Second Progress Report: PV Module

By

Ashveer Hooblal
207500768 Supervisor: Dr. A. K. Saha

Final Year Design 5 Project : Simulation of a PV Module School of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering
1

Dr. A. K. Saha

Abstract
The simulation of a Photovoltaic module is one of the many Electrical Design 5 topics. This report presents an electrical model of a Photovoltaic module that was simulated using the Matlab Simulink program. Two models were achieved, namely, a voltage input model and a current input model. The current input PV model was integrated with a controlled voltage source to achieve an electrical voltage signal for further analysis. Thereafter maximum power point tracking was applied with a buck-boost converter as an interface for the PV module. A design procedure and plan together with an understandable theory was provided. Specifications for the proposed simulation model, the theoretical output I-V characteristic and the simulation results of a photovoltaic module are also stated.

ii

List of Symbols
Table 1 List of Symbols Symbol D n a q k f T Lmin Cmin Voc Vmp Vripple I Isco Ioref Isc Io Iph Id Ia Imp G Go R Rs To Tin t Definition Duty Cycle Diode Quality Factor Temperature Coefficient Charge of an Electron Boltzmanns Constant Frequency Period of Cycles Minimum Inductance Minimum Capacitance Open Circuit Voltage Maximum Voltage Ripple Voltage Current Short Circuit Current (From Datasheet) Diode Saturation Current Reference Short Circuit Current Saturation Current Photon Current Diode Current PV Module Current Maximum Current Irradiance Irradiance at STD Resistance Series Resistance Reference Temperature Temperature of PV Module Junction Temperature Units

Kelvin/Amps Coulombs Joules/Kelvin Hertz Seconds Henry Farad Volts Volts Volts Amps Amps Amps Amps Amps Amps Amps Amps Amps Watts/(square meter) Watts/(square meter) Ohms Ohms Kelvin Kelvin Kelvin

iii

Declaration
I hereby declare that the contents of this report are my own original and unaided work, except where specific mention is made to the contrary in the form of a numbered reference.

Authors full name: Authors student number:

Ashveer Hooblal 207500768

Authors signature: Date: 2 May 2011

iv

Table of Contents
Abstract......................................................................................................................................................................... ii List of Symbols............................................................................................................................................................ iii Declaration ...................................................................................................................................................................iv 1. 2. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................1 Design Procedure ..................................................................................................................................................2 2.1 2.2 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.4.1 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5 Specifications of the Design .........................................................................................................................2 Functional Requirements .............................................................................................................................3 The Photovoltaic Cell ...................................................................................................................................5 Equivalent Circuit of PV Cell ......................................................................................................................6 The PV Module ............................................................................................................................................8 Maximum Power Point Tracking ............................................................................................................... 10 Perturb and observe tracking method ......................................................................................................... 10 Voltage input PV model ............................................................................................................................. 11 Current input PV model ............................................................................................................................. 14 PV module with MPPT .............................................................................................................................. 19 PV Array .................................................................................................................................................... 25

Theory of PV Modules..........................................................................................................................................5

Simulation Results .............................................................................................................................................. 11

Work Plan ........................................................................................................................................................... 27 5.1 Design Schedule ................................................................................................................................................ 27 5.2 Future Work ....................................................................................................................................................... 27

6 7 A. B. C. D. E.

Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................... 28 References ........................................................................................................................................................... 29 Appendix A1 ........................................................................................................................................................ A Appendix B1 ........................................................................................................................................................ C Appendix C .......................................................................................................................................................... E Appendix D .......................................................................................................................................................... G Appendix E .......................................................................................................................................................... H

1.

Introduction

The human population on Earth is now more than 6.8 billion and continues to grow by 83 million people per year [1], and these inhabitants require energy to sustain their lives. Exactly how much energy and in particular, what sources of energy will meet these needs are questions that will be addressed by the present and future generations. Photovoltaic power systems receive their power from solar energy produced by the sun and are capable of satisfying certain present power demands. Solar energy is a renewable energy resource and assists in the reduction of emission of green house gases and decrease the dependence on fossil fuels. Photovoltaic (PV) systems produce direct current (D.C.) electricity when sunlight shines on PV modules [2]. The D.C. power can be converted to alternating current (A.C.) power or it can be stored in relevant power storing devices. PV systems consist of a PV generator (cell, module, and array), energy storage devices (such as batteries), A.C. and D.C. consumers and elements for power conditioning [2]. In this report the theory of a PV module will be explained and two Simulink models will be presented that has been simulated.

2.

Design Procedure
2.1 Specifications of the Design

The project requires Modelling and Simulation of a PV module. The deliverables of the project include simulation results, showing the voltage, current and power output of the PV module to determine the systems behaviour to various conditions (i.e. variations in solar isolation and input voltages or current). There are various PV modules on the market today. They range from a few watts to hundreds of watts. In Table 1 a short list of PV modules are displayed which are intended to be used for the simulation. The rating and specification are summarised in Table 1. Solar home systems" (SHSs) provide small amounts of electricity to households beyond distribution networks. The systems on average consist of a 10 to 50 watts peak (WP) PV module (which can easily be expanded by adding additional modules) [3]. Since no precise numerical data was specified, suitable ratings had to be created to ensure an executable system design. The project requires simulation only to be prepared in order to evaluate the systems behaviour, therefore a 65 watt PV module was chosen for simulation as it would be adequate to provide small amounts of electricity for solar home systems. Table 1 Specifications of different PV modules [4], [5]. PV Powered System type PV Module 20W, 12V Specifications Voc: 21.5V, Isc: 1.55A Vmp: 16V , Imp: 1.22A Voc: 22.7V, Isc: 3.99A, Vmp: 17.6V , Imp: 3.69A Voc: 42,60V, Isc:4.70A, Vmp:33.90V, Imp:4.40A

PV Module 65 W, 12V

PV Module 150W, 24V

The simulation was to be implemented in Simulink with the use of the C programme language. It requires irradiation, temperature and either current or voltage inputs.

2.2

Functional Requirements

The Top-Down or Hierarchy approach was drawn to show the progress of the design of a PV module. This sequence of blocks describe the development cycle: The system specification, Modelling specification Functional implementation specification

Simulation of PV Module

Determine Equivalent Circuit model of PV Cell

Model of Equivalent circuit

Determine Inputs/Outputs of PV Module for Simulink Model.

Inputs: Temperature, Voltage, Current, Irradiance

Outputs: Current, Voltage

Using Specifications of PV Module

Implement PV Module

Figure 1.Hierarchy approach for the simulation of a PV module

To simulate a PV module, an equivalent electrical model of a Photovoltaic/Solar cell was created. A single cell had to be developed in Simulink, thereafter a PV module (consists of many cells) was implemented. This is seen in Figure 2 according to the required specifications.

In Simulink the S function builder block was used to accommodate C programming code which implements the PV model. The C code used to generate the current input and the voltage input PV models are listed in Appendix B1 and B2. Inputs enter the function block and the required outputs are transported to a scope or X-Y graph or to the Matlab Workspace. Simulation results are thereafter captured in either graphical or tabulated format.

Figure 2 Basic Matlab Representation of PV Module Within the s function block input and output parameters are specified. For an example, Tin, Suns and Vin are labelled and can only be used to transport variables to and from the s function block. In order to compile the C programming code in Matlab a C compiler was needed. The generated code was stored in MEX files which Matlab can read as C code.

3 Theory of PV Modules
3.1 The Photovoltaic Cell

The basic element of photovoltaic systems is the photovoltaic cell. Since a typical photovoltaic cell produces less than 2 watt at approximately 0.5 volt DC [6], many cells are connected in either parallel or series to obtain higher power capabilities. Modules have a peak power rating ranging from a few watts to more than three hundred watts. PV modules only produce power when illuminated and most often energy storage devices are used to store power absorbed by the PV module. When no light shines on a solar cell the output I-V characteristic is very similar to that of the diode with a p-n junction or Schottky barrier device shown in Figure 3. When a PV cell is illuminated incident photons with energy greater than the band-gap energy of the semiconductor are absorbed. These photons interact with the atom of the PV cell creating electron-hole pairs. Figure 3 illustrates the production of electronhole pair. The electric field created by the cell junction separates the photon-generated electron-hole pairs, causing electrons to flow to the n-region of the cell and the holes to drift to the p-region. This creates a current proportional to the incident radiation.

Figure 3.Creation of an electron-hole pair by illumination [7]

The PV cell has electrical contacts on its top and bottom to capture the electrons, as shown in Figure 4. When the PV cell delivers power to the load, the electrons flow out of the n-region into the connecting wire, through the load, and back to the p-region where they recombine with holes [8]. The conventional current flows in the opposite direction from electrons.

3.2

Equivalent Circuit of PV Cell

When the output terminals of the PV module are short circuited, the short circuit current flows in an external circuit. When the cell is open-circuited, this current is shunted internally by the intrinsic p-n junction diode [9]. The characteristics of this intrinsic p-n junction diode set the open circuit voltage characteristics for the specific PV cell.

Figure 4.Equivalent circuit of a PV cell [8] The PV cell in Figure 4 is represented by the simplest equivalent circuit, i.e. an ideal current source in parallel with a diode. The output from the current source is directly proportional to the irradiance falling on the
cell [9].

In the ideal case the I-V characteristic equation can be written as [6]: (1) where,
V is the voltage across the PV cell, I is the output current from the cell. q = 1.610-19 Coulombs, k = 1.3810-23 J/K,

To increase the accuracy and complexity of PV models, different elements can be added to the simple equivalent circuit. Temperature dependence on the diode saturation current and on the photo current may be inserted. Series resistance RS, can be included which gives a more accurate shape between the maximum power point and the open circuit voltage [9]. Shunt resistance RP may be in parallel with the diode. The diode quality factor (n) may be made as a variable parameter (instead of being fixed at either 1 or 2) or introducing two parallel diodes (one with n = 1, one with n = 2) with independently set saturation currents, can be conceded.

Figure 5 Moderate circuit diagram of PV model [9].

The diode current Id is given by the Shockleys diode equation [6]: ( where, n is the diode quality (n = 1 or 2), ) (2)

Io is the reverse saturation current of diode (A), V is the voltage across the diode (V), t is the junction temperature in Kelvin (K), Rs is the series resistance.
The output current ( ) can be calculated for this model (Figure 5) using Kirchhoffs current law (KCL): (3) where, is the component of cell current due to photons, Equation 3 can be used to determine the ideal I-V characteristics of a PV cell, namely the short circuit current and the open circuit voltage. This equation will be model used to simulate the PV cell. To a good approximation the cell current is directly proportional to irradiance and is also temperature sensitive [6]. Equation 4 and 5 accommodates for these weather conditions. (4) (5) where, G is current irradiance on PV cell (Wm-2), Go is reference irradiance at STD (1 Sun = 1000Wm-2), Tin is the temperature of the PV cell, To is the reference temperature at STD, a is the temperature coefficient of Isc in percent change per degree temperature given in the datasheet. The reverse saturation current of diode at the reference temperature (T0) is given by equation 6. (6) The reverse saturation current (Io) is also temperature dependent and equation 7 is used to accommodate this. (7) To calculate the series resistance equation 3 is differentiated and then rearranged in terms of Rs (8) (9) can be found from the I-V characteristic curve in the datasheet at the open circuit voltage [10].

The open circuit voltage is the voltage across the p-n junction when the generated current is zero [9]. Short circuit current is known as the highest value of generated current in a cell and is calculated under short circuit conditions, i.e. V=0.

(10)

A PV cell generally converts approximately twenty present of irradiance into electricity [6]. The balance is converted to heat which heats the PV cell. Hence, the cell operates above ambient temperature resulting in temperature degradation of the cells performance.

3.3

The PV Module

A PV module is a series combination of many PV cells to achieve an adequate voltage. Illustrated in Figure 6 is a PV module represented by a series combination of PV cells. The diodes in the diagram symbolize the PV cells. Since PV systems are commonly operated at multiples of twelve volts [6], the modules are designed to operation in these systems. The cells in the module should be matched very closely since they are connected in series. The reason behind this statement is that while some cells are operating at peak efficiency, others may not be optimized. As a result, the power of the module will be reduced significantly. When modules are further connected to each other they form PV arrays that can accommodate large loads.

Figure 6 PV Module [6]

Figure 7 illustrates the theoretical power to voltage (P-V) characteristics in graphical form for a 50W PV module. As the current is directly proportional to the irradiance, it can be noticed that different P-V characteristics curves can be drawn for different irradiance. In Figure 8 it can be noted that temperature of a PV module affects the output power from the PV module. Increasing temperature decreases the operating power output.

Figure 7 I-V characteristics of a 150W PV module [11].

Figure 8 Power characteristics of a 150W PV module [12].

3.4

Maximum Power Point Tracking

The output power from a Solar PV module changes with a change in the direction of sun, solar irradiation and with varying temperature. This was witnessed in Figure 7 and 8. As seen in the power vs. voltage curve of the module there is a single maximum point of power. This suggests that there is a peak power corresponding to a particular voltage and current. It is desirable to operate the module at the peak power point so that the maximum power can be delivered to the load under varying temperature and irradiation conditions [9]. This maximizes the power utilization of the PV module. A maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is used for extracting the maximum power from the PV module and transferring that power to the load. A dc/dc converter (step up/step down) serves the purpose of transferring maximum power from a PV module to a load. A dc/dc converter acts as an interface between the load and the module (Figure 9).

Figure 9 PV system including a load [9] The peak power is reached with the help of a dc/dc converter by adjusting its duty cycle [9]. An automatic tracking can be performed by various algorithms: Perturb and observe, Incremental Conductance, Parasitic Capacitance, Voltage Based Peak Power Tracking, Current Based peak power Tracking. Perturb and observe method was used in the design for its efficient and accurate results. The algorithms, in practice, are implemented in a microcontroller or a personal computer to implement maximum power tracking. The algorithm is used to change the duty cycle of the of the dc/dc converter to maximize the power output of the module and make it operate at the peak power point of the module.

3.4.1 Perturb and observe tracking method

In this algorithm a slight perturbation is introduced to the system. The perturbation changes the power of the module. If the power increases due to the perturbation then the perturbation is continued in that direction. After the peak power is reached the power at the next instant decreases and hence after that the perturbation reverses. When the steady state is reached the algorithm oscillates around the peak point. In order to keep the power variation small the perturbation size is kept very small [13]. The algorithm is developed to set a reference voltage of the module corresponding to the peak voltage of the module. A PI controller then acts moving the operating point of the module to that particular voltage level [13].
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4 Simulation Results
There were two separate models built to simulate a PV module. The models were of moderate complexity for the relevant simulations. The PV models included temperature dependence of the photo current and the saturation current of the diode. A series resistance was included, but a shunt resistance was not included. A single shunt diode was used with the diode quality factor. The circuit diagram for a voltage input PV module is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10 Voltage input 65 W PV model in Simulink

4.1

Voltage input PV model

To develop the PV modules behaviour the input voltage is varied. This variation produces a range of current values. These voltage and current values were then used to draw the current-voltage characteristics and the power-voltage relationships. The current-voltage equation is complex. This is because the solution of current is recursive by inclusion of a series resistance in the model. Although it may be possible to find the answer by simple iterations, the Newtons method is chosen for rapid convergence of the answer [9]. Newtons method is described below in equation 11. (11) where, f(x) is the derivative of the function, f (x) = 0, xn is a present value, and xn+1 is a next value. (12) (13) The output current (Ia) in the simulation was therefore calculated iteratively using equation 14. (14)

11

5.5 5 4.5 25 degrees 50 Degrees 75 degrees 100 degrees

Ia- Module Current (Amps)

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 5 10 Va- Module Voltage(Volts) 15

20

Figure 11 Current-Voltage Characteristics of a Voltage input PV model (temperature varied) The effect of the module temperature on the I-V characteristics was captured and illustrated in Figure 11. The dominant effect with increasing the modules temperature was the linear decrease of the open circuit voltage, the module being thus less efficient. The short circuit current slightly increases with a module temperature increase.
5 4.5 750 W/m2 500 W/m 250 W/m
2 2

1000 W/m

Ia- Module Current (Amps)

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 Irradiance 5 10 Va- Module Voltage(Volts) 15 20

Figure 12 I-V curves for various irradiances. (Remain constants at standard temperature ratings) Figure 12 shows that the open circuit voltage increases logarithmically with the ambient irradiation, while the short circuit current is a linear function of the ambient irradiation. As the irradiance level increased the short circuit current increased dramatically.

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5 4.5 Rs = 1.9mOhms

Ia- Module Current (Amps)

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 13.011mOhms 7.455mOhms 1.9mOhms 21.344mOhms 5 10 Va- Module Voltage(Volts) 15 20 Rs= 21.344mOhms

Figure 13 I-V curves for various series resistances. (Remain constants at standard temperature ratings) At standard operating conditions the series resistance was calculated to be 13mOhms. Figure 13 displays the effect of changing the series resistance. The diagram illustrates that series resistance changes the slope at the open circuit voltage. An increase in the resistance increases the slope and a decrease in resistance decreases the slope. This is the reason for calculating series resistance with the slope at the open circuit voltage.
5 4.5 n=1

Ia- Module Current (Amps)

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 5 10 Va- Module Voltage(Volts) 15 20 n=2

Figure 14 I-V curves for various diode quality factors. (Remain constants at standard temperature ratings) The quality factor of a diode is a measure of how closely the diode follows the ideal diode equation. When the diode quality factor equals one, the curve (in Figure 14) follows the ideal diode equation. As the diode quality increases second order effects occur so that the diode does not follow the simple diode equation.

13

70 60 25 degrees 50 Degrees 75 degrees 100 degrees

P- Module Power (Watts)

50 40 30 20 10 0

10 Va- Module Voltage(Volts)

15

20

Figure 15 P-V curves for various temperatures. (Remain constants at standard temperature ratings) The amount of power produced by the PV module varies greatly depending on its operating condition. Figure 15 illustrates the effects of module temperature on the output power. The efficiency of the PV module decreases since the output power decreases with an increase in temperature.

4.2

Current input PV model

To develop the PV modules behaviour in this model the input current is varied. This variation produces a range of voltage values. These voltage and current values were then used to draw the current-voltage characteristics and the power-voltage relationships. The PV model was built as seen in Figure 16. Using the voltage output from the PV module, a signal was sent to a controlled voltage source, producing an electrical voltage signal. This can be used to connect to loads and analysis the PV model under various loads. To calculate the module voltage, the current output characteristic equation (equation 3) was manipulated, giving equation 15. * ( ) + (15)

The output curves produced from this model under different temperature, irradiance, series resistance, and diode quality factors are identical to that of the current input model and are explained in section 4.1.

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Figure 16 Current input 65 W PV model in Simulink

5 4.5 4 Temp Temp Temp Temp 25deg 0deg 50deg 75deg

Ia- Module Current (Amps)

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 5 10 15 Va- Module Voltage (Volts) 20 25

Figure 17 I-V curves for various temperatures. (Remain constants at standard temperature ratings) As seen previously, and increase in temperature causes the open circuit voltage to decrease and the short circuit current to increase slightly. The current and voltage of the PV module is highly dependent on the module temperature.

15

5 4.5 250 W/m 500 W/m

2 2

Ia- Module Current (Amps)

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 Irradiance

750 W/m2 1000 W/m

2

10 15 Va- Module Voltage (Volts)

20

25

Figure 18 I-V curves for various irradiances. (Remain constants at standard temperature ratings)

The short-circuit current (Isc) is proportional to the intensity of irradiance. This is witnessed in Figure 12 and Figure 18.

5 4.5 Rs=1.3mOhms

Ia- Module Current (Amps)

4 3.5 3 2.5 Rs=21.34mOhms 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 13mOhms 7.455mOhms 1.3mOhms 21.34mOhms 5 10 15 Va- Module Voltage (Volts) 20 25

Figure 19 I-V curves for various series resistances. (Remain constants at standard temperature ratings) Series resistance plays an important in keeping the slope of the curve (at open circuit voltage) closest to the curves presented in the datasheet (Appendix A1).

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5 4.5 n=1

Ia- Module Current (Amps)

4 3.5 3 2.5 n=2 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 5 10 15 Va- Module Voltage (Volts) 20 25

Figure 20 I-V curves for various diode quality factors. (Remain constants at standard temperature ratings) The diode quality affects the curvature at the knee of the graph. This is because the diode quality factor describes how well the diode characteristic equation is followed.

70 60 25 degrees 50 degrees 75 degrees 100 degrees

P- Module Power (Watts)

50 40 30 20 10 0

10 15 Va- Module Voltage (Volts)

20

25

Figure 21 P-V curves for various temperatures. (Remain constants at standard temperature ratings) The power was calculated by multiplying the output current and voltage. An increase in temperature causes a decrease in the output power of the PV module. Another observation is that the maximum power that the PV model can output, as the temperature increases, is reduced.

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5 4.5

Ia- Module Current (Amps)

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Time (Seconds) 14 16 18 20

Figure 22 Current after rate limiter added (at STD) Using a rate limiter the input current into the PV model was gradually increased, as supposed to rising rapidly. This was done to view the electrical voltage signal (in Figure 23) under a gradual change in current. When the current saturates at approximately 3.99A the voltage drops down to zero with regards to time, at time = 13.7 seconds.

20

Va- Module Voltage(Volts)

15

10

10 12 Time (Seconds)

14

16

18

20

Figure 23 Electrical Voltage signal (at STD)

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4.3

PV module with MPPT

Perturb and observe method of tracking the maximum power point of the PV module. A flow chart illustrating this method is shown in Figure 24 to get a better understanding of this method.

Figure 24 Perturb and Observe Tracking Method [13]

For the operation of MPPT being implemented into the project, a buck-boost convertor was selected to interface the PV module to a load. The reason for the buck-boost chopper was the voltage output from the PV module ranges from 0 V to 22.7 V, as seen in Figure 23. The boost converter was required to supply an output voltage of 17.493V and 3.716A of current for standard conditions.

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Hence, using ohms law, the value of the load resistor required is calculated as follows: (16)

The PMW frequency was set to 1.96 kHz; the time period is calculated as follows: (17)

Voltage ripple: (18)

The minimum capacitance and inductance values can be calculated as follows for a load of 5.5. For practical purposes the duty cycle chosen as 75% for safety measures. (19)

(20)

The PV module with maximum power point tracking was implemented in real time as shown in Figure 25. The PV module with maximum power point tracking and the buck-boost chopper can be illustrated in Simulink as in Figure 29.

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Figure 25 PV Module with MPPT The MPPT S-Function block in Figure 25 held the coded language for MPPT as described previously. This tracked the maximum power point in real time. On the Power verses Voltage waveform in Figure 21 it was clear that there was an increasing gradient ( ) before the maximum power point. At maximum power point the gradient was zero, and after the maximum power point the gradient was decreasing ( ). This prediction was verified in the simulation and was depicted in Figure 26.

35 30 25

dP/dV (W/V)

20 15 10 5 dP/dV = 0 at MPPT 0 dP/dV < 0 -5 0 2 4 6 8 Time (Seconds) 10 12 14 16 dP/dV > 0

Figure 26 Gradient to find MPPT

21

25

20

Va- Module Voltage (Volts)

Voltage at MPPT 15

10

8 Time (Seconds)

10

12

14

16

Figure 27 Voltage waveform for finding MPPT For maximum power point the voltage was perturbed until the gradient became zero. In Figure 27, 17.493 volts was achieved when the graph became linear. The current at this point was 3.716 Amps. This produces maximum power and was calculated to be 65 Watts.

4 Current at MPPT 3.5 3

Ia- Module Current

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

8 Time (Seconds)

10

12

14

16

Figure 28 Current waveform to find MPPT

22

Figure 29 PV module with buck-boost chopper MPPT is irradiance and temperature dependent since the output power is temperature dependent. Since creating PWM signals for the switch in Figure 29 prolongs simulations in Simulink, the time of the simulation had to be reduced. The voltage predicted by MPPT was approximately 17.493 Volts. To control the
signals into the switch of the buck boost chopper an integral control loop was implemented. This measured the error between the output voltage and the reference voltage (in this case the MPP voltage) and adjusted the duty cycle accordingly output the correct voltage. In Figure 30 the output voltage waveform clearly shows that the voltage oscillates around the maximum power point voltage.

20 18 16

Va- Module Voltage(Volts)

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 Time (Seconds) 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Figure 30 Output Voltage from the Buck-Boost Chopper

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18 16

Vout-Module Voltage (Volts)

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2 Time (Seconds)

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

Figure 31 Output Voltage from the Buck-Boost Chopper at 50 degrees

20 18 16

Va-Module Voltage (Volts)

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 Time (Seconds) 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Figure 32 Output Voltage from the Buck-Boost Chopper at 500 W/m2

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4.4

PV Array

Theoretically PV arrays are series combinations of PV modules. To simulate a PV array, four 65 watt PV modules were added in series producing a PV array. This array has an open circuit voltage of voltage of . The open circuit current of the PV array however, is still 3.99Amps.

Figure 33 Simulink representation of a PV Array

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5 4.5 4

PV Current (Amps)

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 PV Voltage (Volts) 70 80 90 100

Figure 34 I-V Characteristics of a PV Array

In Figures 34 and 35 the PV Array characteristics are shown. They follow the predicted curves for PV modules but with higher voltage and power capabilities.

300

250

PV Array Power (Watts)

200

150

100

50

10

20

30

40 50 60 PV Array Voltage (Volts)

70

80

90

100

Figure 35 P-V Characteristics of a PV Array

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5 Work Plan
5.1 Design Schedule
A Gantt chart was drawn to illustrate the procedure that will be followed in order to maximize the final resulting simulation of a PV module in the given time. Figure 36 shows the design project divided into three phases. Phase 1 being the specification of the proposed design, phase two to being the paper design and phase three being the completion or final product.
Mar 2011 Apr 2011 20/3 27/3 3/4 10/4 17/4 24/4 1/5 May 2011 8/5 15/5 22/5

ID

Task Name

Start

Finish

Duration
20/2 27/2 6/3 13/3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Phase 1: Specification
Task Allocation Research for first Report First Progress Report completion

2/22/2011 2/22/2011 2/22/2011 2/22/2011 3/4/2011 3/4/2011 4/1/2011 3/4/2011 2/22/2011 2/22/2011 4/19/2011 4/19/2011 4/19/2011 5/2/2011 5/3/2011 5/3/2011

3/4/2011 2/22/2011 2/28/2011 3/4/2011 4/18/2011 4/15/2011 4/11/2011 4/11/2011 4/11/2011 4/18/2011 5/16/2011 5/2/2011 5/3/2011 5/12/2011 5/13/2011 5/16/2011

9d 1d 5d 9d 32d 31d 7d 27d 35d 40d 20d 10d 11d 9d 9d 10d

Phase 2: Paper Design

Research on Report & Simulation Paper Design completion Simulation of PV cell Interim Report completion

10 Interim Presentation 11

Phase 3:

12 Simulation of PV Module- working 13 Second Progress Report 14 Final Simulation 15 Final Report 16 Final Presentaion

Figure 36 Gantt chart

5.2 Future Work

The PV module output was monitored under various temperature and irradiance values. For the final outcome the PV module and array will be investigated under weather conditions for South Africa. This will state the relevance of using PV modules in this country.

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6 Conclusion
Photovoltaic modules are energy capturers that obtain renewable energy from the Sun which reduces carbon emissions. It can provide electricity to small scale operations singularly or to larger loads if connected as arrays. The aim of this report was to provide an insight to the simulation and theory of a moderate photovoltaic module. A 65 watt photovoltaic module was considered for the Matlab Simulink representation of the module. The model was influenced by temperature and irradiance, diode quality factors and series resistances and was characterised by the module voltage and current results. Maximum power point tracking was used in the simulation. It was observed that there are some power losses due to this perturbation and also fails to track the power under fast varying atmospheric conditions. But still this algorithm is very popular and simple and gives good results. The PV array was series combinations of the 65 W PV modules and it followed the predicted PV module I-V characteristics but producing higher power capabilities. Simulations of PV modules have been implemented in the past; however the simulations done in this project are implemented in C language in Simulink which aids with further analysis of the PV module. The ratings and specifications created for the photovoltaic module was appropriately structured, researched and designed to ensure a detailed system design.

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7 References

1. Gibbs Studios. Population, 2010, Available: http://www.populationmedia.org/issues/population/?gclid=CJjb1orum6cCFQgMfAodHlblcQ 2. Renewable energy policy project. Rural Electrification with Solar Energy as a Climate Protection Strategy, 1999, Available: http://www.repp.org/repp_pubs/articles/resRpt09/01Role.htm 3. Francisco M. Gonzlez-Longatt. Model of Photovoltaic Module in Matlab, , 2005, Available: http://personnel.univreunion.fr/lanson/typosite/fileadmin/documents/pdf/Heuristiques_M2/Projet/lecture_ModelPV.pd f 4. TE1700 Data sheet, Plan My Power, Available: http://www.solarpanel.co.za/Specificationsheets/ 5. Alldatasheet.com. 2003 2011, pdf/view/111113/ETC1/BP365.html Available: http://pdf1.alldatasheet.net/datasheet-

6. Roger Messenger & Jerry Ventre. Photovoltaic Systems Engineering, ISBN-13: 978-0849320170, United States of America, 2000. 7. Christiana Honsberg & Stuart Bowden. PVEducation, http://pvcdrom.pveducation.org/CELLOPER/IDEALCEL.HTM
2010,

Available:

8. Masters, Gilbert M. Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems, Online ISBN: 9780471668824, John Wiley &Sons Ltd, 28 January 2005. 9. Walker, Geoff R. Evaluating MPPT converter topologies using a MATLAB PV model Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 00, Brisbane, 2000 10. Powersim.Inc, PSIM TUTORIAL, Available: http://www.ebookbrowse.com/tutorial-solarmodule-physical-model-pdf-d22106398 11. Milad Momayyezan. Maximum Power Point Tracking for Photovoltaic Arrays with Minimum Sensors School of Electrical and Computer Eng. University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. 12. Adel El. PV Cell Module Modeling & Ann Simulation For Smart Grid Applications Research Scientist, Mechatronics-Green Energy Lab., Elect. & Comp. Eng. Dept., OSU, USA, 43210, 2005 2010. 13. Hairul Nissah Zainudin, Saad Mekhilef. Comparison Study of Maximum Power Point Tracker Techniques for PV Systems Proceedings of the 14th International Middle East Power Systems Conference (MEPCON10), Cairo University, Egypt, December 19-21, 2010. 14. Alibaba.com, 1999-2010 Hong Kong, Available: http://www.alibaba.com/productgs/259094074/60W_PV_Module_Solar_Panel_ZXM060W18V_12502.html

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A. Appendix A1

B. Appendix B1
The following code was used to generate a voltage in, current out PV model. /*This code is used to simulate a Photovoltaic module: BP 65W For this design the module is simulated in Simulink and coded in C. This code is done by Ashveer Hooblal (207500768) for Electrical Design 5. 2011*/ //Declaration of variables used in the PV characteristics double suns, Ta, Va; double Eg, Ns; double k, q, n; double Tr, TaK; double Voc_Tr; double Isc_Tr; double Iph_Tr, a; double Iph, Vt_Tr, Io_Tr; double b; double Xv, dVdI_Voc, Rs; double Vt_Ta, Vc; double Io, Ia; double temp1; double Isc; int i; //constants Ta = Tin[0]; suns = Suns[0]; Va = Vin[0]; n=nd[0]; if (Va<0) Va=0; {

//diode quality factor //Precaution

} k=1.38e-23; q=1.602e-19; Eg=1.12; Ns=36; a=0.065*exp (-3); Tr=273+25; Voc_Tr=22.1/Ns; Isc_Tr=3.99; TaK=273+Ta; dVdI_Voc = dV_dI[0] /Ns;

//band gap voltage for Si. //number of cells (BP 365) //Temperature coefficient of Isc //Reference Temperature in Kelvin

//input temp in Kelvin /* gradient of graph from Datasheet close to Voc */ // cell voltage

Vc=Va/Ns;

Isc=Isc_Tr*( 1 + (a * (TaK - Tr) )); C

Iph=Isc*suns;

/*Photon generated current -irradiance dependent */

Vt_Tr=n * k * Tr/q;

//Thermal potential (Vt) at temp ref

// Calculate reverse saturation current for a given temperature Io_Tr=Isc_Tr/ (exp(Voc_Tr / (Vt_Tr) ) -1); temp1=pow((TaK/Tr),(3/n)); b=Eg * q / (n*k); // (TaK/Tr)^(3/n) using 'pow' function

Io=Io_Tr * (temp1 * exp (-b * (1/TaK - 1/Tr))); // calculate series resistance per cell Xv = (Io_Tr / (Vt_Tr) ) * exp(Voc_Tr /(Vt_Tr) );

Rs = - dVdI_Voc - 1/Xv;

Vt_Ta = n * k * TaK / q;

//Thermal potential (Vt) at temp Ta

/*Ia = Iph Io * (exp((Vc + Ia * Rs) / Vt_Ta) -1) f(Ia) = Iph - Ia Io * ( exp((Vc + Ia * Rs) / Vt_Ta) -1) = 0 Solve for Ia by Newton's method: Ia2 = Ia1 - f(Ia1)/f'(Ia1) */ Ia=0; for (i=1;i<=5;i++) { Ia = Ia -(Iph - Ia - Io * ( exp( (Vc+Ia*Rs) / Vt_Ta ) -1) )/ (-1 (Io*( exp((Vc+Ia*Rs)/Vt_Ta) -1))*Rs/Vt_Ta); } Iout[0]=Ia; Rs1[0]=Rs; // Output current from PV block // Series Resistance from PV block

C. Appendix C
The following code was used to generate a current in, voltage out PV model. /*Current Input PV Module: This code is used to simulate a Photovoltaic module: BP 65W For this design the module is simulated in Simulink and coded in C. This code is done by Ashveer Hooblal (207500768) for Electrical Design 5. 2011*/ //Declaration of variables used in the PV characteristics double suns, Ta, Va; double Eg, Ns; double k, q, n; double Tr, TaK; double Voc_Tr; double Isc_Tr; double Iph_Tr, a; double Iph, Vt_Tr, Io_Tr; double b; double Xv, dVdI_Voc, Rs; double Vt_Ta, Vc; double Io, Ia; double temp1, temp2; double Isc; int i;

//constants Ta = Tin[0]; suns = Suns[0]; Ia = Iin[0]; k=1.38e-23; q=1.602e-19; n=nd[0]; Eg=1.12; Ns=36; a=0.065*exp(-3); Tr=273+25; Voc_Tr=22.7/Ns; Isc_Tr=3.99; dVdI_Voc = dV_dI[0] /Ns; //Boltzmanns Constant //Charge of an electron //diode quality factor //band gap voltage for Si. //number of cells (BP 365) //Temperature coefficient of Isc //Reference Temperature in Kelvin //From datasheet //From datasheet /* gradient of graph from datasheet close to Voc */ //input temp in Kelvin

TaK=273+Ta;

Isc=Isc_Tr*( 1 + (a * (TaK - Tr) ));

Iph=Isc* (suns / 1000);

/*Photon generated current -irradiance dependent */ E

Vt_Tr=n * k * Tr/q;

//Thermal potential (Vt) at temp ref

// Calculate reverse saturation current for a given temperature Io_Tr=Isc_Tr/ (exp(Voc_Tr / (Vt_Tr) ) -1);

temp1=pow((TaK/Tr),(3/n)); b=Eg * q /(n*k);

// (TaK/Tr)^(3/n) using 'pow' function

Io=Io_Tr * ( temp1 * exp(-b * ( 1/TaK - 1/Tr )) ); // Calculate series resistance per cell Xv = (Io_Tr / (Vt_Tr) ) * exp(Voc_Tr /(Vt_Tr) );

Rs = - dVdI_Voc - 1/Xv;

Vt_Ta = n * k * TaK / q;

//Thermal potential (Vt) at temp Ta

if ((Iph - Ia) >= 0) { temp2=((Iph - Ia)/Io +1); } //Takes care of imaginary values if any

Vc =

Vt_Ta * log(temp2) - (Ia)*Rs;

Va=Vc * Ns; Vout[0]=Va; Rs1[0] = Rs;

// cell voltage // Output current from PV block //Series Resistance from PV block.

D. Appendix D
/*MPPT in C Code: P & O Tracking in real time. This code is used to simulate a maximum power point tracking: BP 65W For this design the module is simulated in Simulink and coded in C. This code is done by Ashveer Hooblal (207500768) for Electrical Design 5. 2011*/ //Declaration of variables double double double double double Pout, Vout; Pdelay, Vdelay; delta_p, delta_v; d, delta_d; time;

Pout = P[0]; Pdelay = P_delay[0]; Vout = V[0]; Vdelay = V_delay[0];

//variable used to delay voltage for perturbation

delta_p = Pout - Pdelay; delta_v = -(Vout -Vdelay); delta[0] = delta_p / delta_v; delta_d = delta[0];

//change in power //change in voltage //Gradient

if (delta_d > 0 ) { if (delta_d < 0) { //reverse perturb } Vo[0] = V[0]; Impp[0] = Iin[0]; }

//tracks voltage for MPPT //tracks current for MPPT

E. Appendix E
% Maximum Power Point Tracking: Perturb and Observe Method. This part code is used to find the MPP from a Photovoltaic module: BP 65W For this design the module is simulated in Simulink and coded in C. The MPPT code done in Matlab code for faster simulation. This code is done by Ashveer Hooblal (207500768) for Electrical Design 5.2011 function [Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = fcn(u) Ia = linspace(0,6,500); %function to calculate MPPT %increments of current for perturb and observe MPPT %initialize voltage for increment %prevents imaginary values

Vc = 0; Va1 = zeros(size(Ia)); for z= 1:500; if Iph - Ia(z) > 0; temp2=((Iph - Ia(z))/Io +1); Vc =

Vt_Ta * log(temp2) - (Ia(z))*Rs;

end if Iph == Ia(z) temp2=((Iph - Ia(z))/Io +1); Vc = end if Iph - Ia(z) < 0 Vc = 0; end Va1(z) = Vc * Ns; %prevents imaginary values Vt_Ta * log(temp2) - (Ia(z))*Rs;

% incremented voltage

end Va = Va1; % Start process for finding Maximum power point Pa_new = 0; Pa_max = 0; Imp = 0; Vmp = 0; for n = 1 : 500; Pa_new = Ia(n) * Va(n); if Pa_new > Pa_max Pa_max = Pa_new; Imp = Ia(n); Vmp = Va(n); end end H

% voltage at MPPT goes to chopper