CPT3 - Load Flow Analysis-6th Batch

Competency Training and Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
Certificate in
Power System Modeling and Analysis

Training Course in
Load Flow Analysis
U. P. NATIONAL ENGINEERING CENTER NATIONAL ELECTRIFICATION ADMINISTRATION
Training Course in Load Flow Analysis
Course Outline
1. The Load Flow Problem 2. Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis 3. Gauss-Seidel Load Flow 4. Newton-Raphson Load Flow 5. Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow 6. Principles of Load Flow Control 7. Uses of Load Flow Studies
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
The Load Flow Problem

Basic Electrical Engineering Solution Load Flow of Distribution System Load Flow of Transmission and Subtransmission System Load Flow of a Contemplated System Load Flow of a Single Line
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Basic Electrical Engineering Solution
How do you determine the voltage, current, power, and power factor at various points in a power system?
Sending End Line Receiving End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
Solve for:
1) ISR = (SR/VR )* 2) VD = ISRZL 3) VS = VR + VD 4) SS = VSx(ISR)*
VS = ?
VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF
VOLTAGE DROP = VS - VR

Sending End Line
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
Receiving End
Solve for:
1) ISR = (SR/VR )* 2) VD = ISRZL 3) VS = VR + VD 4) SS = VSx(ISR)*
VS = ?
S1 = ( 2,000,000 / 3 ) cos 1 ( 0.85 ) = 666 ,666.67 31.79 VA
VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF
VR = ( 13,200 / 3 )0 = 7621.020 V I SR 666 ,666.67 31.79 = = 87.48 31.79 A 7621.020
VD = ( 87.48 31.79 )( 1.1034 + j2.0856 ) = 178.15 + j104.23 V VS = (7621.02 + j0 ) + ( 178.15 + j104.23 ) = 7,799.87 0.77 V VS = 7,799.87 0.77 /1000* 3 = 13.51 k V

Load Flow From the Real World
Sending End Line Receiving End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
VS = 13.2 kVLL
VR = ? Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF
How do you solve for:

1) ISR = ? 2) VD = ? 3) VR = ? 4) SS = ?

Load Flow of Distribution System
Bus2 Bus1 I12 , Loss12 = ? I23 , Loss23 = ? Bus3 V3 = ? P3 , Q3 = ?
Utility Grid
V1 = 67 kV P1 , Q1 = ?
How do you solve for the Voltages, Currents, Power and Losses?
I24 , Loss24 = ? V4 = ? P4 , Q4 = ? Bus4 V2 = ? Lumped Load A P2 , Q2 = ? 2 MVA 85%PF Lumped Load B 1 MVA 85%PF

Load Flow of Transmission and Subtransmission System
G 1 How do you solve for the Voltages, Currents and Power of a LOOP power system? Line 2 3 Line 3 Line 1 G 2

Load Flow of a Contemplated System
How about if there are contemplated changes in the System? How will you determine in advance the effects of: Growth or addition of new loads Addition of generating plants Upgrading of Substation Expansion of distribution lines before the proposed changes are implemented?
Answer: LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

10

Load
simulates (i.e., mathematically determine) the performance of an electric power system under a given set of conditions. Load Flow (also called Power Flow) is a snapshot picture of the power system at a given point.
Flow
Analysis
11

Load Flow of a Single Line
Sending End Line
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
Receiving End Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF
VS = 13.2 kVLL
VR = ?
Injected Power at Receiving End

SR = VR x (ISR)*
Voltage at Sending End

VS = VR + Z x ISR
Solving for the Current

ISR = (SR / VR)*
Voltage at Receiving End

VR = VS - Z x SR*/VR*
12

Sending End Line
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
VS = 13.2 kVLL
VR = ?
Converting Quantities in Per Unit Base Power = 1 MVA Base Voltage = 13.2 kV Base Impedance = [13.2]2/1 = 174.24 ohms
VS(pu) = 13.2 /13.2 = 1/0 SR(pu) = 2/cos-1(0.85) / 1 Zpu = (1.1034 + j2.0856)/174.24 = 0.00633 + j0.01197
13

Sending End Line
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
VS = 13.2 kVLL
VR = ?
VR(k) = VS - Z x [SR]* / [VR(k-1) ]*

Let
VR(0) = 1/0
For k = 2
For k = 1
VR(1) = __________ V(1) = __________

VR(2) = __________ V(2) = __________

14

Sending End Line
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
VS = 13.2 kVLL
VR = ?
VR(k) = VS - Z x [SR]* / [VR(k-1) ]* VR(2) = __________

For k = 3 For k = 4
VR(3) = __________ V(3) = __________

VR(4) = __________ V(4) = __________

15

Sending End Line
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
VS = 13.2 kVLL
VR = ?
VS = __________ VR = __________ VD = VS VR VD = __________

ISR = __________ SR = __________ SS = VS x [ISR]* SS = __________

16

Sending End Line
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
VS = 13.2 kVLL
VR = ?
PFR = PR / SR PFR = _________ PFS = PS / SS PFS = _________

SLoss = PLoss + QLoss SLoss = SS - SR PLoss = _________ QLoss = _________

17
Power System Models for Load flow Analysis

Bus Admittance Matrix, Ybus Network Models Generator Models Bus Types for Load Flow Analysis
18
Power System Models for Load Flow Analysis

The power system components are interconnected through the buses. The buses must therefore be identified in the load flow model.
Generators and loads are connected from bus to neutral. Transmission lines and transformers are connected from one bus to another bus.
19

Network Models
The static components (transformers and lines) are represented by the bus admittance matrix, Ybus
Y 11 Y 21 Y 31 M Y n 1 Y 12 Y 22 Y 32 M Yn2 Y 13 L Y 1 n Y 23 L Y 2 n Y 33 L Y 3 n M M Y n 3 L Y nn
[YBUS] =
The number of buses (excluding the neutral bus) determines the dimension of the bus admittance, Ybus.
20

Network Models
Line No. Bus Code Impedance Z pq (p.u.) 1 2 3 1 -2 1 -3 2 -3 0.08 + j0.24 0.02 + j0.06 0.06 + j0.18
Line 1 1 Line 2 3
2 Line 3 Set-up the Ybus
21

Network Models
Compute the branch admittances to set up Ybus: 1 1 y12 = ____ = ______________ = 1.25 - j3.75 z12 0.08 + j0.24 1 1 y13 = ____ = ______________ = 5 - j15 z13 0.02 + j0.06 1 1 y23 = ____ = ______________ = 1.667 - j5 z23 0.06 + j0.18
22

Set-up the bus admittance matrix: Y11 = y12 + y13 = (1.25 - j3.75) + (5 - j15) = 6.25 - j18.75 = 19.7642 -71.5651 Y12 = -y12 = -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528 108.4349 Y13 = -y13 = -5 + j15 = 15.8114 108.4349 Y21 = Y12 = -y12 = -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528 108.4349
23

Y22 = y12 + y23 = (1.25 - j3.75) + (1.6667 - j5) = 2.9167 - j8.75 = 9.2233 -71.5649 Y23 = -y23 = -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705 108.4349 Y31 = Y13 = -y13 = -5 + j15 = 15.8114 108.4349 Y32 = Y23 = -y23 Y33 = -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705 108.4349 = y13 + y23 = (5 - j15) + (1.6667 - j5) = 6.6667 - j20 = 21.0819 -71.5650
24

Generator Models
Voltage-controlled generating units to supply a scheduled active power (P) at a specified voltage (V). The generating units are equipped with voltage regulator to adjust the field excitation so that the units will operate at particular reactive power (Q) in order to maintain the voltage. Swing generating units to maintain the frequency at 60Hz in addition to maintaining the specified voltage. The generating unit is equipped with frequency-following controller (very fast speed governor) and is assigned as Swing generator
25

Bus Types for Load Flow
Generators and loads are connected from bus to neutral.
Four quantities must be specified to completely describe a bus. These are:

Bus Bus Bus Bus voltage magnitude, Vp voltage phase angle, p injected active power, Pp injected reactive power, Qp
26

Swing Bus or Slack Bus
The difference between the total load demand plus losses (both P and Q) and the scheduled generations is supplied by the swing bus. The voltage magnitude and phase angle are specified for the swing bus. P,Q + Type 1: V G Swing Bus U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration
Specify: V, Unknown: P, Q
27

The total real power Pp injected into the system through the bus is specified together with the magnitude of the voltage Vp at the bus. The bus voltage magnitude is maintained through reactive P,Q power injection. + Type 2: V G Generator Bus U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration
Generator Bus (Voltage-Controlled) Bus or PV Bus
Specify: P, V Unknown: Q,
28

Load Bus or PQ Bus
The total injected power Pp and the reactive power Qp at Bus P are specified and are assumed constant, independent of the small variations in bus voltage. P,Q Type 3: Load Bus + Specify: P, Q Unknown: V,
V
-
29

SUMMARY OF BUS TYPES
Bus Type Type1: S w in g Type 2: G e n e ra to r Type 3: Load Know n Q u a n t it ie s V p, p P p, V p P p, Q p Unknow n Q u a n t it ie s P p, Q p Q p, p V p, p
30

G 1 Line 1 G 2 Line 2 3
Bus No. 1 2 3 Voltage Generation P Q V (p.u.) 1.0 0.0 * * 1.0 * 0.20 * * * 0 0
Bus Types
Line 3
Load P Q 0 0 0 0 0.60 0.25
Remarks Swing Bus Gen Bus Load Bus
31
Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Linear Formulation of Load Flow Equations Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Solution Numerical Example
32

Linear Formulation of Load Flow Equations
Pp + jQp = Vp Ip* Pp - jQp = Vp* Ip Pp = real power injected into bus P Qp = reactive power injected into bus P Vp = phasor voltage of bus P Ip = current injected into bus P
The real and reactive power into any bus P is: or where
(1)
33

Equation (1) may be rewritten as: Pp - jQp _________ Ip = Vp* From the Bus Admittance Matrix equation, the current injected into the bus are: Ip = Yp1V1 + Yp2V2 + + YppVp + + YpnVn I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 I3 = Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3
(2)
(3)
34

Substituting (3) into (2) Pp - jQp _________ = Y V + Y V + + Y V + + Y V p1 1 p2 2 pp p pn n * Vp P1 jQ1 _________ = Y V + Y V + Y V 11 1 12 2 13 3 * V1 P2 jQ2 _________ = Y V + Y V + Y V 21 1 22 2 23 3 * V2 P3 jQ3 _________ = Y V + Y V + Y V 31 1 32 2 33 3 * V3
(4)
35

Solving for Vp in (4) P1 jQ1 _______ - (___ + Y12V2 + Y13V3) Y11V1 = V1*
1 P1 jQ1 V1 = Y12V2 Y13V3 V* Y11 1

P2 jQ2 _______ V2* - (Y12V2 + ___ + Y13V3)
Y22V2 =
1 P2 jQ2 Y21V1 Y13V3 V2 = V* Y22 2

36

Y33V3 = P3 jQ3 _______ V3* - (Y13V1 + Y23V2 + ___)
1 P3 jQ3 Y31V1 Y32V2 V3 = V* Y33 3

n Pp - jQp 1 _______ Vp = ___ - YpqVq Ypp Vp* q=1 q p
(5)
37

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Solution
Generalizing the Gauss-Seidel Load Flow, the estimate for the voltage Vp at bus p at the kth iteration is:
n Pp - jQp 1 _______ k+1 = ___ - YpqVq Vp Ypp (Vpk)* q=1 q p
(6)
where, = k =k+1
if p < q if p > q
38

Gauss-Seidel Voltage Equations of the form shown in (6) are written for all buses except for the swing bus. The solution proceeds iteratively from an estimate of all bus voltages For a Load Bus (Type 3) whose real power and reactive power are specified, the G-S voltage equation is used directly to compute the next estimate of the bus voltage. For a Generator Bus (Type 2) where the voltage magnitude is specified, an estimate of Qp must be determined first. This estimate is then compared with the reactive power limits of the generator. If it falls within the limits, the specified voltage is maintained and the computed Qp is inputted, in the Gauss-Seidel equation. Otherwise, the reactive power is set to an appropriate limit (Qmin or Qmax) and the bus is treated as a load bus in the current iteration.
39

Numerical Example
Shown in the figure is a 3-bus power system. The line and bus data pertinent to the system are also given. The reactive limits of generator 2 are zero and 50 MVARS, respectively. Base power used is 100 MVA. Solve the load flow problem using Gauss-Seidel iterative method assuming a 0.005 convergence index.
Line 1
1 Line 2 3
2 Line 3
40

Branch Data
Bus Data Bus Voltage Generation No. V (p.u.) P Q 1 1.0 0.0 * * 2 1.0 * 0.20 * 3 * * 0 0
Load P Q 0 0 0 0 0.60 0.25
41

Specified Variables: V1 = 1.0 1 = 0.0 V2 = 1.0 P3 = -0.6 P2 = 0.2 Q3 = -0.25 Note the negative sign of P and Q of the Load at Bus 3
Initial Estimates of Unknown Variables: 20 = 0.0 V30 = 1.0 30 = 0.0

42

The Bus Admittance Matrix elements are: Y11 = 6.25 - j18.75 = 19.7642 -71.5651 Y12 = -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528 108.4349 Y13 = -5 + j15 = 15.8114 108.4349 Y21 = -1.25 + j3.75 = 3.9528 108.4349 Y22 = 2.9167 - j8.75 = 9.2233 -71.5649 Y23 = -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705 108.4349 Y31 = -5 + j15 = 15.8114 108.4349 Y32 = -1.6667 + j5 = 5.2705 108.4349 Y33 = 6.6667 - j20 = 21.0819 -71.5650
43

Gauss-Seidel Equations
Bus 1: Swing Bus
V1
(k + 1 )
= 1 0
for all iterations
Bus 2: Generator Bus Q2 must first be determined from: P2 - jQ2(k+1) = (V2(k))* [Y21V1(k+1) + Y22V2(k) + Y23V3(k)] then substitute it to:
V2
(k + 1 )
(k + 1 ) 1 P2 jQ 2 (k + 1 ) (k ) = Y 21 V 1 Y 23 V 3 (k ) * Y 22 V2
44

Bus 3: Load Bus
(k + 1 )
V3
1 P3 jQ 3 (k + 1 ) (k + 1 ) = Y 31 V 1 Y 32 V 2 * Y 33 V (k ) 3
Iteration 1 (k = 0): V1 (1) = 1.00 P2 - jQ2(1) = (1.00) [(-1.25 + j3.75)(1.00) + (2.9167 - j8.75)(1.00) + (-1.6667 + j5)(1.00) = 0.0 + j0.0 Q2(1) = 0.0 [This value is within the limits.]
45

V2
(k + 1 )
(k + 1 ) 1 P2 jQ 2 (k + 1 ) (k ) = Y 21V 1 Y 23 V 3 * (k ) Y 22 V2
V2
(1)
0.2 - j0.0 1 ___________________ ___________ = 9.2233-71.5650 1.00

V1 Y21 - (-1.25 +j3.75) (1.00) (k ) Y23 V3 - (-1.6667 + j5) (1.00)
( k +1)
P2 jQ2
( k +1 )
Y22
(V )
(k )
2
= 1.00711.1705
46

V3
(k + 1 )
1 P3 jQ 3 (k + 1 ) (k + 1 ) = Y 31V 1 Y 32 V 2 (k ) * Y 33 V 3 P jQ 3 3
V31
1 _____________________ = 21.0819-71.5650 Y33 ( k +1) Y31 V1 - (-5 +j15) (1.00)
-0.6 + j0.25 ____________ 1.00
(V )
3
k *
( k +1 ) Y32 V2 - (5.2705108.4349)(1.00711.1705)
= 0.9816 -1.0570
47

V2 = V2(1) - V2(0) = 1.00711.1705 - 1.00 V2 = 0.0217 V3 = V3(1) - V3(0) = 0.9816-1.0570 - 1.00 V3 = 0.0259
48

Iteration 2 (k = 1): V1(2) = 1.00 Let, V2(1) = 1.01.1705 P2 - jQ2(2) = (1.0-1.1705)[(-1.25 + j3.75)(1.00) + (9.2233-71.5649)(1.01.1705) + (5.2705108.4349 )(0.9816-1.0570) = 0.2995 - j0.0073 Q2 (2) = 0.0073 [This value is within the limits.]
49

V2
(k + 1 )
(k + 1 ) 1 P2 jQ 2 (k + 1 ) (k ) = Y 21V 1 Y 23 V 3 (k ) * Y 22 V2
V2
(2)
1 ___________________ = 9.2233 -71.5650
0.2 - j0.0073 ______________ 1.0 -1.1705
- (-1.25 +j3.75) (1.0 0) - (5.2705 108.4349 ) (0.9816 -1.0570) = 0.9966 0.5819

50

V3
(k + 1 )
1 P3 jQ 3 (k + 1 ) (k + 1 ) = Y 31 V 1 Y 32 V 2 * Y 33 V (k ) 3
1 (2) =_____________________ V3 21.0819 -71.5650 - (-5 +j15) (1.0 0)
-0.6 + j0.25 ___________________ 0.9816 1.0570
- (5.2705 108.4349) (0.9966 0.5819 ) = 0.9783 -1.2166

51

V2 = V2(2) - V2(1) = 0.9966 0.5819 - 1.0071 1.1705 V2 = 0.0125 V3 = V3(2) - V3(1) = 0.9783 -1.2166 - 0.9816 -1.0570 V3 = 0.004
52

Iteration 3 (k = 2): V1(2) = 1.00 Let, V22 = 1.0 0.5819 P2 - jQ22 = (1.0 -0.5819) [(-1.25 + j3.75)(1.0 0) + (9.2233 -71.5649 ) (1.0 0.5819) + (5.2705 108.4349 ) (0.9783 -1.2166 ) = 0.2287 - j0.0472 Q22 = 0.0472 [This value is within the limits.]
53

V2
(k + 1 )
(k + 1 ) 1 P2 jQ 2 (k + 1 ) (k ) = Y 21V 1 Y 23 V 3 (k ) * Y 22 V2
V23
1 ___________________ = 9.2233 -71.5650
0.2 - j0.0472 ______________ 1.0 -0.5819
- (-1.25 +j3.75) (1.0 0) - (5.2705 108.4349 ) (0.9783 -1.2166 ) = 0.9990 0.4129
54

V3
(k + 1 )
1 P3 jQ 3 (k + 1 ) (k + 1 ) = Y 31 V 1 Y 32 V 2 * Y 33 V (k ) 3
1 3 = _____________________ V3 21.0819 -71.5650 - (-5 +j15)(1.00)
-0.6 + j0.25 ___________________ 0.9783 1.2166
- (5.2705108.4349)(0.99900.4129) = 0.9788-1.2560
55

V2 = V2(3) - V2(2) = 0.99900.4129 - 1.00.5819 V2 = 0.003 < 0.005
V3 = V3(3) - V3(2) = 0.9788-1.2560 - 0.9783-1.2166 V3 = 0.0008 < 0.005
The solution has converged.

56
Newton-Raphson Load Flow

Non-Linear Formulation of Load Flow Equations Newton-Raphson Load Flow Solution Numerical Example
57

Non-Linear Formulation of Load Flow Equations
The complex power injected into Bus p is
Pp jQ p = E* I p p
and the current equation may be written as
Ip =
(1)
Y
q =1
pq
Eq
n
(2)
Substituting (2) into (1)
P p jQ
= E
* p
Y E
q =1 pq
(3)
q
58

Let E = V p p
p
E q = Vq q
Ypq = Ypq pq
Substituting into equation (3),
Pp jQ p =
Pp =
n
VVY
q =1 p q
q pq
pq
( pq + q p )
(4)
Separating the real and imaginary components
VVY
q =1 p
n q =1
co s( pq + q p )
(5) (6)
Q p = V pV q Y pq sin( pq + q p )
59

The formulation results in a set of non-linear equations, two for each Bus of the system. Equations Pp are written for all Buses except the Swing Bus. Equations Qp are written for Load Buses only The system of equations may be written for i number of buses minus the swing bus (n-1) j number of load buses
60

The system of equations may be written as
P1 = P1 ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v 2 ....,v j ) P2 = P2 ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v 2 ....,v j ) M M Pi = Pi ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v 2 ....,v j )
(7)
Q1 = Q1 ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j ) Q2 = Q2 ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )

Q j = Q j ( 1 , 2 ,..., i ,v1 ,v2 ....,v j )
61

Equation (7) may be linearized using a First-Order Taylor-Series Expansion
P1spec P2 spec = P1calc = P2calc + + P1 1 1 P2 1 1 + + P1 2 2 P2 2 2 +... + +... + P1 i i P2 i i Pi i 2 + + P1 V1 V1 P2 V1 V1 Pi V1 V1 + + P1 V2 V2 P2 V2 V2 Pi V2 V2 +... + +... + P1 V j V j P2 V j V j Pi V j V j Q1 V j V j Q2 V j V j Q j V j
Pi spec
M M M
= Pi calc = Q1calc
calc = Q2
+ + +
MP
i
1 +
M P
i
+... + +... + +... +
+ + +
+ + +
+... + +... + +... +
Q1spec Q2spec
Q1 1 1 Q2 1 1
+ +
Q1 2 2 Q2 2 2
Q1 i i Q2 i i Q j i
Q1 V1 V1 Q2 V1 V1 Q j V1
Q1 V2 V2 Q2 V2 V2 Q j V2
M M M
spec j
= Q
calc j
MQ
1 +
M Q
+... +
V1 +
V2 +... +
V j

P1 s p e c sp ec P2 Pi s p e c sp ec Q1 Q sp ec 2 sp ec Q j
P1 P1c a l c 1 c a lc P2 P2 1 M M Pi Pi c a l c 1 = Q1 Q 1c a l c 1 Q2 c a lc Q2 1 M M Q j Q c a lc j 1
62
P1 2 P2 2
L L
P1 i P2 i
P1 V1 P2 V1
P1 V2
P2 V2
L
L
M
Pi 2 Q1 2 Q2 2
M L L L M
j
M
Pi V1 Q1 V1 Q 2 V1
M
Pi V2 Q1 V2 Q 2 V2
Pi 2 Q1 i Q 2 i
L L L
M
Q
M
Q i
j
M
Q
j
M
Q
j
V1
V2
P1 1 V j P2 2 V j M M Pi i V j Q1 V1 V j Q2 V 2 V j M M Q j V j V j
63

or simply
P P Q = Q
P V Q V V
P P V P V Q = Q Q V V V V
64

Newton-Raphson Load Flow Solution
P J1 = Q J 3 J 2 V J4 V
p
n Pp = V p V q Y p q s in ( p q + q q = 1 ,q p p J1 P p = V V Y s in ( + ) p q pq pq q p q
65

Pp Vp = P p + V p2 Y p p c o s p p V p V Pp = V V Y c o s ( q p q pq pq + q p ) Vq n Q p = V pV q Y pq c o s ( pq + q q = 1 ,q p p Q p = V V Y co s( p q pq pq + q p ) q
J2
J3
66

V p J4 V q Q p V p Q p Vq = Q p V p2 Y p p s in p q = V p V q Y p q s in ( p q + q )
The solution of the load flow equations proceeds iteratively from the set of initial estimates. These estimates are updated after evaluating the Jacobian matrix.
67

At the kth iteration,
( ( ( p k +1 ) = p k ) + p k )
V p( k +1 ) = V p( k ) + V p( k )
The process is terminated once convergence is achieved whrein
MAX P( k ) p
and
MAX Q ( k ) q
68

Numerical Example
Shown in the figure is a 3-bus power system. The line and bus data pertinent to the system are also given. The reactive limits of generator 2 are zero and 50 MVARS, respectively. Base power used is 100 MVA. Solve the load flow problem using Gauss-Seidel iterative method assuming a 0.005 convergence index.
G 1 Line 2
Line 1
G 2 Line 3 3
69

Branch Data
Bus Data Bus Voltage Generation No. V (p.u.) P Q 1 1.0 0.0 * * 2 1.0 * 0.20 * 3 * * 0 0
Load P Q 0 0 0 0 0.60 0.25
70

The elements of the Bus Admittance Matrix are:
Y11 = 6.25 j18.75 = 19.7642 71.5651 Y12 = 1, 25 + j 3.75 = 3.9528 108.4349 Y13 = 5 + j15 = 15.8114 108.4349 Y 21 = 1.25 + j .375 = 3.9528 108.4349 Y 22 = 2.9167 j 8.75 = 9.2233 71.5649 Y 23 = 1.6667 + j 5 = 5.2705 108.4349 Y31 = 5 + j15 = 15.811 4 108.4349 Y32 = 1.6667 + j 5 = 5.2705 108.4349 Y33 = 6.6667 j 20 = 21.0819 71.5650
71

Bus 1: Swing Bus (Not included) Bus 2: Generator Bus (Compute for P2) Bus 32: Generator Bus (Compute for P2 and Q2)
P2 P2 2 P3 3 P = 2 Q3 Q3 2
P2 3 P 3 3 Q3 3
P2 V3 2 V3 P V3 3 3 V3 Q3 V3 V3 V3 V3
72

Specified Variables: V1 = 1.0 1 = 0.0 V2 = 1.0 P3 = -0.6 P2 = 0.2 Q3 = -0.25
Initial Estimates of Unknown Variables: 20 = 0.0 V30 = 1.0 30 = 0.0

73

Compute Initial Power Estimates
P20 = V2V1Y21 cos( 21 + 1 2 ) + V2V2Y22 cos 22 + V2V3Y23 cos( 23 + 3 2 ) = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 3.9528 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 9.2233 )cos( 71.5649 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 ) = 0.0
74

P30 = V3V1Y31 cos( 31 + 1 3 ) + V3V2Y32 cos( 22 + 2 3 ) + V3V3Y33 cos 33 = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 21.0819 )cos( 71.5650 ) = 0.0
75

0 Q 3 = V 3V1Y31 sin( 31 + 1 3 )
+ V 3V 2Y32 sin( 32 + 2 3 ) + V 3V 3Y33 sin 33 = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 ) sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 ) sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 21.0819 ) sin( 71.5650 ) = 0.0
76

Compute Power Mismatch
P20 = 0 . 2 0 . 0 = 0 . 2 P30 = 0 .6 0 .0 = 0 .6 Q 30 = 0 .2 5 0 .0 = 0 .2 5
Evaluate elements of Jacobian Matrix
P J = Q P Q V V V
77

Elements of J1:
P2 = V2V1Y21 sin( 21 + 1 2 ) 2 + V2V3Y23 sin( 23 + 3 2 ) = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 3.9528 )sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 8.75
78

Elements of J1:
P2 = V2V3Y23 sin( 23 + 3 2 ) 3 = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 ) sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 5
P3 = V3V2Y32 sin( 32 + 2 3 ) 2 = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 ) sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 5

79

Elements of J1:
P3 = V3V1Y31 sin( 31 + 1 3 ) 3 + V3V2Y23 sin( 32 + 2 3 ) = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 20
80

Elements of J2:
P2 = V2V3Y23 cos( 23 + 3 + 2 ) V3 V3
= (1.0 )(1.0 )(5.2705) cos(108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 1.6667
P3 V3 = P3 + V32Y33 cos 33 V3 = 0.0 + ( 1.0 )2 ( 8.2233 )cos( 71.5649 ) = 2.9167

81

Elements of J3:
Q3 = V3V2Y32 cos( 32 + 2 3 ) 2 = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 1.6667
+ V3Y2Y32 cos( 32 + 2 3 ) = ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) + ( 1.0 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 0.0 ) = 6.6667
Q3 = V3V1Y31 cos( 31 + 1 3 ) 3
82

Elements of J4:
P3 V3 = Q3 V32Y33 sin 33 3 = 0.0 ( 1.0 )2 ( 21.0819 ) sin( 71.5649 ) = 20

In Matrix Form,
8.75 5 1.6667
1.6667 20 2.9167 6.6667 20

83

Solving for Gradients,
5 1.6667 2 0.2 8.75 0.6 = 5 20 2.9167 3 0.25 1.6667 6.6667 20 V3 / V3
20 = 0.003984rad . = 0.2283 deg
30 = 0.02587rad. = 1.4822deg V30 = 0.02145 V30 = 0.02145

V3
84

Update Initial Estimates
21 = 20 + 20
21 = 0.0 + 0.2283 = 0.2283 31 = 30 + 30 31 = 0.0 1.4822 = 1.4822
V = V + V
1 3 0 3 0 3
Specified Variables
V31 = 1.0 0.02145 = 0.97855
V11 = 1.0
11 = 0.0
V21 = 1.0
85

Update Estimates of Injected Power
P1 = V2VY21 cos(31 + 1 3 ) 2 1 + V2V2Y22 cos(22 )
+ 1.4822 = (1.0 )(1.0 )(3.9528 )cos(108.4349 + 0.0 0.2283) + (1.0 )(1.0 )(9.2233)cos( 71.5649 ) + (1.0 )(0.97855)(5.2705)cos(108.4349 1.4822 0.2283) = 0.1975
+ V2V3Y23 cos(23 + 3 2 )
86

P31 = V3V1Y31 cos( 31 + 1 3 ) + V3V2Y32 cos( 32 + 2 3 ) + V3V3Y33 cos( 33 ) = (0.97855 )(1.0 )(15.8114 )cos(108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822 ) + (0.97855 )(1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822 ) + (0.97855 )(0.97855 )( 21.0819 )cos( 71.5650 ) = 0.66633
87

1 Q3 = [V3V1Y31 sin( 31 + 1 3 )
+V3V3Y33 sin( 33 )]
+ V3V2Y32 sin( 32 + 2 3 )
= - [(0.97855 )(1.0 )(15.8114 )sin(108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822 ) + (0.97855 )(1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822 ) +(0.97855 )(0.97855 )( 21.0819 )sin( 71.5650 )] = 0.2375
88

Compute Power Mismatch P2 = P2 ,s p P2 ,c a lc
= 0 .2 0 .1 9 7 5 = 0 .0 0 2 5
P3 = P3 ,s p P3 ,c a lc
= 0 .6 + 0 .6 6 3 3 = 0 .0 6 3 3
Q 3 = Q 3 ,s p Q 3 ,c a lc
= .0 .2 5 + 0 .2 3 7 5 = 0 .0 1 2 5
Proceed to Iteration 2
89

Evaluate Elements of Jacobian Matrix Elements of J1:
P 2 = VVY21 sin(21 + 1 2 ) 2 1 2 + VV3Y23 sin(23 + 3 2 ) 2 = (1.0)(1.0)(3.9528)sin(108.4349 + 0.0 0.2283) + (1.0)(0.97855)(5.2705)sin(108.4349 1.4822 0.2283) = 8.6942
90

Elements of J1:
P 2 = V2V3Y23 sin(23 + 3 2 ) 3 = (1.0)(0.97855)(5.2705)sin(108.4349 1.4822 0.2283) = 4.9393

P 3 = VV2Y32 sin(32 + 2 3 ) 3 2 = (0.97855)(1.0)(5.2705)sin(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822) = 4.8419
91

Elements of J1:
P3 = V3V1Y31 sin( 31 + 1 3 ) 3 + V3V2Y23 sin( 32 + 2 3 ) = (0.97855 )(1.0 )(15.8114 )sin(108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822 ) + (0.97855 )(1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822 ) = 19.3887
92

Elements of J2:
P2 V3 = V2V3Y23 cos( 23 + 3 + 2 ) V3
= (1.0 )(0.097855)(5.2705) cos(108.4349 + 1.4822 0.2283) = 1.4842
P3 V3 = P3 + V32Y33 cos 33 V3 = 0.6633 + ( 0.97855 )2 ( 21.0819 )cos( 71.5650 ) = 5.7205

93

Elements of J3:
Q3 = VV2Y32 cos(32 + 2 3 ) 3 2 = (0.97855)(1.0)(5.2705)cos(108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822) = 1.7762
Q3 = V3V1Y31 cos( 31 + 1 3 ) 3
+ V3Y2Y32 cos( 32 + 2 3 ) = ( 0.97855 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 + 1.4822 ) + ( 0.97855 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.2283 + 1.4822 ) = 7.0470
94

Elements of J4:
P3 V3 = Q3 V32Y33 sin 33 3 = 0.2375 ( 0.97855 )2 ( 21.0819 )sin( 71.565 ) = 18.9137

In Matrix Form,
8.6942 4.9393 1.4842 4.8419 19.3887 5.7205 1.7762 7.0470 18.9137

95

Solving for Gradients,
0.0025 8.6942 4.9393 1.4842 2 0.0633 = 4.8419 19.3887 5.7205 3 0.0125 1.7762 7.0470 18.9137 V3 / V3
21 = 0.0025 rad x 180 0 / rad = 0.1458 0
31 = 0.0038 rad x 180 0 / rad = 0.2150 0
V30
V3
= 0.0005
V 31 = (0 .0005 )(0 .97855 ) = 0 .0005
96

Update Previous Estimates
22 = 21 + 21
= 0.2283 + 0.1458 = 0.37410
32 = 31 + 31
= 1.4822 + 0.2150 = 1.2672 0 V32 = V31 + V31 = 0.97855 + 0.0005 = 0.9791
Specified Variables
V11 = 1.0
11 = 0.0
V21 = 1.0
97

Update Previous Estimates of Injected Power
P22 = V2V1Y21 cos( 21 + 1 2 ) + V2V2Y22 cos( 22 ) + V2V3Y23 cos( 23 + 3 2 ) = ( 1.0 )(1.0 )( 3.9528 )cos(108.4349 + 0.0 0.3741) + ( 1.0 )(1.0 )( 9.2233 )cos( 71.5649 ) + ( 1.0 )(0.9791)( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 1.2672 0.3741) = 0.2018
98

P32 = V3V1Y31 cos( 31 + 1 3 ) + V3V2Y32 cos( 22 + 2 3 ) + V3V3Y33 cos 33 = ( 0.9791 )( 1.0 )( 15.8114 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.0 1.2672 ) + ( 0.9791 )( 1.0 )( 5.2705 )cos( 108.4349 + 0.3741 + 1.2672 ) + ( 0.9791 )( 0.9791 )( 21.0819 )cos( 71.5650 ) = 0.5995
99

2 Q3 = [V3V1Y31 sin( 31 + 1 3 )
+V3V2Y32 sin( 32 + 2 3 ) + V3V3Y33 sin33 ] = [(0.9791)(1.0 )(15.8114 )sin(108.4349 + 0.0 1.2672 ) + (0.9791)(1.0 )( 5.2705 )sin(108.4349 + 0.37411 + 1.2672 ) +(0.9791)(0.9791)( 21.0819 )sin( 71.5650 )] = 0.2487
100

Compute Power Mismatch P2 = P2 ,s p P2 ,c a lc
= 0 .2 0 .2 0 1 8 = 0 .0 0 1 8
P3 = P3 ,s p P3 ,c a lc
= 0 .6 + 0 .5 9 9 5 = 0 .0 0 0 5
Q 3 = Q 3 ,s p Q 3 ,c a lc
= .0 .2 5 + 0 .2 4 8 7 = 0 .0 0 1 3
The solution has converged

101

The solution of the Load Flow Problem is
V1 = 1.00 0 V2 = 1.00.3741
0 0
V3 = 0.9791 1.2672
102
The bus voltages are: V1 = 1.00 V2 = 0.99900.4129 V3 = 0.9788-1.2560
Information from a Load Flow Study
The power injected into the buses are: P1 - jQ1 = V1* [Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 ] P1 - jQ1 = (1.00) [(19.7642-71.5651)(1.00) + (3.9528108.4349)(0.99900.4129) + (15.8114108.4349) (0.9788-1.25560) = 0.4033 - j0.2272
103
P2 - jQ2 = V2* [Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 ]
P2 - jQ2 = (0.999-0.4129)[(3.9528108.4349)(1.00) + (9.2233-71.5649)(0.99900.4129) + (5.2705108.4349)(0.9788-1.25560) = 0.2025 - j0.04286 P3 - jQ3 = V3* [Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3 ] P3 - jQ3 = (0.97881.256) [(15.8114108.4349)(1.00) + (5.2705108.4349)(0.99900.4129) + (21.0819 -71.5650)(0.9788-1.25560 ) = -0.600 + j0.2498
104

The branch currents are:
I pq = I line = y pq ( V p Vq )
I12 = y12 [V1 - V2]
I qp = I line = y pq ( Vq V p )
I21 = y12 [V2 V1]
I13 = y13 [V1 V3]
I31 = y13 [V3 V1]
I23 = y23 [V2 V3]

I32 = y23 [V3 V2]

105

Line Currents
Ipq Vp
p
Iline ypo
ypq
Vq
q
Iqp
yqo
The line current Ipq, measured at bus p is given by
I pq = I line + I po = y pq ( V p Vq ) + y poV p
Similarly, the line current Iqp, measured at bus q is I = I + I = y (V V ) + y V
qp line qo pq q p qo q
106

The branch power flows are: P12 jQ12 = V1* I12 P21 jQ21 = V2* I21
P13 jQ13 = V1* I13
P31 jQ31 = V3* I31
P23 jQ23 = V2* I23
P32 jQ32 = V3* I32
107

Power FLOWS
The power flow (Spq) from bus p to q is
S pq = Ppq jQ pq = V I
* p pq
The power flow (Sqp) from bus q to p is
S qp = Pqp jQqp = Vq* I qp
108

The line losses are: P12(Loss) jQ12(Loss) = (P12 jQ12) + (P21 jQ21 )
P13(Loss) jQ13(Loss) = (P13 jQ13) + (P31 jQ31 )
P23(Loss) jQ23(Loss) = (P23 jQ23) + (P32 jQ32 )
109

Line Losses
The power loss in line pq is the algebraic sum of the power flows Spq and Sqp
S loss = Ploss + jQloss = S pq + S qp
= (V p + V q )I
= VpI
* pq
VqI
* pq
* pq
110

BASIC INFORMATION Voltage Profile Injected Power (Pp and Qp) Line Currents (Ipq and Ipq) Power Flows (Ppq and Qpq) Line Losses (I2R and I2X)
111

OTHER INFORMATION Overvoltage and Undervoltage Buses Critical and Overloaded Transformers and Lines Total System Losses
112
Backward/Forward Sweep Load Flow

Load Flow for Radial Distribution System Procedure: Iterative Solution Initialization Solving for Injected Currents through the nodes Backward Sweep Forward Sweep Solving for Injected Power Solving for Voltage Mismatch
113

Bus2 Bus1 I12 , Loss12 = ? I23 , Loss23 = ?
0.635 + j1.970
Utility Grid
0.131 + j1.595
V1 = 67 kV P1 , Q1 = ?
I24 , Loss24 = ? V4 = ? P4 , Q4 = ? 0.4223 + j0.7980 Bus4 V2 = ? Lumped Load A P2 , Q2 = ? 2 MVA 85%PF Lumped Load B 1 MVA 85%PF
Bus3 V3 = ? P3 , Q3 = ?
Load Flow for Radial Distribution System
114

Equivalent Circuit
Bus2 V1 = 67 kV Bus1
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu
Utility Grid
Bus3 V3
V1
0.0242+j0.0458pu
Bus4 V4
1 + j0 pu
V2
Base Values
Sbase = 10 MVA Vbase1 = 67 kV Vbase2 = 13.2 kV
0.085 + j0.05267 pu
0.17 + j0.10536 pu
Base Z =13.22/10 =17.424

115

Iterative Solution
1. Solve Injected Currents by Loads 2. Solve Line Currents (Backward Sweep) 3. Update Voltages (Forward Sweep) 4. Solve for Injected Power 5. Solve for Power Mismatch Continue iteration by Backward-Forward Sweep until convergence is achieved After convergence, solve Iinj, Pinj, Qinj, PF, PLoss, QLoss
116

Initialization
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu
Utility Grid
Bus3 V3
V1
0.0242+j0.0458 pu
Bus4 V4
1 + j0 pu
V2
Initialize,
V1(0) = 1/0 V2(0) = 1/0 V3(0) = 1/0 V4(0) = 1/0
0.085 + j0.05267 pu
0.17 + j0.10536 pu
117

Solving for Injected Currents
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu
Utility Grid
Bus3 V3
0.17 + j0.10536 pu
V1
0.0242+j0.0458 pu
Bus4 V4
0.085 + j0.05267 pu
1 + j0 pu
V2
Solve Injected Currents by Loads
I1(0) = 0 I2(0) = 0
I3(0) = S3* /[V3(0)]* = __________ I4(0) = S4* /[V4(0)]* = __________
118

Backward Sweep
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu
Utility Grid
Bus3 V3
0.17 + j0.10536 pu
V1
0.0242+j0.0458 pu
Bus4 V4
0.085 + j0.05267 pu
1 + j0 pu
V2
Solve Line Currents (Backward Sweep)
I24(0) = I4(0) = _______ I23(0) = I3(0) = _______ I12(0) = 0 + I23(0) + I24(0) = _______
119

Forward Sweep
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu
Utility Grid
V1
Bus3 V3
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
0.0242+j0.0458 pu
Bus4 V4
1 + j0 pu
V2
Update Voltages (Forward Sweep)
V1(1) = 1/0
0.085 + j0.05267 pu
0.17 + j0.10536 pu
V2(1) = V1(0) [I12(0)][Z12] = ________ V3(1) = V2(1) [I23(0)][Z23] = ________ V4(1) = V2(1) [I24(0)][Z24] = ________
120

Solving for Injected Power
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu
Utility Grid
Bus3 V3 0.17 + j0.10536 pu
V1
0.0242+j0.0458 pu
Bus4 V4
1 + j0 pu
V2
Solve Injected Power
S1(1) = [V1(1)][I1(0)]* = ___________ S2(1) = [V2(1)][I2(0)]* = ___________ S3(1) = [V3(1)][I3(0)]* = ___________ S4(1) = [V4(1)][I4(0)]* = ___________
0.085+ j0.05267 pu
121

Solving for Power Mismatch
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu
Utility Grid
Bus3 V3
V1
0.0242+j0.0458 pu
Bus4 V4
1 + j0 pu
V2
Solve S1(1) = S1(sp) - S1(calc) = ____________ Power Mismatch S2(1) = S2(sp) S2(calc) = ____________ S3(1) = S3(sp) S3(calc) = ____________ S4(1) = S4(sp) S4(calc) = ____________
0.085 + j0.05267 pu
0.17 + j0.10536 pu
122

Iterative Solution
Iteration 2: Solve Injected Currents by Loads Solve Line Currents (Backward Sweep) I1(1) = 0 I2(1) = 0 I3(1) = S3* /[V3(1)]* = __________ I4(1) = S4* /[V4(1)]* = __________ I24(1) = I4(1) = _______ I23(1) = I3(1) = _______ I12(1) = 0 + I23(1) + I24(1) = _______
123

Iterative Solution
Update Voltages (Forward Sweep) V1(2) = 1/0 V2(2) = V1(1) [I12(1)][Z12] = ________ V3(2) = V2(1) [I23(1)][Z23] = ________ V4(2) = V2(1) [I24(1)][Z24] = ________ Solve Injected Power S1(2) = [V1(2)][I1(1)]* = ___________ S2(2) = [V2(2)][I2(1)]* = ___________ S3(2) = [V3(2)][I3(1)]* = ___________ S4(2) = [V4(2)][I4(1)]* = ___________
124

Iterative Solution
Solve Power Mismatch S1(2) = S1(sp) - S1(calc) = ____________ S2(2) = S2(sp) S2(calc) = ____________ S3(2) = S3(sp) S3(calc) = ____________ S4(2) = S4(sp) S4(calc) = ____________ If Mismatch is higher than set convergence index, repeat the procedure (Backward-Forward Sweep) [Iteration 3]
125

Iterative Solution
Iteration 3: Solve Injected Currents by Loads Solve Line Currents (Backward Sweep) I1(2) = 0 I2(2) = 0 I3(2) = S3* /[V3(2)]* = __________ I4(2) = S4* /[V4(2)]* = __________ I24(2) = I4(2) = _______ I23(2) = I3(2) = _______ I12(2) = 0 + I23(2) + I24(2) = _______
126

Iterative Solution
Update Voltages (Forward Sweep) V1(3) = 1/0 V2(3) = V1(2) [I12(2)][Z12] = ________ V3(3) = V2(2) [I23(2)][Z23] = ________ V4(3) = V2(2) [I24(2)][Z24] = ________ Solve Injected Power S1(3) = [V1(3)][I1(2)]* = ___________ S2(3) = [V2(3)][I2(2)]* = ___________ S3(3) = [V3(3)][I3(2)]* = ___________ S4(3) = [V4(3)][I4(2)]* = ___________
127

Iterative Solution
Solve Power Mismatch S1(3) = S1(3) - S1(2) S2(3) = S2(3) S2(2) = ____________ S3(3) = S3(3) S3(2) = ____________ S4(3) = S4(3) S4(2) = ____________ If Mismatch is lower than set convergence index, compute power flows
128

Bus2 Bus1
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu
Bus3
Utility Grid
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
0.0242+j0.0458
Bus4
VOLTAGE PROFILE V1 = ________ V2 = ________ V3 = ________ V4 = ________

Lumped Load B 1 MVA 85%PF
Lumped Load A 2 MVA 85%PF
INJECTED POWER P1 + jQ1 = ________ + j ________ P2 + jQ2 = ________ + j ________ P3 + jQ3 = ________ + j ________ P4 + jQ4 = ________ + j ________
129

Bus2 Bus1
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu
Bus3
Utility Grid
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
0.0242+j0.0458 pu
POWER FLOW (P-Q) P12 + jQ12 = ________ + j ________
Bus4 Lumped Load A 2 MVA 85%PF Lumped Load B
P23 + jQ23 = ________ + j ________ 1 MVA 85%PF P24 + jQ24 = ________ + j ________ POWER FLOW (Q-P)
P21 + jQ21 = ________ + j ________ P32 + jQ32 = ________ + j ________ P42 + jQ42 = ________ + j ________
130

Bus2 Bus1
0.0364 +j 0.1131 pu
Bus3
Utility Grid
0.0075+j 0.0915 pu
0.0242+j0.0458 pu
Branch Currents I12 = ________ I23 = ________ I24 = ________ POWER LOSSES
Bus4 Lumped Load A 2 MVA 85%PF Lumped Load B 1 MVA 85%PF
I2R12 + jI2X12 = ________ + j ________ I2R23 + jI2X24 = ________ + j ________ I2R24 + jI2X24 = ________ + j ________
131

Line sections in the radial network are ordered by layers away from the root node (substation bus).
1 2 4 7 13 21 27 8 14 22 23 8 9 15 5 10 11 17 16 24 28 32 29 33 35 18 3 6 12 20 25 30 34 31 26
Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3 Layer 4 Layer 5 Layer 6 Layer 7 Layer 8

19
132
Three-Phase Forward/ Backward Sweep Method

The iterative algorithm for solving the radial system consists of three steps. At iteration k: Step 1: Nodal current calculation
I ia I ib I ic
(k )
S / V ( k 1 ) ia ia k 1 ) ( = Sib / Vib S / V ( k 1 ) ic ic
( ( (
) ) )
( k 1 ) Y * Via ia * Yib Vib * Yic Vic
Where,
I ia , I ib , I ic V ia ,V ib ,V ic Y ia ,Y ib ,Y ic
Current injections at node i Voltages at node i Admittances of all shunt elements at node i
S ia , S ib , S ic Scheduled power injections at node i
133

Step 2: Backward Sweep to sum up line section current Starting from the line section in the last layer and moving towards the root node. The current in the line section l is:
J la J lb J lc
Where,
(k )
I ja = I jb I jc
(k )
J ma + J mb mM J mc
(k )
J la , J lb , J jc
l and M
are the current flows on line section l Is the set of line sections connected to node j
134

Step 3: Forward Sweep to update nodal voltage Starting from the first layer and moving towards the last layer, the voltage at node j is:
V ja V jb V jc
(k )
Via = Vib Vic
(k )
zaa ,l zab ,l zac ,l
zab ,l zbb ,l zbc ,l
zac ,l J la zbc ,l J lb zcc ,l J lc
(k )
135

After the three steps are executed in one iteration, the power mismatches at each node for all phases are calculated:
S S S
(k ) ia (k ) ib (k ) ic
=V =V =V
(k ) ia (k ) ib (k ) ic
(I ) (I ) (I )
(k ) ia (k ) ib (k ) ic
Y Via
* ia * ia * ic
S ia S ib S ic
Y Vib Y Vic
If the real and imaginary part (real and reactive power) of any of these power mismatches is greater than a convergence criterion, steps 1, 2 & 3 are repeated until convergence is achieved.
136
Principles of Load Flow Control

Prime mover and excitation control of generators Reactive Var Compensation (e.g., Capacitors) Control of tap-changing and voltage regulating transformers
137

Generator Voltage & Power Control
jX Ei
Vt0
The complex power delivered to the bus (Generator Terminal) is
Ei Vt 0 Pt + jQt = [Vt 0]I = [Vt 0] jX

*
EiVt Pt = sin X
EiVt Vt 2 Qt = cos X X
138

EiVt = Pt sin X
Observations:
1. Real Power is injected into the bus (Generator Operation), must be positive (Ei leads Vt) 2. Real Power is drawn from the bus (Motor Operation), must be negative (Ei lags Vt) 3. In actual operation, the numeric value of is small & since the slope of Sine function is maximum for small values, a minute change in can cause a substantial change in Pt
139

EiVt = Pt sin X
Observations:
4. Reactive Power flow depends on relative values of EiCos and Vt 5. Since the slope of Cosine function is minimum for small values of angle, Reactive Power is controlled by varying Ei
Over-excitation (increasing Ei) will deliver Reactive Power into the Bus Under-excitation (decreasing Ei) will absorb Reactive Power from the Bus
140

Capacitor Compensation ~
p Ipq q + jQc PL - jQL
The voltage of bus q can be expressed as
Eq = Vp
X pqQq Vp
X pq Pq Vp
Observations:
1. The Reactive Power Qq causes a voltage drop and thus largely affects the magnitude of Eq 2. A capacitor bank connected to bus q will reduce Qq that will consequently reduce voltage drop
141

Tap-Changing Transformer
a:1 q s p r
The equivalent circuit of transformer with the per unit transformation ratio:
1 y pq a
Observation:
The voltage drop in the transformer is affected by the transformation ratio a
1 a y pq 2 a
a 1 y pq a
142
Uses of Load Flow Study

Sensitivity Analysis with Load Flow Study Analysis of Existing Conditions Analysis for Correcting PQ Problems Expansion Planning Contingency Analysis System Loss Analysis
143
Uses of Load Flow Studies

Sensitivity Analysis with Load Flow Study
1) Take any line, transformer or generator out of service. 2) Add, reduce or remove load to any or all buses. 3) Add, remove or shift generation to any bus. 4) Add new transmission or distribution lines. 5) Increase conductor size on T&D lines. 6) Change bus voltages. 7) Change transformer taps. 8) Increase or decrease transformer size. 9) Add or remove rotating or static var supply to buses.
144

1) ANALYSIS OF EXISTING CONDITIONS Check for voltage violations PGC: 0.95 1.05 p.u. (For Transmission) PDC: 0.90 1.10 p.u (For Distribution)*
*Recommended 0.95 1.05 p.u.
Check for branch power flow violations Transformer Overloads Line Overloads Check for system losses Caps on Segregated DSL
145

2) ANALYSIS FOR CORRECTING PQ PROBLEMS Voltage adjustment by utility at delivery point Request TransCo to improve voltage at connection point TransCo as System Operator will determine feasibility based on Economic Dispatch and other adjustments such as transformer tap changing and reactive power compensation
146

2) ANALYSIS FOR CORRECTING PQ PROBLEMS Transformer tap changing Available Taps
At Primary Side At Secondary Side Both Sides
Typical Taps
Tap 1: +5% Tap 2: +2.5% Tap 3: 0% (Rated Voltage) Tap 4: -2.5% Tap 5: -5%
147

2) ANALYSIS FOR CORRECTING PQ PROBLEMS Capacitor compensation Compensate for Peak Loading Check overvoltages during Off-Peak Optimize Capacitor Plan System configuration improvement
148

3) EXPANSION PLANNING New substation construction Substation capacity expansion New feeder segment construction / extension Addition of parallel feeder segment Reconducting of existing feeder segment/ circuit Circuit conversion to higher voltage Generator addition
149

4) CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS Reliability analysis of the Transmission (Grid) and Subtransmission System 5) SYSTEM LOSS ANALYSIS Segregation of System Losses
150

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Competency Training and Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Power System Modeling and Analysis

Load Flow Analysis

U. P. NATIONAL ENGINEERING CENTER NATIONAL ELECTRIFICATION ADMINISTRATION

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

S1 = ( 2,000,000 / 3 ) cos 1 ( 0.85 ) = 666 ,666.67 31.79 VA

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

VR = ( 13,200 / 3 )0 = 7621.020 V I SR 666 ,666.67 31.79 = = 87.48 31.79 A 7621.020

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

VR = ? Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

How do you solve for:

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

Answer: LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

Receiving End Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

Injected Power at Receiving End

Voltage at Sending End

Solving for the Current

Voltage at Receiving End

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

Receiving End Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

Receiving End Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

VR(k) = VS - Z x [SR]* / [VR(k-1) ]*

VR(1) = __________ V(1) = __________

VR(2) = __________ V(2) = __________

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

Receiving End Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

VR(k) = VS - Z x [SR]* / [VR(k-1) ]* VR(2) = __________

VR(3) = __________ V(3) = __________

VR(4) = __________ V(4) = __________

Training Course in Load Flow Analysis

The Load Flow Problem

VR(1) = V(1) =

VR(2) = V(2) =

VR(3) = V(3) =

VR(4) = V(4) =

VS = VR = VD = VS VR VD = __

ISR = SR = SS = VS x [ISR]* SS = __

PFR = PR / SR PFR = _ PFS = PS / SS PFS = _

SLoss = PLoss + QLoss SLoss = SS - SR PLoss = _ QLoss = _