Turbochargers

Introduction
The internal combustion engine is an air consuming machine. This is because the fuel that is burned requires air with which it can mix to complete the combustion cycle. Once the air/fuel ratio reaches a certain point, the addition of more fuel will not produce more power, but only black smoke or unburned fuel into the atmosphere. The denser the smoke, the more the engine is being over fueled. Therefore, increasing the fuel delivery beyond the air/fuel ratio limit, results in excessive fuel consumption, pollution, high exhaust temperature (diesel) or low exhaust temperature (gasoline), and shortened engine life. If however, the engine is supercharged, then a greater supply of air will be available, enabling more fuel to be burnt; this will result in the engine producing more power. (Supercharging is the introduction of air to an engine at higher than atmospheric pressure).

Mechanical Supercharging
With mechanical supercharging, the combustion air is compressed by a compressor driven directly by the engine. However, the power output increase is partly lost due to the parasitic losses from driving the compressor. The power to drive a mechanical turbocharger is up to 15 % of the engine output. Therefore, fuel consumption is higher when compared with a naturally aspirated engine with the same power output.

Fig. 1 Schematic of a mechanically supercharged four-cylinder engine 1

Exhaust Gas Supercharging (Turbocharging)

In exhaust gas turbocharging, some of the exhaust gas energy, which would normally be wasted, is used to drive a turbine. Mounted on the same shaft as the turbine, is a compressor which draws in air, compresses it, and then supplies it to the engine. There is no mechanical coupling to the engine.

Fig. 2 Schematic of an exhaust gas turbocharged four-cylinder engine

Turbocharger Theory
A turbocharger is basically an exhaust gas driven air compressor and can be best understood if it is divided into its two basic parts, the exhaust gas driven turbine and its housing, and the air compressor and its housing. Both are connected together like a set of Siamese twins where each of them perform different functions but, because they are joined together at the hip via a common shaft, the function of one impacts the function of the other. How? Take a perfectly set up compressor section and mate it with an incorrect turbine section, or visa versa, and you end up with our Siamese twins trying to go in different directions. The result is that our Siamese twins end up wasting all of their energy fighting each other and go nowhere. The development of turbocharged marine diesel engines has always aimed at higher power and efficiency. About 75% of engine power relies on the turbocharger. The exhaust gases from the diesel engine flow through the gas inlet casing and nozzle ring to the turbine wheel. The turbine uses the energy contained in the exhaust gas to drive the compressor. The compressor draws in fresh air and compresses it before being forced into the cylinders. The exhaust gases exit the turbocharger via the gas outlet casing.

Fig. 3 Turbocharger Principle . The rotating compressor wheel is driven at high speed by the turbine. The air which is necessary for the operation of the diesel engine and which is compressed in the turbocharger is drawn through the suction branch or the silencer into the compressor wheel. Impeller blades accelerate and throw out the air into the diffuser casing at high velocity. It then leaves the turbocharger through the volute of the air outlet housing. The diffuser transforms the high velocity air into high-pressure air for combustion in the diesel engine. The rotor runs in two radial plain bearings which are located in the bearing bush between the compressor casing and turbine casing. The axial thrust bearing is on the compressor side. The power necessary to drive a compressor in the turbocharger must be equal to the power delivered by the turbine. The power of a rotating machine, such as a compressor or a turbine, is: P = mc T This relationship shows the direct influence of mass flow on the output of the turbocharger. The temperature drop over the turbine is directly related to the pressure drop. The pressure drop over the turbine depends on the flow area of the turbine and on

the exhaust flow forced by the engine on the turbine. So, the output of the turbocharger mainly depends on the mass flow.

Fig 4 Modern exhaust gas turbocharger When the same equation is applied to the compressor, it shows that the power input will result not only in a pressure rise, but also in a temperature rise of the charge air. To lower the temperature and to increase the density, a charge air cooler is required between the compressor and the inlet air receiver. This helps to increase the engine output at more moderate charging pressure When considering a turbocharger most folks tend to look at the maximum flow rating of the compressor and ignore everything else under the assumption that the compressor and the exhaust turbine are perfectly matched. The goal in a performance application is to get the exhaust turbine up to speed as quickly as possible. However; it must be mated to a compressor wheel that will generate as much pressure as it can as soon as possible. This is a contradiction because the exhaust turbine generates the drive power and the compressor consumes that power. The larger the compressor and the higher the pressure (boost) we want, the quicker the power from the exhaust turbine can be used up. Put in a larger exhaust turbine and it will take the engine longer to develop enough hot expanding exhaust gas to spin it, slowing down the compressor and causing turbo lag. The turbine is powered by hot expanding exhaust gas, a lot of hot expanding exhaust gas, the more and the hotter the expanding exhaust gas the better. The exhaust turbine will not generate enough power to turn the air compressor fast enough for it to work properly 4

unless the engine is feeding the exhaust turbine a lot of hot expanding exhaust gas, a condition that can only be created when the engine is under a load.

Advantages of Exhaust Gas Turbo-charging

Compared with a naturally aspirated engine of identical power output, the fuel consumption of a turbo engine is lower, as some of the normally wasted exhaust energy contributes to the engine's efficiency. This is because the actual engine size will be smaller. For example, if both engines produce 200 horsepower, the turbocharged version may be able to do this with only four cylinders, while the one without would require six cylinders. A turbocharged engine can get up to 20 percent better fuel economy. With fewer cylinders to produce the same amount of power, the overall engine size and weight will be less than a normal engine. The power-to-weight ratio, i.e. kilowatt (power output)/kilograms (engine weight), of the exhaust gas turbocharged engine is much better than that of the naturally aspirated engine. The turbo engine's installation space requirement is smaller than that of a naturally aspirated engine with the same power output. With a smaller overall engine size to produce the same amount of power, the turbocharged engine is less noisy than a naturally aspirated engine. Also, the turbocharger acts as an additional silencer, muffling any noise generated.

Turbochargers on Large-Bore Engines Operating modes

A turbocharger may be operated on the constant-pressure principle or on the pulse principle. The differences between these principles lie in the design of the exhaust system of the diesel engine. Just before the exhaust valve opens, the cylinder process ends with a relatively high pressure and temperature.

Constant Pressure System

In the constant pressure system, during blow down, the cylinder pressure drops quickly to the exhaust receiver pressure and the pressure in a large receiver remains almost constant. A constant pressure system features one big exhaust manifold, which collects the exhaust gases of all cylinders. The mass flow fluctuations, caused by the cylinders that intermittently exhaust into the receiver, are dampened out by the sheer size of the manifold; thus the pressure in the manifold is relatively low and constant over the cycle.

Advantages of Constant Pressure System

Due to the stability of the conditions of the gas entering the turbine, the blades and blade angles can be optimized for maximum efficiency. Due to this, a

constant pressure system can offer about a 5% increase in efficiency over a pulse system fitted engine Due to the increased efficiency of the blower more energy is available at outlet from the blower for utilization in the waste heat recovery or power turbine. The stability in the gas flow has an added advantage in that the loading on the rotating parts and the bearings is reduced. Exhaust valve opening can be made later in the stroke as the high pressure blowdown of the exhaust gas is not required and also there is less resistance to the outflow of the exhaust gas.

Disadvantages
The main disadvantage of this system is that some means of assisting the scavenging is required at part load. This normally takes the form of an electrically driven blower which is sighted in the scavenge manifold. This blower draws air in over the turbo-blower compressor and compresses it, discharging directly in the scavenge manifold. Drawing air in over the turbo-blower assists with inertia. The possibility of back leakage into the cylinder under low load conditions.

Fig 5 Constant Pressure Turbocharger System

Pulse System
This system feeds the exhaust gases of the engine through narrow pipes to the turbocharger turbine, thus driving the compressor. The pressure variation in the small-

volume pipes allows overlapping of the inlet and exhaust, permitting scavenging of the compression space of the engine cylinder with clean air. Cylinders that do not disturb each others scavenging process can be connected to one pipe (turbine gas inlet) in accordance with the firing order of the diesel engine. This pulse system was the foundation for further success of turbocharging. In December 1928, following a lecture given by Dr. A. Buchi at the Royal Institute of Engineers at Hague in the Netherlands, it was learnt that the thermal load of a diesel engine does not essentially increase when turbocharged. Thus began a phase of extensive research and development. In the pulse system the pressure in a relatively small receiver has a pulsating character. In the pulse system, up to three cylinders are connected to one turbine by a small exhaust pipe. The pressure in the manifold is low, which is advantageous for the scavenging process. Until one of the cylinders opens its exhaust, the pressure rises quickly, even higher than the charge pressure before the engine, giving the turbine a boost. The energy present in the exhaust gases is more effectively transported to the turbine. The pressure before the turbine is high and the blow down losses are much smaller than for the constant pressure system. The greater pressure ratio over the turbine however, is counteracted by a lower efficiency of the turbine due to the increased flow losses as a result of the pulsating flow.

Fig 6 Pulse Turbocharger System

Advantages
The main advantage of this system is that best use is made of the available energy from the exhaust gas at part load to a point that auxiliary blowers of any sort are usually omitted except where fitted for emergency use. The system responds rapidly to load changes 7

Disadvantages
The disadvantage is reduced turbocharger efficiency as the blade and nozzle angles have to be a compromise because of the varying gas velocity and pressure at inlet.

Compressor Technology
Turbocharger compressors are generally centrifugal compressors consisting of three essential components: compressor wheel, diffuser, and housing. With the rotational speed of the wheel, air is drawn in axially, accelerated to high velocity and then expelled in a radial direction. The diffuser slows down the high-velocity air, largely without losses, so that both pressure and temperature rise. The diffuser is formed by the compressor back plate and a part of the volute housing, which in its turn collects the air and slows it down further before it reaches the compressor exit. The main parts of the turbocharger compressor are the compressor wheel (inducer and impeller), common rotor and compressor shaft, diffuser, silencer-filter, air intake casing and compressor casing.

Theory of Operation

Fig 7 Diagram of a ssimplified Centrifugal Compressor (Pump) The centrifugal force utilized by the centrifugal compressor is the same force utilized by the centrifugal pump. The air particles enter the eye D of the impeller and as the impeller rotates, air is thrown against the casing of the compressor. The air becomes compressed as more and more air is thrown out to the casing by the impeller blades. The air is pushed along the path designated A, B, and C in Figure. The pressure of the air is increased as it is pushed along this path. Note in Figure that the impeller blades curve forward, which is opposite to the backward curve used in typical

centrifugal liquid pumps. Centrifugal compressors can use a variety of blade orientation including both forward and backward curves as well as other designs. There may be several stages to a centrifugal air compressor, as in the centrifugal pump, and the result would be the same; a higher pressure would be produced.

Compressor wheel and the diffuser

The compressor wheel, which is one of the most important parts of the turbocharger, is normally made of a single piece high-strength aluminum alloy for compression ratios up to 4.5 and single piece titanium for compression ratios over 4.5.

Fig 8 Compressor Wheel The compressor wheel which may feature a corrosion resistance coating to protect the impeller against acidic corrosion must fulfill the following requirements: To provide the engine with a sufficient amount of air at the desired pressure. High compressor efficiency. Wide compressor map to ensure a safe surge margin, not only at full load, but also at part load. To take high loads due to blades loads as well as centrifugal and vibration stresses.

Compressor silencer air filter

The turbocharger for marine propulsion diesel engine have plate-type silencer as a standard; they are surrounded by an effective air filter. A special guide cone inside the silencer ensures equalization on the air flow and uniform air admission to the compressor.

Silencer features the following characteristics: Contributes to high turbocharger efficiencies due to their low pressure losses, especially at higher mass flows Effective noise level reduction to the required standard level Maximum velocities of the air at silencer inlet of 6 m/s. The soft air filter helps to keep compressor, diffuser and intercooler free from deposits by an effective filtering process.

Air intake casing

The air inlet casing is either constructed with 90 degree bent or as an axial air inlet duct. The large flow paths and wide-curved deflection regions exhibit constant pressure and velocity distribution at compressor inlet.

Compressor outlet casing

The compressor casing which is normally made of grey cast iron, with its wide flow sections and large outlet areas, ensures efficient conversion of kinetic energy into pressure. In the large propulsion engine where high charge air pressures (continuously above 4.0 bars) are required, the compressor casing can be heat insulated.

Turbines design
There are two completely different designs; radial flow and axial flow exhaust gas turbines which are used to drive turbocharger compressors. Radial turbine is normally used in small turbocharger fitted on engine with supercharged engine output from 500kW to about 4500kW per turbocharger, while axial turbine is used on higher power propulsion engines (medium-speed and slow-speed engines). The radial turbine is perfectly capable of accepting the exhaust gas from engine running on heavy fuel oil with ability to retain its high efficiency over a very long period of time, especially when reasonable maintenance is provided. The axial turbine is able to supply an adequate output with good efficiency to drive the compressor from low pressure ratios upwards, thus assuring good part-load performance of the engine. Variable turbine geometry with higher part-load boost pressure and improved dynamic response ensures best transient performance and reduces fuel consumption and emissions in engines part load operation. The main parts of a modern turbocharger turbine are the turbine rotor (disk and rotor blades), common compressor and rotor shaft, nozzle ring, gas admission and gas outlet casings and integrated turbine cleaning device. The forged turbine disk consists of a high-tensile, heat resistance alloy and is connected to the rotor shaft by means of friction welding.

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Fig 9 Turbine Disc The blades are precisely forged of a Nimonic alloy. The blades are fastened to the turbine disk by means of a fir-tree foot connection. Improved construction design of the modern turbocharger has made the turbine blades very well accessible for inspection and cleaning with the usual damping wire in the turbine blade ring omitted.

Turbine nozzle ring

The cast nozzle ring with profiled blades largely contributes to the excellent efficiency of the turbine. With improved flow in the nozzle ring, the vibration acceleration of the rotor blades is reduced and at the same time the stability of the nozzle ring is remarkably improved, especially when it is subjected to heavy stress from cleaning granulates. The casings if insulated with simple and highly efficient insulation material, will guarantee a lower noise level as well as low surface temperature in the engine room.

Turbine casing
The gas admission and gas outlet casings having wide flow areas are made of nodular iron and with improved construction design are un-cooled and are effectively insulated with the flow losses minimized. Turbine outlet casing flange may be subject to loads by the effected gas forces and additional exterior forces while the gas admission casing flange may be subject only to loads by the effected gas forces; this necessitates the use of compensators directly at the turbine inlet and at the turbine outlet. The compensators are to be pre-loaded in such a manner that thermal expansion of the pipes and the casing do not affect force or torque in addition to the gas forces.

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Cleaning device
In modern turbocharger where efficient and standard synthetic air filter is normally used the washing of compressor can be dispensed, provided the air filter is properly treated. However, the turbocharger turbine must be cleaned at regular intervals beginning from the very first operation to remove combustion residues from the blades of rotor and nozzle ring; failure to do so might cause a deterioration of the operating data or severe excitations of the rotor blades. Two principal cleaning procedures for turbine are: Turbine wet cleaning and turbine dry cleaning. Both cleaning methods can be used with the same turbocharger to complement the advantages of each single device. In wet cleaning fresh water free from any chemical additives with approximate pressure of 3 bars has to be used and in order to avoid overload on turbine blades by thermo-shock and centrifugal stresses, the propulsion engine load has to be reduced to 10% of normal load. In dry cleaning, with advantage of carrying it out during normal operation of the engine, a container is filled with a specified quantity of granules and blown into the turbo during an injection period of approximately 30 seconds.

Other issues Vibration

Natural frequencies of rotating components are always analyzed in the design phase to determine the vibration levels. It is also important that the natural frequency of the turbocharger assembly be thoroughly evaluated and the overall system response of the turbocharger on its bracket understood. In addition to theoretical analyses, the vibration characteristics of turbochargers and their air filter silencers have been practically evaluated on a shaker table. This has resulted in a more reliable modeling of the turbocharger and air filter silencers preventing vibration problems normally encountered in service.

Noise emissions and control

Due to the new thrust in environmental awareness manufacturers of large two stroke diesel engines have embarked on a program to reduce engine emitted-noise. Greater demands are accordingly being placed on engine designers to provide more detailed and precise information regarding noise emissions and its various forms. One of the main origins of noise emissions from two-stroke machinery is the turbocharger. The charging systems of large marine diesel engines comprise up to four turbochargers. The components connected to the turbocharger can contribute considerably to the total noise level of the engine. In particular, these components are mainly responsible for pure tone noise transmitted from the compressor outlet. The result of development work for reducing noise at the compressor outlet revealed that an acoustically optimized diffuser is highly effective in reducing the noise level at the compressor outlet. 12

Containment
To protect personnel and to avoid any risk of injury in the case of turbocharger over speed with sudden break of the connection between the compressor and the shaft, all housings are designed to be capable of containing any bursting parts.

Surging
Surging of turbocharger occurs when the air pressure after the compressor is higher than the pressure compressor can internally maintain. This means, when the pressure of the air delivered by the compressor is higher than the pressure inside the compressor a reverse flow of air is created towards the impeller and inlet of the compressor, which reduces the speed of the turbine shaft and creates noise and vibration. Surging can better be understood by drawing a graph of pressure ratio against mass airflow of the system. From the graph it can be seen that surging is an unavoidable phenomena. The efficiency of compressor is highest near the surge line. This means that if high turbocharger efficiency is desired, a compromise between high efficiency and surging needs to be made. Surging leads to a sharp fall in the flow and acceleration of air mainly because of the reversal pressure. This imbalance in the demand and supply also leads to heavy damage of the turbocharger.

Fig 10

Turbocharger Surge Line

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Main Reasons for Surging The main reason, as discussed above, is the deviation of the pressure and operating condition of the turbocharger from the set condition. Apart from that surging can also occur due to any or all of the following reasons.

It can also happen due to sudden change in the engine load or speed. Imbalance in cylinder power or faulty injectors Un-cleaned turbine nozzle ring. Damaged blades Dirty or choked filter The capacity of turbocharger is larger than required. Increased back-pressure at the turbine side.

Sometimes a dirty hull that makes the ship run at full torque has also been shown as the reason for surging. Malfunction of engine's fuel system may also lead to surging. Surging Process There are mainly three things on which the functioning of turbocharger depends. They are:

Pressure ratio Air volume flow Speed

When the air enters the compressor it follows the direction of diffuser vanes. The radial velocity attained by the rotational motion of the impeller is converted into pressure by the diffuser. This increases pressure at the compressors outlet. When surging occurs, due to the reverse air flow, the velocity angles are disturbed which causes breakdown of the boundary layers. Turbulence is created near the boundary which reduces the air flow area, causing resistance. When the turbulence increases beyond a certain limit, the diffusion of air drastically reduces leading to reduced pressure. Thus the pressure downstream of the diffuser goes higher than the diffuser pressure, leading to increase in reversal of air flow.

Turbo Lag
A turbocharger uses a centrifugal compressor, which needs rpm to make boost, and it is driven off the exhaust pressure, so it cannot make instant boost. It is especially hard to make boost at low rpm. The turbo takes time to accelerate before full boost comes in; it is this delay that is known as turbo lag. To limit lag, it is important to make the rotating parts of the turbocharger as light as possible. Larger turbo's for high boost applications will also have more lag than smaller turbo's, due to the increase in centrifugal mass. Impeller design and the whole engine combo also have a large effect on the amount of

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lag. Turbo lag is often confused with the term boost threshold, but they are not the same thing, lag is nothing more the delay from when the throttle is opened to the time noticeable boost is achieved. Smaller turbocharger systems for motor vehicles will sometimes have a wastegate, a valve which allows some of the exhaust gas to be directed around the turbine. This allows the shaft of the turbocharger to spin at a reduced speed (standby mode) when the power is not needed, thus producing increased turbo life

Boost Threshold
Unlike turbo lag, which is the delay of boost, boost threshold is the lowest possible rpm at which there can be noticeable boost. A low boost threshold is important when accelerating from very low rpm, but at higher rpm, lag is the delay that you feel when you go from light to hard throttle settings.

Recommendations for Servicing and Care

What is good for a turbocharger?
The turbocharger is designed such that it will usually last as long as the engine. It does not require any special maintenance; and inspection is limited to a few periodic checks. To ensure that the turbocharger's lifetime corresponds to that of the engine, the following engine manufacturer's service instructions must be strictly observed: Oil change intervals Oil filter system maintenance Oil pressure control Air filter system maintenance

What is bad for a turbocharger?

90 % of all turbocharger failures are due to the following causes: Penetration of foreign bodies into the turbine or the compressor Dirt in the oil Inadequate oil supply (oil pressure/filter system) High exhaust gas temperatures (ignition system/injection system) These failures can be avoided by regular maintenance. When maintaining the air filter system, for example, care should be taken that no tramp material gets into the turbocharger.

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Intercooler Theory
An intercooler, or charge air cooler, is a air-to-air or air-to-liquid heat exchange device used on turbocharged and supercharged internal combustion engines to improve their volumetric efficiency by increasing intake air charge density through isometric (constant volume) cooling. A decrease in air intake temperature provides a denser intake charge to the engine and allows more air and fuel to be combusted per engine cycle, increasing the output of the engine. Why Do We Need A Charge Air Cooler? It has already been stated that in all modern supercharged engines, the waste heat from the exhaust gas is utilized in the turbocharger to drive the turbine of the turbocharger which will cause the spinning of the compressor. The compress air is added to the engine to increase the efficiency of the engine by admitting a large amount of air in a short time available between the opening and closing of the inlet valves or the scavenge ports. As the air obtained at the outlet of turbocharger is totally compressed, the temperature of the air also increases, which reduces the density of air entering the cylinders, thereby reducing the efficiency of the engine. In order to reduce the temperature of charged air from the turbocharger, charge air coolers are fitted to cool the air after the turbocharger and before entry to the engine inlet manifold or scavenge manifold. Therefore the charged air at the outlet of charge air cooler will have a reduced temperature of about 40 to 50 degrees Celsius from a temperature of about 120 to 130 degrees Celsius. This reduced temperature of air will increase the density of the charge air at low temperature. Increased air density of the charge air will rise the scavenge efficiency and allow a greater mass of air to be compressed inside the engine cylinder so that more fuel can be burned inside the combustion chamber, giving an increase in power. Also the engine is maintained at a safe working temperature. The lower compression temperature reduces stress on the piston, piston rings, cylinder liner, and cylinder head. The charge air cooler has another advantage in that it reduces the exhaust gas temperature. It has been proven that every one degree Celsius drop in scavenge air temperature will reduce the exhaust temperature about four degree Celsius. Charge Air Coolers

(a)

(b)

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(c)

(d)

(e)

Fig 11 Charged air coolers types Location of a Charge Air Cooler Charge air coolers are located between the turbocharger compressor side outlet and the engine inlet manifold or scavenge manifold. The location of charge air cooler between turbocharger and entry to engine should be such that the temperature of the charge air at the outlet of charge air cooler should not be increased before its entry to the engine cylinder due to the hot condition of the engine room. To avoid this air cooler should be located as close to the engine cylinder as possible. Also the air duct between the charge air cooler and the engine inlet manifold should be thermally covered to avoid increase in the temperature of the air.

Fig 12 Location of a Charge Air Cooler Air Cooler Fouling and its Effect on the Engine When the air cooler becomes fouled, less heat will be transferred from the air to the cooling water. This is indicated by the changes in the air temperature and cooling water temperature and a pressure drop in the air passing through the air cooler. To measure this pressure drop, a manometer is connected between the charge air cooler inlet and outlet. The amount of pressure drop will depend upon the degree and nature of the fouling.

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Symptoms of Air Side Fouling

Increase of air pressure drop across the charge air cooler. Decrease of air temperature difference across air cooler. Rise in scavenge air temperature. Rise in exhaust gas temperature from all cylinders. Increase in cooling water temperature across the air cooler.

Symptoms of cooling water side fouling

Rise in scavenge air temperature. Decrease in the difference of the air temperature across the air cooler. Decrease in the temperature of the cooling water across the cooler if fouling is on the tubes. Increase in exhaust gas temperature from all cylinders. Increase in the temperature of the cooling water due to fouling or chocking material in tubes that reduce the amount of cooling water flow.

Methods of air side cleaning:

Fins in the air side can be cleaned by using compressed air at high pressure. The air side can be cleaned by dipping the air cooler in a chemical bath for a certain period of time. This will remove all deposits on the air side. Another method of cleaning the air side is by using the jet of water at high pressure.

Methods of sea water side cleaning:

For soft deposits on the water side, dip the cooler in a chemical bath. After a certain period of time, take the cooler out and then clean with jet of water at high pressure. For hard deposits use a long drill bit to drill the hard deposits on the tubes. Note this requires a specialist to drill the hard deposits because small mistakes in drilling may damage the tubes.

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