartile, median and upper quartile of the score of F.2A
and F.2B students respectively.
92
b. What conclusion can you make between the result of F.2A and F.2B
students?
<<END OF UNIT 6>>
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F2 1st Term Maths Teaching Material (1st Edition)

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S.

2 Mathematics Study Group

Unit 1 Estimation and Approximation

B. Measurement with different precisions

Difference between “9.0cm” and “9cm”

Using Compatible numbers

4. Rounding up/ Rounding Down

Note: Rounding up is to estimate the greatest possible value of the sum of

Rules of selecting significant figures from a number

Rounding off numbers to a certain number of significant figures

Absolute error 14cm-13.75cm 115.3kg-115kg

Maximum absolute error, upper and lower limit

Maximum Absolute Error = ( Upper limit – Lower limit ) ÷ 2

Upper Limit = Measured value + (Max. absolute error)

Relative error & percentage error

Percentage error = Relative error × 100%

i) The upper limit

The lower limit

iii) The relative error

corr. to the corr. to the corr. to 3 sig. fig.

2. Round off 2090.999 to

the nearest ten

3. Estimate the following.

ii) 0.334  32.95

iii) (82.9  13)  64.6

iv) 2447  7.93

vi) 398.2  0.336

vii) 6.407  2.032  16.01

viii) 1204  0.247

xi) 14.89  2.54  6.98  2.47

4. Complete the following table.

5. The length of a piece of string is estimated at 10.3cm, correct to the

i) Find the range of the actual length.

ii) Find the maximum absolute error.

i) Find the greatest possible volume of the board.

ii) Find the least possible volume of the board.

<<END OF UNIT 1>>

variables. The power of the variable

Monomial, binomial and trinomial

Examples Terms No. of terms

C. Addition and subtraction of polynomials

Like terms Reasons

Unlike terms Reasons

Addition and subtraction of polynomials in a row

Addition and subtraction of polynomials in a column

The distribution law

Formula of multiplication of polynomials

=Area of I + Area of II + Area of III + Area of IV

Also from the distributive law, considering (a+b) as one term,

Conclusion: formulas for multiplying polynomials

Or using the formula (a  b)(c  d)  ac  ad  bc  bd

= (x 2  3xy  2y 2 )  (2x  2y)  (x  2y)  2

2. Classify the following expressions.

In question 6 to 8, arrange the terms of the following polynomials in ascending

Expand and simplify the following.

11. 2(2x 2  1)  x(5x  4)  3(2x  5)

15. (x  2)(x  1)(x  3)

19. x(x  1)(x  2)

<<END OF UNIT 2>>

Unit 3 Use of Formulae

2 Simplify the sum of the fractions.

C. Basic concept of factorization

Factorization by taking common factors