LECTURE ONE INTRODUCTION Many, if not all my students in Accra Polytechnic particularly those in the first year have

been questioning the lecturers in African Studies the essence of the study of African Studies in the polytechnic. The problem of the students and others emanates from the impact of negative perceptions on Africa and African Studies. Any mention about Africa is about witchcraft, rituals, devils, pouring of libation, drumming and dancing, ethnic wars. Therefore the mention of an African Studies Course is the study of the above activities. In fact the above misconception of Africa and African Studies is manifested in the students inability to exhibit self-confidence, innovation and creativity in their studies. The problems could also be attributed to their lecturers who also share the same misconception about the African. The lack of confidence among studies is extended to a under world view of many Africans including politicians, professors and other professionals. Many Africans hate themselves; they dislike their native languages and prefer to communicate to their fellow citizens and family members in a foreign language; they have abandoned their local names and substituted them with foreign ones; they hate everything African- their beautiful skins, nutritious foods, religion, music, fashion, etc; Let me also add that they hate to purchase goods produced by their own kith and kin. An African writer stated: The subjugation of Africa and its people began in the earnest with the control of our minds which today has reaped surplus dividends to outsiders, especially the European colonizers The statement above is very important for our studies. Generations of Africans including the present have been made to accept that Africans were introduced to civilization by Europeans. That Europeans are superior and they (Africans) are inferior. The creator is white while the devil is black.

The white is more intelligent while the black is blockheaded. The African is not capable of developing a technology to meet his pressing needs except with the support of the Whiteman. All that the African is capable of is wickedness, conflict, physical and spiritual assault. African studies has been an important course of study in many universities all over the world with the aim to rewrite the history of the African, study his cultural, social, economic, political and science and technological development. The objective is to correct misconceptions about Africa by early and some modern Europeans and others that Africa is a dark continent; miseducation of Africans as second rated Europeans; as a people without identity, scientific and technological knowledge; and to restore African heritage, confidence and appropriate education for development. Indeed it is worthy to note that many of our students openly express their ignorance about the social and economic environment of African and appreciate the need to work harder to improve the poor socio-economic circumstances of Africans after going through the course. It is well known fact that the African continent is the least developed or underdeveloped in the world. Mr. Tony Blair (prime minister of Britain) has said about Africa Only one region of the world became poorer in the last 30 years. Half of Africans live on less than $ 1 (one dollar) a day and life expectancy is falling. Average incomes in sub-Saharan Africa in the 1970 were more twice that of south East Asia. Now the opposite is true. In the same period, South Asia irrigated 40% of its land and invested in infrastructure. Manufactured goods rose from 20% to 80% of exports. Meanwhile Africans irrigation was static and its range of exports narrow. From 1980 to 2000, sugar prices fell by 77%, cocoa by 71%, coffee by 64% and cotton by 74% Doctors, teachers, engineers and scientist are leaving. African economies cannot support them.

The continent has the worlds highest disease burden and lowest access to education. The colonial legacy is partly to blame. National borders ignored tribal loyalties. During the cold war, the west backed corrupt regime that stole Africans wealth or spent it on weapons. Wars were fought over diamonds, gold and oil. These recourses disturbed, infrastructure. With transport links skewed from mines to the coast, so it is hard to trade goods in Africa. Source: COMMISSION FOR AFRICA REPORT.2006 The minds of the students must be refocused as students in commerce, Applied science, engineering expected by society to use their knowledge and skills to reduce poverty in African. Our students must be told that Africans who lived before colonial rule were self-determined people, were confident, civilized and above all full of dignity, esteem and pride. The polytechnic students are expected to restore this dignity by using their knowledge and skills to accelerate the development of Africa since it is the African who can develop Africa .Others can help but it is the onerous duty of Africas youth. Our students need to be informed about their own situation to enable them appreciate the enormous task ahead of them. Many of Africas youth, the cream our economic development are trekking to Europe to do menial jobs and to be humiliated by fellow human beings who live outside the continents of Africa and even on the continent. Recent E.U. program on migrants to Europe is quite evident of the mass movement of frustrated and emaciated youth who think that the only way to survive is to work in Europe the sort of job notwithstanding. Everything goes!!!

LECTURE TWO PRE-COLONIAL AFRRICA Pre-colonial Africa refers to the period before European colonial rule in Africa from the year 1884/85 till independence. The continent of Africa had been occupied by black Africans several million of years before the birth of Christ. During this period Africa was organized into political, social, economic, institutions or systems. STATE SYSTEMS (POLITICAL) By the first century AD Africa had various form of state systems; some big and others small. The people were organized into states with independent government with well defined boundaries. A Government could be a group of leaders or leader with limited powers over a village or a community of several family relations (clan). Some Government had powers over several states put together as a kingdom or Empire. In West Africa for example the kingdoms of Mali, Songhai and Ghana were great empires. There were two types of state systems. The first comprised of the states where authority was vested among elders, priests and age grade systems thus by generation: the older generation formed the executive; the next formed the warriors followed by infants/public. This political arrangement has been categorized as non centralized systems or as acephalous societies. Many societies in east Africa had this form of government. The second is often referred to as centralized systems where power was vested in the hands of powerful kings and high ranking chiefs like the rulers of Asante or Oyo (Yoruba) in West Africa. These leaders protected the land, performed rituals, negotiated peace and resolved conflicts. They were assisted by complex bureaucratic systems.

PRINCIPLES OF THE STATE SYSTEM The following are some of the principle that guided the operations of Government. 1. Consensus: Government depended on consensus building than coercion 2. Legitimacy: religion was used as the basis of power. That is the authority of the leaders was based on religions sanctions. For example the kings represented the creator on earth. So the kings and chiefs were the political and religious leaders. 3. The removal of bad leaders: rules were made to remove bad leaders. Many of these rules were not written down but carried effective sanctions when breached. 4. Good governance: emphasis was placed on good governance. That politics must be used for social integration and for protection of human dignity and territory. 5. Economic Wellbeing: agriculture and trade were the major economic basis of power; kings collected tribute and taxes and mobilized labour to engage in production. In the big states kings controlled markets and trade routes to improve the economy and living standards of the people. SOCIAL ORGANISATION The social organization was the basis of economic and political organization. The people were organized into small family units, grouped into several big units often referred to as a clan. There could be several clans in a community. The clans were organized as corporate bodies with the following characteristics 1. Head of clan and; 2. Council of elders who formed the authority. The elders including the head represented various family groups. 3. The clan had a name, symbols and appellation. 4. They had a family god which was worshiped occasionally. 5. They owned properties such as land. 6. They practiced clan exogamy(sexual relationships between close relations was not allowed) 7. The clan was responsible for the economic well being of the members. 8. Clan members showed solidarity and shared successes and failures of members.

Most of the clan members were farmers and shepherds. They made their own tools from local resources. Majority of the people were gainfully employed. They had their own forms of a accommodation enough to eat. Political powers were shared among various clans within the community. Resource were also equitably shared among the clans and family units

SOCIAL VALUES Africans had their own social values regarding social relationship such as the following: 1. Respect for authority. 2. Respect for the elderly and (others) all older persons. 3. Care for younger generation. 4. Sexual sanctity and chastity. 5. Good neighbourliness and communal solidarity. 6. Amicable solutions to disputes or conflicts. 7. Protection of the natural environment- land, tress, rivers etc 8. Care for the unfortunate and destitute 9. Adherence to cultural practices regarding birth, adulthood, marriage (divorce) and death. 10. Honesty, truth and commitment. 11. Hospitality:- care for strangers

INTERACTION AMONG STATES They states also interacted with one another through trade, diplomacy, marriage, migration and warfare. Movements of people were possible because there were no barriers of communication.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE The interaction among the people and the states led to the development of international trade. For example West African merchants were connected to the north through the Trans Saharan caravan trade. The Ashanti kingdom traded in cola and gold with the north. The king of Mali, Mansa Musa travelled to Egypt to trade in gold and textiles. North and east Africa was connected to the inter-continental trade with Europe, Arabia, and Asia. North Africa attracted traders from Spain, Rome,Greece, Arabia, while from Asia, Indians, Chinese, Japanese came into contact with East Africa. The trade among the states improved the power of kings as they benefited from the trade. The interactions also developed a common language among the traders in east Africa and North Africa. West Africa was not left out as trade flourished among the three old empires of Ghana, Mali and Songhai. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLGY Science and technology is the driving force behind civilizations in the world. When the issue of civilization is raised Africa is denied as having no records of civilization. That Africans were primitive (inability to change their ways of life, stuck to old ways of life, not modern, not intelligent) people who could not have undertaken any civilization programme that the so called African civilizations were influenced by contact with Greece and Arabia. Many white (Europeans) historians have attempted to distort information about Africans and civilization. The color of the people who occupied the northern part Africa has been disputed as of foreign origin, the Caucasians from Asia. It has been established that black people of African origin occupied the northern part of Africa and were responsible for the massive scientific and technological development that occurred in the area so many years before the birth and after the death of Jesus Christ. Egypt (formerly known as kemet) is credited with the building of pyramids for the preservation of dead pharaohs (kings of Egypt).

The building of the pyramids and preservation of the body of the dead pharaohs is significant for it shows that Africa had black mathematicians, architects, building technologists, bio-chemists, pathologists and medical doctors. The pyramids for examples were built by using the right angle triangle formula (c2 = a2 + b2) which a Greek called Pythagoras claimed to have founded it. (Pythagoras theorem), when the black Egyptians were already using the theory before he was born. Pythagoras was a thief. There are Greek ancient records which indicate that many Greek philosophers travelled to Egypt to learn new ideas. Pythagoras was one of them. There are records in the Bible, (precisely Exodus) which accounts for the civilization in Egypt. For example Egypt used iron to manufacture helmets and breast shields and chariots. The use of iron is very significant; it is an indication of early forms of mining technology and the processing of irons for tools and other items. In order to use iron one needs to heat it to certain temperature. ( ) to make it possible for processing. How could primitive people know this? It shows the depth of scientific knowledge of the early black Africans. Williams an Egyptologists had found that the early Egyptians had a writing system when he examined some writing on potteries. There is also evidence of agricultural revolution in Egypt. The use of an irrigation system called shaduf from the Nile River increased food production in Egypt attracting the Jews and other people to migrate to Egypt. There are also revelations that the septic tank systems were designed ion Egypt. The earliest form of condom, derived from the intestines of goats were developed to control rising population in Egypt (the condom is presently preserved in a Canadian museum) In West Africa evidence of mining and processing of metals such as gold iron abounds. Trade in gold flourished between West Africa and North Africa. At least the first Europeans to arrive in West Africa found Gold at Elmina. Gold is mined and not plucked from trees. There are traces of iron furnaces in Ashanti and other neighboring countries. There are accounts of the manufacture and trade in textiles. People of northern Ghana,

Ashanti, and Ewe were all weaving cloths for domestic use and for exchange. The kente loom was developed to produce nice cloths for Kings and other rich people. The use of gold and weaving of cloths is significant for it shows the depth of science and technology in Africa. From the forest zone the people carved stools and used the clay to make colourful pottery and build houses. The people who occupied the northern part of Ghana built houses to suit their environmental circumstances. The circular houses found in the north have scientific explanation-when the outside is hotter the inside becomes cooler the opposite is the case of the igloos built by the Eskimos. When the outside is cooler the inside becomes hotter this is very significant because the technology used by these different people emanate from their environmental circumstances. The entire above examples have not come from Europe. Recent development in public health have revealed that earlier forms of Africans concepts; for example, breast feeding to protect the child from attack by diseases was far better than that of powdered milk- lactogen, S.M.A etc. produced by Europeans. Today the World Health Organization (W.H.O) is encouraging breastfeeding of infants for at least six months. The same organization and others like UNICEF are encouraging the use of local food items to wean children/infants because they have realized their nutritious values instead of canned foods from Europe some of which are near expiration or expired. Research scientists even attest to the fact that continuous breastfeeding also acts as a natural contraception and far better than the introduction of artificial hormones into the body of our sisters, daughters and mothers as forms of contraception. The fact is that breastfeeding reduces ovulation and therefore fertilization by the male sperm. Many women have suffered the side effects of the use of these chemical contraceptives. Medicinal knowledge of Africans was so huge that specialists emerged; for example bone setters, midwives, psychotherapists, pharmacists (herbalist because they are Africans). All these knowledgeable people are dead and gone because they were blackmailed as satanic agents by Europeans and their African agents.

We can also add preservation of food items by drying on the sun, smoking and use of salt and charcoal. For the benefit of those in catering there were also fast foods such as roasted yam, plantain, cocoyam, kenkey and rice (waakye). We can also add fruit salad. (in east Africa the Swahili equivalent is called Mapochopocho). Today fast foods refer to junk food produced in foreign oriented restaurants described as continental dishes. African dishes are not continental but local or indigenous. CONCLUSION The question we have to ask ourselves is so what happened afterwards? How did African lose all these beautiful past glory?

LECTURE THREE AFRICAS CONTACT WITH THE OUTSIDE WORLD A.THE PERIOD OF LEGITIMATE ECONOMIC RELATIONSHIP: African had been in contact with the outside for centuries through trade. The terms of trade had been fair and equitable. Relationships had been cordial and equal. In the second lecture I mentioned the trade links between north and east Africa and Arabia, India, china, Japan. West and North Africa had trade links with Western Europe such as Portugal, England, Denmark, Holland, Italy, Spain .etc. The items of trade included gold, ivory, textiles, sugar, exotic items such as animal hides and skin, rum, gin, cutlery, sandals etc. The trade used the barter system of exchange. The trade improved living standards of Africans and their trading counterparts. Apart from trade, social relationships developed leading to inter-marriages and acquisition of land. In West Africa the European traders were allowed to build Ports and castles (trading posts) along the coast to protect their wares. B. THE PERIOD OF ILLEGITIMAE ECONOMIC RELATIONSHIP 1. ARABIAN INVASION In the 7th century AD the north of Africa and part of eastern and central Africa under went massive Arab invasion and civilization. The Islamic religion and laws were imposed on the black people of Africa. Islam produced thousand of converts. Politically the black Africans, starting from Egypt to the east of Africa became subjects of Arabic leaders. Islamic merchants employed the Africans as their servants (slaves). Some African slaves were taken to Arabia to serve their masters. From the above the period of legitimate trade and equality changed to master servants relationships. Africans lost control of the trade to their new masters

2. EUROPEAN TRADE IN SLAVES (INHUMAN TRADE). In the fifteenth century England discovered new lands in America and the Caribbean or the West Indies. The indigenous people of America (the Amerindians and others) could not be coerced to clear the new lands for cultivation. The Europeans needed labour, so turned to West Africa with big slave boats. The slaves trade became very profitable so many local chiefs joined. The chiefs and their warriors hunted for slaves from the hinterland of West Africa. They exchange strong, energetic men and beautiful women for rum, gums and gun powder. They captured African slaves were packed liked sardines or mackerel into the slave boats and blessed by Christian chaplains in the forts and castle shipped to the West Indies oceans to be sold to white farmers to cultivate cotton, sugar, fruits etc. In fact African slaves were advertised for customers. : Some of the messages read Strong African slaves for sale or rent. Over 220 million Africans were sold into slavery from West Africa to America. The slave trade changed the equal relationship between Africans and the Europeans. Africans were humiliated and reduced to the level of animals and commodities for sale on the markets. Africans lost their pride and dignity as human beings created just like the Whiteman The Arabic civilizations and Europeans slave trade laid the foundation for the future exploitation of Africa and the structure of the economy of Africa and conflicts on the continents. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN EUROPE In the 17th and 18th century, Europe experienced a massive industrial revolution which started in England. Machines were invented to process the raw materials produced in the West Indies by African slaves. Many processing industries emerged, leading to over production of goods. The markets were choked with goods. The banking sector also developed to finance businesses. There was the need to look for new markets otherwise the businesses would collapse. Africa became the target for European merchants. They scramble for position in

Africa. European countries such as Britain, France, Portugal, Spain, Germany, Belgium, and Italy struggled for market positions on the continents of Africa. While the struggle continued the slaves trade became less profitable because human labour was no longer needed because of the invention of agricultural machines like combined harvesters and other mechanized tools for agriculture. The African slaves became destitutes in America and Europe as their masters abandoned them. There was the need to resettle the destitute Africans on their continent of origin. African slaves who were still kept by their masters gained their freedom after the court of law declared slavery and slave trade illegal. Humanitarians and European Christian missionaries colonized Liberia and settles freed slaves from America and Sierra Leone for those from Europe and captured slaves on high seas (many of whom were from Nigeria) The struggle for African markets intensified, So seven European powerful nations namely: Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal and Belgium agreed to settle their differences at an organized conference in Berlin, Germany in1884/85. At the meeting, they took the map of Africa and shared the continent among themselves just like a family share a Christmas or birthday cake. This is often referred to as the partitioning of Africa. The idea of the partitioning of Africa was to have political control of Africa raw materials and protection of markets for European goods against their competitors.

LECTURE FOUR COLONIALISM IN AFRICA The partitioning of Africa by the seven super powers at the Berlin conference in 1884/85 marked the beginning of European colonialism in Africa. Colonialism can simply be defined as a situation where powerful nations ruled over weaker ones such as that of Europe and Africa in the 19th century, the seven European nation ruled Africa for over one hundred years. The partitioning and subsequent rule of Africa by Europeans created modern Africa. Peoples and groups ere shared by competing European nations. New countries were formed with new boundaries to replace the pre-colonial states. At the end of it all 48 countries emerged south of the Sahara to replace thousands of pre-colonial states. PROBLEMS OF NEW STATES AND BOUNDARIES The new states comprised different ethnic groups and created rivalries among the people. Most of the boundaries were arbitrary. Families, groups were divided. One ethnic group found themselves in two or more countries. For example, the Ewes were located in Ghana, Togo and Benin. The Nzemas of Ghana are in two countries; Ghana and Cote divoire etc. the management of different ethnic groups in a new state has become difficult till today. Political Changes: - The traditional rulers lost their political, military and judicial powers to the new rulers. They were reduced to tax collectors and government agents. So they lost their respect. Political power shifted those with education and understand the western political system leading to rivalry between the chiefs and the educated elite. The colonial governments established the police, army and civil service to serve their needs. The judiciary was also established and court procedures fashioned on western models and philosophers. The police, army and the judiciary was to control opposition. The colonial government was insensitive to opposition. It was autocratic and oppressive.

Economic changes: The traditional African economy was transformed to serve the interest of the colonial government; whose main idea was to exploit the people and the resources of Africa. A modern economy was created Poor Africans produced cash crops to feed the

industries in Europe. The new economy was facilitated by habours, roads and railways; supported by new financial institutions and use of currencies. African metals, gold, manganese, iron, bauxite, copper were exploited and exported to Europe. These raw materials were processed into finished goods and exported to Africa at higher prices. Prices for Africas raw materials were priced very low to create an unfair trade. Social and cultural changes: African social values were transformed by the spread of western education. Western education was considered as he beginning of civilization of Africa which promoted the superiority of western way of life. Africans were made to read more about Europe languages were imposed on Africa dividing them into Anglo phones, francophone, Portuguese and Spanish speaking people of Africa. It is the belief of many African including scholars that high proficiency in the colonial masters language is a mark of intelligence and advancement. Those who spoke vernacular were/are respected not and many instances teachers wrote boldly on the black boards SPEAK ENGLISH ALWAYS. School children were punished for expressing themselves freely in their native tongues. Those who could not master the concords of grammar kept mute in class or embarrassed by mere ships in the English language. The education was more of humanities than the science or technical education. Colonial education was not interested in developing higher level personnel in science and technology. They preferred low level technicians and artisans for maintenance of public properties. Engineers and other professional were Europeans. The African cannot be an Engineer!!!

Other changes The development of capital towns and urban towns created migration from rural areas to these areas. Rural development was neglected. Population increased in these new areas creating an urban culture modeled on western values. Land used was transformed to a community, measured and values and sold to the highest bidder. In effect land was commercialized contrary to the African concept that lands are not commercial but for all-the living, the dead and the yet to be born. African extended family system reduced to nuclear to conform to Western Europe way of life. Western medicine was introduced and plant medicine suppressed. Western religion made many converts from African who were described as not having any religion but of Satan and devils

LECTURE FIVE COLONIALISM AND THE RISE OF NATIONALISM/INDEPENDENCE The effects of colonial rule gave birth to nationalism. Nationalism is described as love for a nation often by a group of people. Colonial rule was oppressive and denial of the dignity of a people. Africans resisted colonial rule and struggled for independence. By the middle of the 1960s many African countries had become independence. Others like Mozambique, Angola, Namibia etc gained their independence later. Africans had high expectations from the independence of Africa- Freedom and Development. COLONIAL LEGACY A legacy means inheritance, or what is handed over to a generation. Colonial legacy therefore would mean aspects of colonial rule and structures handed over to Africa after independence. In fact many accept that independence of Africa was a farce because nothing has changed. There is therefore a need for a true independence. The whites (Europeans) continue to rule Africa through heads of states in Africa. The first president of Ghana, the late Dr Kwame Nkrumah referred to this situation as neo-colonialism. POLITICALLY: Independence was nothing but a change of rulers; the new rulers inherited the colonial machinery of government. They turned out to be more oppressive and dictatorial. They did not change the colonial boundaries, they maintained them. They favoured their tribesmen and friends, the same way as the colonial government. ECONOMICALLY: The new rulers did not change the economic structure the colonialist established. Africa was made to specialize in the production of raw materials to feed the industries in Europe. Europe added value to the raw materials and sold to Africans at higher prices. Today Africans continue to export raw materials- cocoa, cotton, gold, timber etc to Europe.

Today we can also add that there is new type of slave trade- intellectuals and professionals including professors, doctors, engineers, nurses, footballers and even hairdressers and barbers are enticed to raise their own funds to work in Europe. Some of these professionals have no choices. Some accept undignified jobs they would never do in Africa. The economic relationship between Africa and Europe is that of the rich and the poor, the master and the servant. Africa does not only provide a big market for European and American goods but a large recipients of Garbage from Europe and America including Toxic waste (factory sweepings) expired foods and used clothing (including rags). Scraps (used cars and computers) etc. The economic inequality between Africa and Europe/America affected local industries; many of them collapsed because they could not compete with cheaply priced imported goods from Europe. Manufacturing sector such as textiles cannot make profit. The agriculture sector- rice, poultry farmers, vegetable growers, those in animal husbandry have no markets for their products. The results are unemployment and poverty. (Refer to Tony Blairs comments in the Introduction). More will be said in subsequent lectures on Africas dependency on Europe and America. TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM: The transportation system established is maintained by African governments. The transportation system was designed to facilitate the smooth safe and rapid movement of raw materials from their sources to harbour to be exported to Europe. The trends continue. Towns and villages which have no raw materials are denied better roads. The best they could have are feeder roads which are washed away by rains; HEALTH: Independent governments in Africa promoted orthodox medicines or western medical system brought by colonial government. The equipments and drugs are imported from Europe. Recent developments indicate that most donated medical items are described as scraps refurbished to use in hospitals in Africa. Medical doctors trained in medical schools in Africa are European oriented. They frown on traditional medical systems.

They have been told that traditional medical systems are unscientific, unhygienic and above all associated with gods, devils and practiced by illiterates. They depend more on drugs from Europe and Africa. PATTERN OF DEVELOPMENT The colonial pattern of development continues in Africa. Urban dwellers are provided with good social amenities, schools, roads, hospitals, electricity and employers. Rural dwellers are neglected forcing many young people to migrate to urban towns where jobs are not easily found. The rural areas have been reduced to homes for the aged poor and emaciated youth. EDUCATION:-The new rulers of Africa (African heads of states) maintained the colonial system of education; curriculum was more Grammar than technical education. Further the content was more of Europe than Africa. Teachers gave examples or illustrations to their students from Europe. In the history books, many Africans, towns, villages, rivers and mountains were discovered by European explorers and adventurers. The question is what about those Africans who lived close to these rivers and mountains? Were they not also discoverers? Furthers inventors were all from Europe. They were more creative than Africans!!! In the educational system the medium of communication did not change. The colonial Masters language was maintained- English, French, Spanish, Portuguese. Academic progression depended largely on a pass, or credit in these languages. Those who failed had to rewrite several times to gain admission to all higher levels of Education. Good passes in other subject areas are not considers for entry. Technical education is least supported by government. Colonial government did not need higher levels of qualified technician and engineers. Improvement in technical education means increased economic development which may affect the fortunes of Europe in Africa. So the best thing to do is to train Africans as maintenance Engineers to fix parts of machinery designed by European Engineers for industries in Africa.

In Ghana for example, the state has twenty three vocational and technical school compared to four hundred and seventy five Grammar secondary schools out of thirty eight teacher training schools, only eleven offer technical courses. Universities and colleges mandated to offer higher science and technical education are now offering higher courses in commerce and social science. Recently the accredited private universities in Ghana are offering courses in commerce. (there would be more on the lectures on science and technology in Africa) The recent educational reforms in Ghana and others in Africa is best described as cosmetic. The emphasis remains the same. There is no motivation for students in science and technology. Governments cannot support research and training of staff and students. Local industries do not have the capacity to provide attachment training. Moreover the institutions which offer scientific and technological training are poorly equipped. Equipments are archaic, some brought into Africa since the days of Governor Guggisberg of the Gold Coast in 1925. European institutions continue to train Africans in all fields of endeavour. It is good to be trained in specialized fields of interest in Europe because they are well equipped. The problem is that these professionals are enticed to stay and offer their services in Europe. Many do not come home. When they come they want to be pampered for better conditions of services or frustrated by government bureaucrats. The need to show patriotism by using their new knowledge acquired to build Africa is abandoned; instead they go on strike and demand higher salaries from the very poor people who contributed to their foundation in education. THE MILITARY AND POLICE The military and the police were established to protect the colonial rulers. Many military officers were/are trained abroad. Their loyalty is to the government of the day and not the people. The same can be for the military. The military and the police are trained to beat up civilians (their own people). Those who oppose bad government policies and actions are molested and incarcerated and even tortured just as the colonialist did. Government officials are well protected while the citizenry are left to face the wrath of armed robbers and other aggressive people. Military and Police uniforms including boots, equipments including arms and the bullets are imported from Europe.

THE JUDICIARY The judicial system remained the same as established by the colonial governments. The pattern of the process of justice is dependent on European sources. Judges and lawyers continue to cite European cases as sources of authority to justify verdicts on cases from Africa. The governments have not restored the judicial powers of the chiefs. Today alternative sources of conflicts resolution are being promoted patterned along the lines of traditional African mode of settling disputes. Today families have been divided because a member of family members has been imprisoned by another blood relation over an issue which could have been resolved amicably. The adherence to European models of justice has resulted in over crowed prisons. CULTURAL The political leaders have made less effort to improve the culture of the people. Chiefs have been reduced to spokespersons or public Relations officers of the people. At festivals they appeal for government support in the provision of social amenities. Their sources of funds are controlled by government. Government officials delay payment of royalties to the chiefs to enable them develop their communities. Chieftaincy is the custodian of the culture of the people. Cultural artifacts are not well protected. Government has not been able to protect African cultures from the influx of bad culture of Europe and America. The African youth is exposed to the dangerous cultures of Europe through literature, video, cinema, internet and tourism. This has promoted intergenerational cultural conflicts in Africa. Africa relies heavily on European fashion, music, events (Christmas and Easter) . Could we imagine Africans wearing winter boots under Africans hot sunshine? Could we also imagine judges and lawyers wearing European hoods and dark suits under Africas hot climatic condition? Can we also add the references to fried rice and chicken as continental and that of Africa as native or local? Why is Africa not a continent? Where are our nutritious African dishes? There is the need to free the African mind from this mental slavery. I hope you cannot disagree but to accept this fact.

LECTURE SIX CONFLICTS IN AFRICA AFTER INDEPENDNCE The high expectations of political freedom and economic development to free the people from poverty was/is a big challenge to the new rulers of independent Africa. Three major problems faced Africa: preservation of national unity; improve social and economic standards and mobilization of the people for development through education and development of skilled and knowledgeable manpower. It is well known that a positive development of a country can only take place where there is political stability. This requirement has eluded Africans for decades. Africa has been embroiled in several conflicts with great negative impact on social and economic development. The following factors are responsible for the above. 1. State formation and credibility of new and credibility of new rulers: The new states created by the partitioning of Africa created ethnicity (group consciousness). By the creation of the new states in Africa different groups of people with different cultural orientation and aspiration, some powerful and others weak, some with substantial natural endowments were group together become one state. Allegiance to the new state was non-existence. The new government and leaders failed to acquire acceptability from the various groups now in a new state with leaders who come different groupings. To legitimize their political leaders, the new rulers had to resort to violence. They would not tolerate any opposition from other groups. Soon they declared a one-party authoritarian state just like the colonial government. 2. Corruption: The new rulers use political power to steal from the state. Some political leaders have been alleged to be richer than their own countries. They rewarded their party supporters with money and jobs. Opponents of government are denied juicy contracts and jobs. Because of private gains from the use of state power there is a fierce Competition to control the state. Corruption affect the management of the state, destroys morale and confidence of society. There is a full scale of mistrust and tension among the people particularly the disadvantaged.

3. Lack of effective means of changing political leaderships: Democratic means of electing new leaders in Africa was manipulated. Leaders refused to handover. Voters were coerced to vote for the old ruler. The presidents were seen as owners of the state and government. Life presidents emerged in Africa as a result. 1. The military and democracy in Africa: The military has been used by self-motivated and greedy military and civilians to topple government in Africa (legitimate and illegitimate). These adventurers justify their interventions by accusing civilians of corruption and mismanagement of the state. They claimed to be the messiahs with magic wands to turn Africa round. The military like its civilians counterparts have also failed Africa. With the control of means of violence, it violated human rights, spent huge sums of national money on arms, destroyed democratic Institutions(such as suspension of constitutions) and attacked intellectuals and professionals as the causes of underdevelopment in Africa; the so called booklong people . Military leaderships were allergic to alternative opinions. Critics are arrested and detained for years and tortured. The press/media was gagged. Freedom of expression suppressed. Instead praise singers emerged to motivate arrogant dictators who encourage the culture of silence to enable them have their own way to manipulate the state. Under military rule there is no commitment to the rule of law. The judiciary is threatened by execution and assassinations. Political opponents, journalists are detained without trial or denied access to lawyers or fair trail. Instead they are tried in kangaroo courts and sentenced to death 2. Inter-state wars: Many African governments are threatened by inter-state wars regarding claims of lands and other resources. Few examples are Ethiopia and Eritrea, Nigeria and Cameroon over the Bakassi peninsula, Libya and Chad over the Aozou strip.

3. Inter ethnic wars: Ethnic wars or conflicts continue in Africa as in Somalia Rwanda and Burundi, Congo Dr, Togo, Liberia, Cote divoire etc. Nigeria has had its far share of ethnic wars and rivalry. 4. Exploitation of minorities as in Nigeria, the minority groups in the Niger Delta are exploited by the government and Multinational Corporation on oil. The minorities are protesting against exploitation of oil in their area without corresponding provision of social amenities and adequate compensation for the environmental effects of the oil business. Opinion leaders have been detained and killed by government. The Ogoni leader Ken Sarowiwa was executed by the Abacha government of Nigeria. 5. Religious conflicts: Africa has become arena for conflicts between two religions in Africa. Islam and Christianity. (Foreign religious now in Africa). Many African families have divided between these two religions. Sections of communities are despised, killed because they do not share the same values of either religion. 6. Colonial interests: Colonial masters have also encouraged the conflicts. They are still interested in African raw materials and therefore support one faction against the other with ammunitions. The war in the Great lakes for example is one of those-Countries in the great lakes, Uganda, Tanzanian, Zambia, Namibia are endowed with Natural resources valued billions of dollars to be exploited. America, France, Britain, Belgium and others are behind these brutal wars. Congo has virgin forests and metals such as cobbalt (the second in the world after Russia) for the aviation industry. Sudan is endowed with huge deposits of oils and gold. Americans, the British and Arabs are competing for these at the detriment of poor Africans who live in the Sudan. The question is what are Africans doing? Do we have to blame the colonial masters and Europeans for our economic woes?

Where are the African scientist and technologists to exploit and process our raw materials for more economic gains to put the smiles back on the faces of Africans? Why are Africans poor in the midst of plenty? Africa has one of the highest numbers of refugees in the world. Its people are malnourished and sick and killed by mosquitoes, bacterial and viruses. African leaders are globe trotting with bowls in-hand begging for arms to feed their people. When will this stop?

LECTURE SEVEN NEW AGENDA FOR AFRICANS Africans need new conditions for development to improve social and economic lives of the people on the continent. Africa has been reduced to footnotes in would affairs. During the cold war (east and west ideological divide) the continent was put into dilemma (just like the dilemma of the ghost who did not know where to go to: Elmina or cape coast) as which pattern of development strategies to adopt for social and economic development of Africa to meet the economic expectations of the people after independence to provide jobs, education and social services. DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY AFRICANS SINCE INDEPENDENCE Several development strategies have been adopted by Africans governments after independence. The development strategies include socialism and capitalism the political and economic ideologies of the eastern and western Europe (including America). Sub regional co-operation such as south-south co-operation, economic integration such as ECOWAS, E.A.C(East African Community-Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania) SADACC,AU etc. others include structural adjustments programmes, dependence on loans and grants from developed countries. Two strategies are dominant in Africa. These are Socialism (state-led economy) and Capitalism (or liberal economy). WHAT IS SOCIALISM? Socialism is a political and economic ideology which assumes the state/public ownerships of the means of productions, that is, the land and its resources, capital and labour etc. and the use of those means in fulfillment of the peoples needs. This ideology was adopted by the former Soviet Union and allies in eastern Europe-Bulgaria, Romania, Poland. Socialism is opposed to multiparty democracy. It prefers one party system. All other political parties are not recognized or are illegal.

The state also plays a major role in the economy. It controls capital, prices of goods and services; it owns several enterprises, shares in several companies. It is the largest employer. It believes in national and international unity, co-operation and equality, equity (farmers) in the distribution of resources to all irrespective of status. WHAT IS CAPITALISM? Capitalism is a political and economic ideology which encourages private participation in the economy. Individuals and groups of people are allowed to own the means of production land, capital, labour etc Government role in the economy is limited to strategic resources and services Government main tasks is to collect taxes, provide infrastructure- roads, school etc, maintain law and order and dispense justice. Capitalism recognizes multiparty democracy. The freedom and human rights are entrenced in the constitution. It also respects the Rule of law etc Prices are determined by the forces of demand and supply. Capitalism is practiced in America and in other western countries. It must be noted that these ideologies are not fully practiced. Both are often blended to be called a welfare state. This is because there are people who cannot survive the extreme practice of these ideologies. AFRICAS ADOPTION OF THE TWO IDEOLOGIES AS STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT PLANNING. SOCIALISM Tanzania, guinea, Ghana, Zambia, Egypt (stooped) took a socialist path of state control and ownership of industries. (State owned enterprises) or joint state/ private enterprises. CAPITALISM Nigeria, Liberia, Kenya, cote divore adopted a capitalist path of private ownership and management of the economy. The state was allowed to interface in those areas that required financial commitments beyond the reach of the private sector.

RESULTS OF THE ADOPTION OF THE TWO MODELS OF ECONOMIC PLANNING 1. The results were disappointing in the capitalist countries. Local companies supported by their foreign companies and governments transferred a lot of profits to Europe and denied the state much revenues in the form of taxes and dividends. 2. Those in socialist countries were no better. The states became poor economic managers. The state enterprises collapsed for several reasons- mismanagement, corruption, over-staffing, nepotism, laziness and absenteeism. Government interference, huge losses, high government expenditure on salaries and wages for non-performing managers and workers; long administrative procedures(red tapeism) 3. The economy became worse, mass poverty, prevailed, agriculture production declined, less revenue from international trade and rising depts. For loans contracted from international banks and foreign governments. 4. By 1980 many countries in Africa experienced political instabilities. There was mass protests and agitation for change. Military coups became a fashion and contagious. The fact is that the two models of planning failed to improve the social and economic lives of the people, only few benefited- political leaders and their friends and families were richer than their countries. 5. The new messiahs the military/civilian adventurers could not send the poor the Promised Land or paradise. They also amassed wealth, brutalized the people- both men and women. Pressmen were jailed for their editorial comments. Judges were killed in some countries. There was culture of silence nobody could express his opinions for fear of molestation by government agents.

LECTURE EIGHT RETURN TO DEMOCRACY AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA Politics is the basis for development. Development can take place only when there is political stability. Between 1988-1940, many African leaders, intellectuals and pressure groups accepted that the panacea to Africans economic woes is the return to an acceptable democratic system and practice. The developed countries led by the united state of America mounted pressure on Africa leaders to accept the western democratic system of government. The congress of America set conditions for the adoption of democratic governance. African countries which failed to democratize were to be denied financial assistance from the developed world. Since 1990, many African states have established multi-part system democratic institution and constitutions. There are of course few ones that are jet to conform to the demand for multiparty democracy-for example Zimbabwe. PRINCIPLES OF MULTIPARTY DEMOCRACY Acceptance of a constitution in which the rule of law is entrenched. Recognition of the freedom and human rights of the people. A free media/press. An independent and impartial judiciary. Peoples representation in government elected by universal adult suffrage through free and fair elections conducted by an independent electoral commission. An executive president also elected through free and fair elections The right of the people to change government and elect a government of their choice without intimidation or coercion. Transparency in government dealings through accountability and probity and fight against corruption etc Popular participation and representation in government through decentralization-the district assembly concept.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 1. Increased private participation in the economy. 2. less participation of government in the economy 3. Prices of goods and services determined by the forces of demand and supply 4. Trade liberation- open market for foreign and local businesses in goods and services to compete. 5. Government role is to collect taxes, maintain law and order, provide infrastructure and social amenities. 6. Government expenditure should be reduced the size of government must be cut to the lower levels. 7. Removal of government subsidies on services and goods. The people must pay real prices for the goods and services they enjoy. This is to maintain those services for continues use and reliability delivery of services. Review the structure of the economy raw-materials exporter to value added exporter. Raw materials must be processed to gain more profits on the world market. In addition the products should be well branded and packaged to meet international standards to be competitive. 8. Agricultural practices must improve-high yielding seeds, mechanization, extension services and food security and sustainable fair prices for farmer produce. 9. Science and vocational, technical education must be improved to speed up the economic transformation of the continent. 10. Government expenditure on research must increase and encourage use of research results.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Fair distribution of national revenue and resources/amenities Human resources development- access to quality education and health irrespective of gender, religion and ethnic group etc Motivation for creativity and innovation and recognition of excellence and contribution to the development of the economy and society by individuals, groups and corporate bodies. Peace and security protection of the state from external and internal aggression and individuals and groups from criminals and unfriendly neighbours Protection of vulnerables such as the blind, Disabled, women and children from abuse and disrespect Adoption of democratic culture at all levels at family units, institution and association to serve as the foundation for a sustainable democratic culture Peaceful and amicable solutions to disputes among individuals, families, groups and communities. Mobilization for community development; communities should be encouraged to mobilize their own resources for development while government agencies support them with technical advice and financial support.

LECTURE NINE DEPENDENCY AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA INTRODUCTION Immediately after independence, many African leaders like Dr. Kwame Nkrumah was sure of one thing, that the continent had many natural resources, enough to ensure rapid development of African states. Many years after attainment of our independence, however, most countries in Africa show the characteristics of under development. Our leaders are unable to design plans to move away from the colonial ways of doing things. The colonial economic system continues to ensure that our continent plays the role of producers of primary products such as cocoa, coffee, tea, cotton and rubber for their industries abroad. Even when we produce large quantities of these primary products, we earn very little, because the foreign market determines how much to pay for our products in the complex world markets. In this section we shall learn something about the concepts of dependency and foreign aid and apply them to our country. What is dependency? Dependency has many meanings and explanation. For the purpose of our study, we shall define dependency simply as the reliance on another country. It is also a situation in which the economy of a certain group of countries depends upon the development and expansion of another economy.

There are three basic features of dependency. First, it describes an international arrangement or systems as comprising two sets of states, the centre and periphery. The centre states are the advanced or developed countries. The periphery or dependent states are the less developed countries in Africa, Asia and South America. Second, dependency concept assumes that there are external influences on economy activities within the periphery states. These external influences include foreign companies, international market, foreign assistance and other means by which the developed countries can represent their interest abroad. The periphery states have no independent economic policy. Thirdly, the relationship between the center state and periphery states is unequal. The concept is used to explain how the systems of world trade make poor countries economically dependent on the advanced states like USA, Britain and Japan. These developed countries have more money, technology and industrial advantage to benefit more from the international markets. This situation arises because the poor or periphery state export primary commodities to the rich countries. Manufactured products of those commodities are sold back to the poor countries at a higher cost more than the primary products used to produce those manufactured goods. Therefore, the poor periphery states would never earn enough for their export to pay for their imports. Besides, the center states set the rules for the markets through the agencies like the World Trade Organization, World Bank and other agencies. ROLE OF DEPENDENCY AID Dependency aid or development aid can have positive role to play in our attempt to seek resources for development. There are many forms of development aid. These include the following: Loans and grants Technical assistance Food aid Budgetary support Scholarships and training of local personnel

There are many different arguments in favour and against the reliance of the above assistance in Africa. We shall first discuss briefly some of the reasons and benefits for development assistance. SHARING OF WEALTH Development aid is seen as one of the means by which the richest nations make their presence felt in the world. Through aid, they acquire a unique international role: one that shows a morally self-imposed responsibility to share the benefit of development with the worlds poorest countries or neighbours. These countries, especially the USA, Britain and Japan may transfer funds, grants and loans to undertake projects such as roads, hospital, school and so forth with the view to reducing poverty, hunger and disease in poor countries. TRAINING Development assistance may also take the form of training of local people abroad to acquire more knowledge about management and government. In many cases, where there are shortages of experts in critical areas, the rich nations send their own nationals or expatiate to the poor countries to help manage foreign sponsored projects. For example Britain, France, USA and Japan maintain a high level of aid investment and a sizeable flow of technical assistance, teachers, Peace Corps and businessmen in many African countries. INCREASED PUBLIC SAVINGS In addition to the above, development aid can help our country to increase her public savings for development. For example, when we receive food aid and grants they help the government to save its own funds or resources and provide additional funds for rapid development. Furthermore, the government may also direct its expenditure on education if it is believe that education grants will be made available to other needy sectors of our economy. TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY Technical assistance is also important for the transfer of technological know-how which is needed by our country. Besides, the donor countries sometimes pay the salaries of

foreign experts. All the above benefits help to increase public savings for development in many African countries. PROBLEM OF DEPENDENCY AIDS Foreign aid has bothered the minds of many experts. Most African countries depend on foreign assistance to support large portions of their national budgets. It is widely believed that over reliance and dependence on foreign countries is the cause of the low level of development in most African countries like Ghana. Among the many problems or disadvantage aids are: DEPENDENCY Foreign aid traps the poor countries into remaining perpetually reliant on the foreign states and control

UNSTABLE ECONOMY Anytime donors are unable or unwilling to bring aid, Ghanas economy becomes unstable. Governments plans for projects may also stop for a while or may never be carried out at all. DISCOURAGEMENT It is believe that aid dependency does not encourage African leaders and their people to become responsible for their own created problems. Aid dependency shifts or prevents our leaders from acquiring the experience and capacity to raise money internally to run a good and efficient government. EXPLOITATION OR CHEATING In our traditional homes, any person who depends on others for a living is frowned upon and may be easily exploited. He or she is rarely respected or even invited to participate in decision making. At the international level, countries that depend on aid are always exploited and controlled by donors. Donors and international agencies such as the World Bank have been accused of prescribing solution and taking decision for the developing poor countries without reference to local or cultural needs of our people. These donors

make sure hat their interest or what they want is always done by the government. If the government refuses to accept their advice, they often freeze aid assistance to the government and the country so that the government may succumb to their own interest and control. Today, few African countries fully exercise their authority over their own economy without the assistance from external funding agencies

IMPOSITION OF CONDITIONS The external funding agencies like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have also been accused of using Africas dependence on borrowed money to impose difficult conditions for receiving loans. They often ask our government to cut down on subsidies for social services, which poor people depend on. Besides, it has even become difficult for many countries to pay back the loans that have collected. Most people therefore see aid dependency as not good for sustainable development. In summary, the dependency concepts or idea attempts to explain the current problems of developing in many countries by looking at the pattern of economic relationships. The concepts also argue that the existing inequality among nations is the reason for under development in many poor countries.