Installation Configuration And Up-Gradation

Monitor
Monitor is the standard out put device of computer. It came into four main types and
according to paper the standard refresh rates with color support is very important.
CGA (Color Graphic Adapter)
EGA (Enhanced Graphic)
VGA (Video Graphic Adapter)
SVGA (Super Video Graphic Adapter)

Monitor Color Support Sync Frequency

CGA 4 COLOR 640*200
EGA 64 COLOR 640*350
VGA 256 COLOR 640*480
SVGA 16 MILLION 800*600normally 1280*1024

Storage Devices

Hard Disk Drives

HDD is the permanent storage media.
It is consists of cylinders tracks sectors and heads.
One sector size is 512byte.
Same sectors of plates are called cylinder.
HDD cable is consists of 40 pins.
HDD attached on the motherboard on built in IDE\EIDE.

IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics)

Integrated drive electronics (IDE) is a generic term to any drive with an integrated (Built
in) disk controller. The IDE interface as we know it is officially called ATA (AT Attachment), and
is an ANSI standard however, IDE can roughly apply to any disk drive with a Built-in controller.

Enhanced IDE (ATA-2 and ATA-3)

ATa-2 and ATA-3 are extensions of the original ATA (IDE) specification; the most
important additions are performance-enhancing features such as fast PIO and DMA Modes. ATA-
2 also features improvements in the identify drive command allowing a drive to tell the software
exactly, what its characteristics are; this is essential for both plug and play and compatibility with
further revisions of the standard.

NOTE: - ATA-3 doesn’t define any faster modes. ATA-3 also a simple password-based
ATA-3 adds improved reliability, especially of the faster mode 4 transfers; security scheme, more
sophisticated power management and self-monitoring analysis and support technology (SMART).
This allows a drive to keep track of problems that might result in a failure.
There are four main areas where ATA-2 (EIDE) ATA-3 and ATA-4 has improved the original
ATA/IDE interface in several ways.
 Increased maximum drive capacity.
 Faster data transfer.
 Secondary two devices channel.
 ATAPI (ATA program interface)
INCREAED MAXIMUM DRIVE CAPACITY
ATA-2/EIDE allows for increased drive capacity over the original ATA/IDE specification.
This is done by enhanced BIOS, which makes it possible to use hard disk exceeding the 504M
barriers.

FASTER DATA TRANSFER

ATA-2/EIDE and ATA-3 define several high performance modes for transferring data to
and from the drive. The PIO () mode determines how fast data is transfer to and from the drive. In
the slowest possible mode, PIO mode, the data cycle time can’t exceed 600(ns). In a single cycle,
16 bits are transferred in to or out of the drive making the theoretical transfer rate of PIO mode
(600ns cycle time) 3.3m/sec. Most of the high performance ATA-2 (EIDE) drives today support
PIO mode 4, which offers a 16.6m/sec transfer rate.

The following table shoes the PIO modes with their transfer rate.
PIO mode Cycle Time (ns) Transfer Rate (m/sec) Specification
0 600 3.33 ATA
1 383 5.22 ATA
2 240 8.33 ATA
3 180 11.11 ATA-2
4 120 16.67 ATA-2

To run in mode 3 or 4 requires that the IDE port on the system be a local bus port this
means that it must operate through either a VL-Bus or PCI Bus connection. Most motherboards
with ATA-2/EID support have dual IDE connectors on the motherboard.
ATA-2 and newer drives also perform Block Mode PIO, which means that they use the
Read/Write/___multiple commands that greatly reduce the number of interrupts, sent to the
processor.

LBA (Logical Block Area)

LBA is a name of addressing sector addresses, Beginning at cylinder 0, Head 0, sector 1
as LBA O, and proceeding on to the last physical sector on the drive. This is new in ATA-2, but
has always been the one and only addressing mode in SCSI.
With LBA, each sector on the drive is numbered starting from 0, The number is a 28bit binary
number internally, which translates to a sector number from 0 to 268,435 and 456.because each
sector represents 512 bytes, this result in an maximum drive capacity of exactly 128G, or 137
billion bytes unfortunately, the operating system still needs to a translate CHS, So the BIOS
determines how many sectors there are, and comes up with translated CHS to match. The BIOS
CHS limits are 1024 cylinders, 256 heads and 63 sectors per track, which limits total, drive
capacity to just fewer than 8G.

Floppy Disk Drives

Floppy disk drives are used 34 pins data cable.
It came in market in following models…
Size Capacity
5.25 inches 360 KB
5.25 inches 1.2 MB
3.5 inches 720 KB
3.5 inches 1.44 MB
3.5 inches 2.88 MB
Compaq Disks
This is the latest model of small storage devices. It increases the capacity at 640mb normally and
above.
CD-Writers are now commonly to take the backup of routine data.

Tape Drives
Tape drives are used normally for backup the data and in it there is used magnetic tape.
Tape drive has the expiry date so it should be changed before expiry date.

Zip Drives
ZIP drive is the latest model of storage devices that are used to transfer the data from one
computer to another. The advertising companies mostly use it because they used to carry the data
above 50MB. ZIP drive came normally in 50,100MB.
It is like FDD but not used the tape in it; there are the plates on it.

DVD (Digital Video Disc)

The future of CD-Rom is called DVD. This is a new standard that dramatically increase
the storage capacity of and therefore the useful applications for CD-Rom-size disks. A CD-Rom
can hold may many up-and-coming applications. Especially where the use of video is concerned.
One of the primary applications envisioned for the new DVD standard id a replacement
for videotapes.
DVD drives are also very fast compared to current CD-Rom technology. the standard
transfer rate is 1.3m/sec, which is approximately equivalent to that of a 9X CD-ROMs drive.
DVD drives use either the IDE/ATA or SCSI interface, just like CD-ROMs and include
audio connectors for playing audio CDs through headphones or speakers.
DVD-RAM is a rewritable drive type that uses phase-change techniques like that of
CDRW. DVD-RAM disk can’t be read by standard DVD ROM drives because of difference in
both reflectivity of the medium and the data format.

Modem
Modem is an IO device that is used to dial out on a remote server or in easy words it is used to
connect on Internet.
Modem performs two basic jobs…

Modulation
When data is transmitted out from the modem it performs modulation.
It is basically the conversion of parallel data into serial format.
Modem converts the computer’s digital data in to analog for the telephone line.

De-modulation
When data is received from the outside of compute it is de-modulation.
It is basically the conversion of serial data into format parallel.
In this state modem reverts the analog data in to digital format for computer.
Internal Modem
Internal modem plugged on the expansion slot that is given on the motherboard.
It may be ISA, EISA or PCI.
Internal modem uses the IRQ that is available of COM PORT.

External Modem
External modem did not attached on expansion slot; it is attached with serial port built on the
back of the motherboard.
If external modem used COM 2 the COM 4 will be unavailable.
If external modem used COM 1 the COM 3 will be unavailable.

UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver / Transmitter)

UART chip is used to convert the parallel data into serial and serial into parallel. This chip is built
on the modem and in built in motherboards situated on the board.

There are available standards of UART chip as follows…

8250 Slow and no receiver and transmitter buffer
8250A One interruptible register of 9600bps
8250B 9600bps receiver and transmitter buffer
16450 1 byte receiver and transmitter buffer
16550A 16 character receiver and transmitter buffer with FIFO buffering that allow multiple DMA
channels at 115kbps
16550 32byte buffer
230kbps and 460kbps specially on ISDN
16750 64byte receiver and transmitter buffer

Modem Modulation Standards and Transmission Rates

Bell Labs and CCITT (Consultative Committee On International Telephone and Telegraph) are two
bodies that maintain the standard of modem protocol but now with new name ITU (International
Telecommunication Union) in 1990 it works.
Newly developed protocols are come with ITU-T standards.

Maximum Transmission Rate

Protocol (Bits per second) Duplex Mode
Bell 103 3000bps Full
CCITT V.21 3000bps Full
Bell 212A 1200bps Full
ITU V.22 1200bps Half
ITU V.22bis 2400bps Full
ITU V.23 1200/75bps Pseudo-Full
ITU V.29 9600bps Half
ITU V.32 9600bps Full
ITU V.32bis 14400bps Full
ITU V.32fast 28800bps Full
ITU V.34 28800bps Full
ITU V.90 56000bps Full

Software and Hardware Modem

There is the chip difference in software and hardware modem.
Software modem is not physically 56k but logically with the support of software it is 56k.
Hardware modem physically 56k modem.

Input Devices
Key Board Mouse Mike Scanner
Output Devices
Monitor (Standard Console) Speaker Printer

System Resources
IRQ’s, DMA’s and I/O addresses

IRQ (Interrupt Request)

 IRQ is the request to the processor from the device.
 When any body wants to communicate with other device first of all it requests to the
processor.
 The request to the processor is called interrupt request.
 In XT computers IRQ’s were 0-7.
 In AT computers IRQ’s 0-7 are already present and 8-15 add new.

Standard IRQ Settings

IRQ NUMBERS DESCRIPTION
0 System Timer
1 Keyboard
2 Cascade to 9
3 Com 2 and 4
4 Com 1 and 3
5 LPT 2
6 Floppy Drive Controller
7 LPT 1
8 Mouse
9 Cascade as 2
10 Free
11 Free
12 Real Time Clock
13 Math Co Processor
14 Hard Disk Drive Controller 1
15 Free

IO addresses
IO addresses are the addresses on that the data is to be transferred.
Standard I/O Settings
IO Addresses Description
1F0-1F8 Hard Drive Controller 16Bit ISA
200-20F Game Control
201 Game I/O
278-27F Parallel Port (LPT2)
2F8-2FF Serial Port (COM2)
320-32f Hard Drive Controller 8Bit ISA
378-37F Parallel Port (LPT1)
3B0-3BF Monochrome Graphic Adapter
3D0-3DF Color Graphic Adapter
3F0-3F7 Floppy Controller
3F8-3FF Serial Port (COM1)

DMA Channels (Direct Memory Access)

DMA is the data communication by bypassing the processor.
DMA channels are the dedicated hardware that is used to communicate the devices among the
board fastly by bypassing the CPU.
The sound card must use the DMA channel.

Installation and configuration IDE/EIDE devices

On motherboard there is two built in IDE/EIDE available each support two devices.
Its mean one IDE/EIDE supports two IDE/EIDE devices on it.
HDD attached on it with a ribbon cable that has three connectors on it.
One attached on the motherboard and remaining two are used to attach the IDE/EIDE devices.

Primary/Secondary
On motherboard there are two IDE/EIDE. IDE 1 and IDE 2.
IDE 1 said to be the primary and IDE 2 is said secondary.

Master /Slave
On each cable there are two devices can be attached first is called Master and second is Slave.
On primary IDE HDD are primary master and primary slave.
On secondary IDE HDD are secondary master and secondary slave.
The identification of both devices should never matched with each other they must be different.

Installation and configuration SCSI devices

Types of SCSI Devices
SCSI type Bus Data transferring speed
SCSI I 8-Bit 5 Mega Bytes per second
SCSI II Fast 16-Bit 10 Mega Bytes per second
SCSI II Fast Wide 16-Bit 20 Mega Bytes per second
SCSI III Double Speed SCSI 16-Bit 40 Mega Bytes per second
SCSI III Wide Fast-20 16-Bit 40 Mega Bytes per second
SCSI III Wide Ultra 16-Bit 40 Mega Bytes per second

Cabling
Internal SCSI devices used 50-pin ribbon cable that is similar to IDE cable.
External SCSI used the female DB-25; Centronics-50, Mini-50 or Mini-68 connectors are used to
attach it. It uses short thin and shielded cable.
(SCSI should be terminated both sides)
Cable Type Connector "Alternative" Connector Type Contacts Cable Name
 1 High Density 50 External High Density "A" Cable

2 Centronics 50 External Centronics "A" Cable

External
3 High Density 68 External High Density "P" Cable

4 VHDCI 68 External Very High Density "P" Cable

1 High Density 50 Internal High Density "A" Cable

2 Regular Density 50 Internal Regular Density "A" Cable

Internal
3 High Density 68 Internal High Density "P" Cable

4 SCA 80 (n/a)

System optimizing
Memory

Motherboard/Processors/Memory
CPU Chips
Processor/CPU
Processor is the only component in computer that allow all processing for it. Without
processor chip computer is dead. Processor came in two main types of manufacturing till now.

DIP
In this type of chip processor has only two lines of pins on it.

PGA
In this type of chip processor has 4 line pins on it.
The processor makes all processing so it is called the central processing unit.
Popular CPU Chips
Chip Characteristics

Motherboards

System Board

System board, motherboard or planner board is the same thing. It is the primary part of a
computer on that all devices are attached.

AT
AT motherboards are mostly found in generation of p1 motherboards. These motherboards are
identifying through their processor sockets. So it is quite important that you have the idea about
processor socket have AT and ATX boards.

ATX/NLX
ATX/NLX motherboards are the new generation boards

Comparison of Form Factors

This table is a summary comparison of the sizes of the various motherboard form factors, and
compatibility factors.

Match to Case and Power

Style Width Depth Where Found
Supply

Full AT 12" 11-13" Very Old PCs Full AT, Full Tower

Baby AT 8.5" 10-13" Older PCs All but Slimline, ATX

ATX 12" 9.6" Newer PCs ATX

Mini ATX 11.2" 8.2" Newer PCs ATX

LPX 9" 11-13" Older Retail PCs Slimline

Mini LPX 8-9" 10-11" Older Retail PCs Slimline

NLX 8-9" 10-13.6" Newer Retail PCs Slimline

Power Supply
Power supply is the only component in computer that provides the power to the motherboard.
Power supply provides the volts to the computer according to its requirement.
Power supply’s main function is to convert the wall outlet’s AC volts in to DC.
It is perform by the diodes in power supply.

Volts used by computer

Computer used ±5, ±12 and ±3.3 Volts Dc current.

Power supply has two main types…

(Every type of power supply has the connectors for CD-ROM, FDD and HDD)

AT
At power supply has two connectors names p8 and p9 to attach with the At motherboard. It
consists of 6pin each. They are attached such a manner that black wires on both connectors facing
each other.
AT power supply have the hard switch to turn computer off and on.

ATX/NLX
ATX power supply has only one connector to attach the motherboard that has 20 pins and can be
attached only in one manner.
ATX power supply has the soft switch to turn computer on and off.
This feature must be supported in the motherboard’s ROM BIOS chip so it can work the auto
power off when you shut down the pc from windows.
The main confusion of ATX power supply is that Windows NT has no support for ATX so you
have to turn off the computer manually after shutting down. The ATX power supply is shut down
after pressing the 5 seconds of its switch. You press the switch and after 5 seconds it turns off.

Form Factors of Power Supply

Typical
Form Usual Motherboard Match to Case Form Match to Motherboard
Dimensions
Factor Style(s) Connectors Factor Form Factor
(W x D x H, mm)

PC/XT 222 x 142 x 120 Desktop AT Style PC/XT PC/XT

Desktop or
AT 213 x 150 x 150 AT Style AT AT, Baby AT
Tower

Desktop or Baby AT, AT, AT/ATX AT, Baby AT, AT/ATX

Baby AT 165 x 150 x 150 AT Style
Tower Combo Combo

LPX, some Baby AT, LPX, AT, Baby AT,

LPX 150 x 140 x 86 Desktop AT Style
AT/ATX Combo AT/ATX Combo

ATX, Mini-ATX,
ATX, Mini-ATX,
Desktop or Extended ATX, NLX,
ATX/NLX 150 x 140 x 86 ATX Style Extended ATX, NLX,
Tower microATX, AT/ATX
microATX, FlexATX
Combo

Desktop or microatx, FlexATX, ATX, MicroATX, FlexATX,

SFX 100 x 125 x 63.5 * ATX Style
Tower Mini-ATX, NLX ATX, Mini-ATX, NLX

150 x 230 x 86
(single fan)
WTX Tower WTX Style WTX WTX
224 x 230 x 86
(double fan)

Memory
Memory of computer is consists of two basic type of memory that is…

RAM (Random Access Memory)

Ram is called the working area for computer. It is the most important part of pc. Without
Ram there is nothing to do in computer.
Processor’s all processing is placed in Ram. Whenever any program is executed the Ram assigns
a certain amount of block to it and then processor process the data at that place.
Ram has three popular physical modules as follows…

Physical Types of RAM Module

SIP and DIP

SIP and DIP are the oldest memory modules used in computers. These modules have the pins that
are soldered on the motherboard. This was the starting of computer’s RAM.
It is not included in course and has no need to go in deep.

SIMM\SIPP (Single Inline Memory Module\Single inline Pin Package)

SIMM is also called SIPP because of it was the first memory module that has no directly soldered
on the motherboard. It has pins and placed on the given memory bank on the board.
 SIMM has come in two modules that have 30 and 72 pins.
 SIMM operates at ± 5 and ± 5.5 volts.
 SIMM is placed at 45 angles on the memory bank.
 Memory controller chip is embedded on one side of module.
 SIMM module is commonly found in 33,66 and now some chips came with 100Mhz.

DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module)

 DIMM has 168 pins.
 Operates at ± 3 and ± 3.3 volts.
 Is placed at 90 angles on the memory bank.
 Memory controller chip is embedded on the both side of module.
 DIMM module came in 66, 100 and 133Mhz.

RIMM (RAM Bus Inline Memory Module)

 RIMM has 168 pins.
 RIMM operates at ± 0.05.
 RIMM is placed at 90 angles on the memory bank.
 Memory controller chip is embedded on the both side of module.
 RIMM has its own 2-byte data bus on the RAM chip.
 RIMM logically divides the RAM in to two parts. One for Row another for column.
 Clock speed of RIMM is 800 MHz and 1.2Ghz are available.
 It is not hardware compatible with DIMM.

Logical Parts of RAM

SRAM
SRAM is that portion of RAM that has no need to be refreshed. SRAM normally held the
operating system and those operational materials that are need to start and run the computer at
every time.
 SRAM’s refreshing rate is too low then the DRAM.
 SRAM has more costly then the DRAM.
 SRAM obtain less power to run.

DRAM
DRAM is that part of RAM where computer programs are operated. This portion of RAM has
continuously refreshing and its refresh rate is in neon seconds. This portion has the information
about running programs, when they start what portion is allocated to that, when it is ends and
when new program starts.
 DRAM consumes more energy then the SRAM.
 DRAM is less costly then the SRAM.
 DRAM is slower then the SRAM.
 In DRAM 32 transistors work on behalf of every bit and to stay the energy they have
capacitors.
  This is basically the dynamic portion of RAM that has more power and slow working.

FPRAM
 Fast page Ram is working logically in pages so it can access the data quickly.
 FPRAM’s latency rate is 5-3-3-3.
 It separates the row and columns in such a way that the row has been same and the
column is changed so one sided time is saved by fixing the row.
 FPRAM is the type of DRAM that works in change architecture.

RDRAM
 It is the Ram Bus Dynamic Ram introduced with RIMM.
 It has 2-byte wide data bus.
 Came with two divided logical parts of Ram, one is for Rows and other for columns.
 RDRAM is the memory architecture for next coming generation.

ROM (Read only Memory)

This is the memory type that built by the manufacturer, end user cannot change it. It requires
special equipments and technical person.
ROM is a chip built on motherboard and called the firmware. It has software in it…
BIOS CMOS POST
There are types of ROM came market till now.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

This type of Rom can be reprogrammed with special equipment called BIOS WRITER.

EEPROM (Electrical Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

This Rom can be erased by the electric shots and reprogrammed with BW.

UVROM (Ultra Violet Read Only Memory)

UVROM is erased with the ultra-violet rays.

FLASH ROM
Flash Rom is the Rom of new generation that can be easily erased or upgrade with the software.
Just a floppy can reprogrammed or upgrade the BIOS.

Firmware
ROM BIOS CHIP
It is a hardware chip and also contains software in it so called the Firmware.
There are the software found in chip…

BIOS (Basic Input Output System)

BIOS is that part of Rom that has defined the limitations of motherboard.
It defines how many HDD can attaché on that board.
Can this board support booting from CD-Rom or not.
So this part of software allows the limitations in which you have to do your work.

CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)

The used defined settings are stored in CMOS.
If you change the boot sequence it change here but the part that allow you to change is BIOS.
You must save the CMOS for completing the task and save your settings.

POST (Power On Self Test)

When computer boots up it check the system for all hardware, this is done by software called
POST.
It generates the errors if did not find something and also generates the beeps.

Safety And Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance procedure and product
Manufacture Suggested Guideline
Manufacturer suggested guideline is much necessary for trouble shoot or to start work on any
equipment. It will guide you through the all compatibilities, exceptions and limitations of device.

Liquid Cleaning Components

Manufacturer document is much necessary to choose the cleaning component for a specific
device.
Isopropyl alcohol and denatured alcohol are commonly used for cleaning contacts and applied to
clean the FDD heads.
Mild detergent is used to clean the body of monitor from outside.

Cleaning Contacts and Connectors

Pencil rubber and isopropyl alcohol is used to clean the connectors and contacts of cards.

Cleaning Tools
Compressed air is used to clean the equipments from dust.

Floppy Drive and Tape Head Cleaning

You are recommended to use the FDD cleaner or head
cleaner for tape drive. Some cleaner floppies have the some
isopropyl alcohol drops on the floppy and then cleaned the
read\write head.

Hard Drive Maintenance

You are recommended only following HDD maintenance tools…
Defragmentation
Used to make the cluster in contagious form and makes the HDD performance better.
Scandisk
Scan disk check the HDD for errors, it scan the physical bad sectors and repair them.
It marks the physical bad sectors. Scandisk can scan the compressed drive.
Check disk
Check disk is also works like scan disk but cannot repair the compressed drive and cannot check
the physical bad sectors.
It is used to check the HDD logically.
Vacuuming
You should vacuum the inside of case whenever open it. The dust is sucked by the components
and they get hot and may cause some serious problem.

Environmental hazard protection

Power Issues
 Brownout
It is referred to a device that is damaged with the cause to power disturbance but did not
damaged completely. It works less then its capacity.
 Blackout
Complete damage of computer equipment is called the blackout.
 Power Surge
Power surge is the continuous powered OFF and ON.
 Power Spike
Power spike is the sudden increase in power for just seconds. It can burn computer
equipments.

UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)

It is used to prevent your computer from sudden lapses in power that may be power surge or
spikes.
 UPS is consists of several components like suppressors, noise filters and surge protector.
 Suppressors are used to prevent system from the power spikes. It absorbs the extra power.
 Noise filter is used to prevent computer from noise and EMI.

Laser and high voltage equipments

Lasers
There is strictly recommended that do not look directly to the laser beam.
It is in CD-ROM but did not have more intensity and not harmful.
Laser printer the level 3 laser beam and generates more heat, so it can be harmful to you, so be
careful when you are working inside it.

High Voltage Equipments

Never wear a wrist strap when working on high voltage equipments.
Never used both hands to working such equipments.
Keep the manufactures documentation in front when using high voltage equipments.

Power Supply
Power supply’s main function is the conversion of AC into DC volts; during this process it
generates much heat. So be careful about the fan of power supply that it must be in running form.
When working on power supply give him time to cool down.

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

Monitor is high-voltage equipment so an experienced person should repair it.
Never wear the Wrist strap while working on CRT. It is important that wait for 1 hour when start
working on monitor.
Discharge of monitor
With Screwdriver disconnect the anode lead.
Use jumper wire with screwdriver and nod conductive handle.

Disposal procedure
Disposal of all following items should be according to the local environmental authority or law.
You should follow the manufacturer’s guideline while dispose these following items.
 Batteries
 Toner Kits/Cartridge
 Computers
 Chemical Solvents
 CRT, s
 MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet)
United state department of occupational safety and health administration

ESD (Electrostatic discharge)

Your computer equipments have less charge but you have more. When we touch these
equipments they may be caught defect by transferring our charge into them it is called ESD.
Common ESD protection Device and Procedure
You should use the ESD Wrist Strap that provides the safety for your computer equipments. It
contains the 1-mega ohm resistor in it. One side of strap must be grounded.

Hidden ESD
It can be the cause of serious damage for the computer due to dust and dirt.
Environment for PC
Humidity level should be 50 to 70% in room where system is working.
Cool and dry season is more harmful for the computer and more ESD generates in it.

Difference between ESD & EMI

Electro Magnetic Interface
Electro Static Discharge
It is permanent It is temporary
It is non recoverable It is recoverable
It is cause by the energy transferred in to It can be the cause by noise
equipments

Potable Systems

Portable system, mobile systems or laptops is the same thing. The computers that can be carried
somewhere. Mobile systems has two basic types…
The original portables were called luggable. Although they were smaller than desktop computers
they were not truly convenient to transport. The first portables included small, built-in CRT
displays and detachable keyboards. The battery and CRT equipment made them extremely heavy
to carry. Therefore, they never really had a major impact on the PC market.
There should be the lightweight of that system so it can easily carry.
Laptop
Standard laptop has only had standard devices that are attached with a mobile machine. It has no
support for PC standard devices that you only can use the laptop’s devices not your standard
computer devices.
If you want to use your standard keyboard mouse and monitor with mobile system you had to
attach a port replicator, this is a device or connector used to attach the standard devices with
laptop.

Docking Station
Docking station is the form of laptop but only the difference is that, it supports the you’re
standard computer devices attached on the back of laptop.
You can use standard monitor mouse and keyboard with laptop; this is also called the built-in
ports for standard devices.

Note Book
Additional advancements in IC technology enabled the PC’s circuitry to be reduced further so
that the unit could achieve sizes of 8.75"d´11"w´2.25"h and beyond. Portables in this size range
are referred to as notebook computers. Notebook designers work constantly to decrease the size
and power consumption of all the computer’s components. Special low-power consumption ICs
and disk drives have been developed to extend battery life. The most widely used notebook
keyboard is the 84-key version. The keys are slightly smaller and shorter than those found in full-
size keyboards. A number of keys or key functions may be combined or deleted from a notebook
keyboard.

Battery types and installation

Mobile system are carried on the field so they have an energy media with them so they can
powered on during working is called Battery. There are three different types of batteries used in
mobile computers…

Nicad (Nickel Cadmium Battery)

 It is the cheapest battery used in mobile systems.
 It has a limit of recharging only 1000 times, after this limit it is dead.
 It has memory effect so loose its actual capacity.
 Memory effect
• When you recharge battery after 20% of it’s remaining. Nicad
battery first uncharged that 20% then recharge it from 0%.
During this process some area of battery become dead. It is only
happened in Nicad battery.
 Nicad is the oldest model of batteries.
 It takes more time for full recharging as much as 12 hours.
 It is necessary for Nicad battery that I should be recharge after complete discharging.

Nimh (Nickel Metal Hydride Battery)

  It is better then Nicad.
 It has no memory effect.
 It is recharged from where it remains.
 It is 33-50 % more powerful then the Nicad.
 It is economic not very expensive.
 It has same size as Nicad and environmentally friendly.
LiIon (Lithium Ion Battery)
 LiIon is the best battery for laptop computers.
 It has no chance for memory effect.
 It is small then other batteries and also currently used in mobile phones.
 It has more powerful then the other above-mentioned batteries.
 It is so expensive then other batteries.

(Portable system’s batteries should be disposed off properly according to local environmental
authority’s law)

AC Adapter
AC adapter is used in portable systems for basically two purposes.
First conversion of Ac to Dc volts for the motherboard.
Secondly it charges the battery for use.
Adapter is either internal or external, if it is internal it increase the weight of computer.
External Ac adapter is easy to carry and more convenient to use.

Portable display
There are some older display types that were used in computers and some newly introduced have
better display.

 CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

It is the old display type that is not so efficient. These displays are heavy and cannot fit in portable systems so other
generation for laptops introduced.

 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

LCD is more thin, low power consumed and lighter then the small CRT displays.
It has two types of display…

ACTIVE MATRIX
In active matrix there are one transistor is used for each pixel and produce the high quality image.
This technology of active matrix is called TFT (Thin Film Transistor), which is currently used in computer’s displays.

PASSIVE MATRIX
In passive matrix there are two rows of transistors only used for display.
When you see the picture from any other angle the quality of picture is lose.

(Any type of display should be clean with dump cloth)

Hard Drive
All hard drives in portable systems have 2.5 inch EIDE or UDMA.

PCMCIA and PC Cards

Personal Computer Memory Card International Association or Pc cards are the standard of
portable system’s interfaces that is developed in 1989.
First version of these cards that has 68 pins especially for memory is came in June 1990.
There are three types of pc cards used in portable computers…

Cards and their descriptions…

Thickness Description
Type
I 3.3 mm Memory
II 5.0 mm Cards IO devices
III 10.5 mm Mass storage device HDD
All cards are 85.6 mm by 54.0 mm in size

Services In Portable Systems

There are two basic services found in portable systems…

Socket Services
Socket services in portable systems are responsible for BIOS level configuration. Insertion and
removal of any card, memory or device.

Card Services
Card services are allows the system configurations for the incoming device and cards. They allow
the system resources to the pcmcia cards.

Pointing Devices
There are many pointing devices are used in laptops…
 Track Ball
This is the most moving part of laptop.
Pointing Stick
It is a stick that is just like a pencil.
Touch Pad
Mostly used in latest laptops.

Printers
Printer operations and components
Types of Printers
Basically there are two major types of printers…

Impact Printers
Impact printers are those printers in which the physical components are attached with the paper
for printing.
Daisy Wheel Printer
Dot Matrix Printer

Non-Impact Printers
In non-impact printers physically printer not attached with paper to draw the image.
Ink Jet Printer
Bubble Jet Printer
Laser Printer

Daisy Wheel Printer

 Daisy wheel printer is the oldest form of impact printer.
 It had limited characters on it.
 It is work just like a typewriter.
 It is effective printer if you have any document in parts printing.
 It creates a lot of noise during printing.
 It had also ribbon for printing.

Dot Matrix Printer

 Dot matrix printer is the most efficient printer of impact class.
 It had print head that has pins in the range of 7,24 or 9,24.
 It is the hottest part of dot matrix printer.
 Dot matrix printer has the printing mechanism of firing the pins on the paper from the
head. It had solenoid.

In Dot matrix printer there is the FRU is printer head.

According to A+ paper you must sure that there is only print head in a Dot matrix printer that you
should never touch, because it is very hot and can burn your hand.

Laser Printers
The printer that is associated with electricity to build the image on paper is called laser printer.
There are some phases of laser printing that are much important for the exam.

Phases of printing of Laser Printer

“Charlie Chaplin Was Dancing On Third Floor”
Cleaning-Charging-Writing-Developing-Transferring-Fusing

Cleaning
This is the first step of laser printing in which the EP drum cleared with equipment that is called
‘cleaning blade’.
Cleaning blade clears all charge from the drum and make it clean for new printing.
Charging
In this phase a wire that is called ‘primary corona wire’ charge the EP drum with –5000 volts.
Writing
In this process when the drum held the –5000 volts DC, the writing process makes the image on
the drum with –100 DC volts.
Developing
In developing process the toner particles are transferred on the drum. So it is ready to transfer the
image on paper.
Transferring
In this step ‘transfer corona wire’ works. It is situated on the back of paper and charge it with +
volts so the –100 DC and + volts attract each other and the image is transferred on the paper.
Fusing
The last phase when the printing completes, the paper is smudged and should be dry. The fuser
dries the paper with heat. Fuser heats up 165C to 180C.
It consists of three main parts…
Halogen heating lamp
Rubberized pressure ruler
Teflon-coated aluminum fusing roller
Thermal fuser is used to manage the heat of fuser.
Trouble Shooting of Printers
Dot Matrix
 If printer has left the line in words like “Certification” there should be one pin is not
firing.
 If the printer lose many words or line in printing there may be the cause of internal
printer’s data cable.
 If you found the printer is not printing straight, check the ruler.
 Printer is printing garbage then checks the drivers.
 If printing is too light then change the ink ribbon.

Laser
 Blank pages can be the cause of…
 If toner is end.
 If transfer corona wire fails.
 HVPS fails.
 Speckled pages can be the cause of; cleaning process is not properly works.
 Ghosted images can be the two causes…
 Cleaning blade.
 Lamp eraser not erases the previous image.
 Smudged images are only the cause of defective fuser.
 Paper is not goes in printer can be the cause of defective sensor.

Bubble Jets/Ink Jets

 There is common problem in these printers that they finished the ink cartridge.
 The platters and all circuits are built on the cartridge.
 If cartridge’s circuit side is black with ink, clean it.

Note
“There is a common problem with all type of printers that they don’t have some time compatible
driver so you should be sure that the driver you install is correct”

Printer connections and configuration

Parallel
Parallel cable’s recommended length is 10 feet.
The connector that attached to the computer is DB-25 and
at printer side is male Centronics-36.

Serial
The serial cable can be as far as 25 feet.
Serial cable consists of DB-9 or DB-25 female connector on the computer and at printer side it is
DB-25 male.
Network
Some printers now days have LAN cards in them and allow you the serial and parallel interfaces
in them to share them among all network. Normally they are software-based printers with a
software Rom in them.
Network cable is according to that cable limits that you are used.

Infrared
It is basically the data transferring with light at a high speed. Currently mostly computers
especially laptops supports it. It is infrared serial port.

Diagnosing And Troubleshooting

Symptoms and problems

Processor/Memory
There is a common problem with the clock speed of processor and Memory that they did not
match and computer didn’t work.
If you insert new Ram and display did not appear, check the Ram plugged properly or not.
If processor continuously heat up without any physical reason, check its properties in CMOS
setup and low its speed.

Input Devices

Keyboard
 Sticking keys/Sporadic keys: the keyboard should well clean then it works fine.
 Non-functional keys: when any key stops functioning you should replace the keyboard.

Mouse
 Dirty Mouse
Mouse should be cleaned very well with the Q-tip, so it has no jerks.
 Conflicting Address
Some time address can be conflicting with any other IO device.
 Device Driver
If you have an operating system that has some problem and want the drivers, then you should
provide the proper drivers for mouse.
 Adapter Card
If computer have the adapter card for mouse then check that too, normally old computers
have IO card for this device.

Scanner
 Device Driver
You should provide the proper drivers for the device to make it work fine.
 Adapter Card
 If computer have the adapter card for scanner then check that too, normally scanners have the
scanner card to plug.
 Dirty Scan
Dirty scan is happened when the surface of scanner have dust on it.
 Cable and power connection issues

Floppy Disk Drive

 Floppy Drive Failure; there may be the problem with FDD so you can check first disk
then check the Drive.
 FDD has no light ON; it can be the cause of power connection is not attached with it.
 FDD’s light is ON continuously; the ribbon cable is attached with FDD reversed.
 Media Error; if floppy is not formatted it display “invalid media error”
 Drive incompatibility; sometime drive is not compatible when you copy some thing from
any other computer.
 Dirty read/Write head; check another floppy and then for drive.
 Device driver errors; drivers are not compatible.
 Drive fail; drive is not configured or out of order.

Hard Drive
There are some common HDD problems…
Power connection
Mostly power supply cable is not properly attach with HDD so it stops during work and
system halts.
Cabling
You have to configure properly master and slave jumpers on the hard disks so they work
fine.
Address conflicts
Some time controller’s address can be conflicted and hard disk drive fails.
BIOS setting
There is properly setting of “first boot device and second” to work fine with hard disk drive.
You should properly configure the LBA mode for hard disk drive.
Device drivers
Sometime HDD needs drivers to run.
Corrupted drives
This can be happened due to the bad sectors or clusters. You should choose any third
party software or Scandisk of Microsoft to accomplish with it.
Non-system disk errors
When there is no system files find on the hard disk drive.
Invalid media type error
When hard disk drive is not formatted.
Fixed disk error
There may be the problem of Rom Bios setting.
Current drive is no longer valid
When the drive letter in autoexec.bat file is not correct.
No operating system found error
There may be the cause of missing system files and secondly wrong CMOS setting.

Bad or missing operating system

When no partition is active or Rom Bios setting.

CD-ROMs
 Media errors due to bad drive.
 Power problems are too common.
 Disk is not read by Drive, try other disks first then Drive.
Parallel Ports/Serial Ports
Serial and parallel ports are checked by the lope back test. That is performing with lope back
adapter.

Sound Card/Audio
There is normally the driver and the configuration
problems are occurred in sound card.

Monitor/Video
 You should set the proper refresh rate of monitor as read in chapter.
 If your computer goes directly in safe mode there is problem with the VGA driver.
 If your system is starts flickering, set the sync frequency properly.

Modems
 No dial tone message, when phone line may be dead.
 Internet is disconnecting continuously, check the distortion in phone line.
 When you connect on Internet mouse works stop, check resources.
 When you install the external modem on COM 1 COM 3 cannot use.
 When you install the external modem on COM 2 COM 4 cannot use.

BIOS
 Your computer did not support the HDD above 8 GB.
 Your computer is not support the VGA monitor.
 Motherboard has no support for booting from the CD-Rom.
 Motherboard did not support the 1.44mb FDD.
Power Supply
 The computer is restarting continuously.
 When insert disk in CD-Rom the computer restarts.
 Computer is heat up but the processor fan is fine.
 Fan of power supply is out of order, then replace the power supply.

Slot Covers
All computer covers should be at their place, if you had some problem of overheating of your
computer keep the covers on the slots.

Device Drivers
All devices those want the driver you should install the proper driver for them.

LBA (Logical Block Addressing) mode

In BIOS the setting of hard disk drive should be the LBA if you had a large hard disk. Windows
and Dos installs only on LBA mode.If your computer did not detect the complete hard disk drive.
Set it at LBA mode.

POST Audio/Visual Error Cods

Error number or Component or problem
range
100-199 Mother Board Problems
200-299 Memory Errors
300-399 Keyboard Errors
400-499 Video Problem (Monochrome)
500-599 Video Problem (Color)
600-699 Floppy Disk Drive
1700-1799 Hard Disk Drives
1780 C drive of Hard disk
1781 D drive of Hard disk
161 CMOS battery fails (change it)
164 Memory size error (it occurs after
memory upgrade run setup)
201 Memory test fail (Ram chip fails during
test)
301 Keyboard did not response (want
cleaning)
303 Keyboard or system unit error (keyboard
should be changed)
423 Parallel test failure
Continuous Hardware problem
beep
I beep It is fine
No beep Speaker is out of order
5 short beep in Processor failure
AMI
4 short beep in System timer fails
AMI
6 short beep in Keyboard controller error
AMI

Basic troubleshooting
First of all when any customer calls you, you should gather the information about the problem
with his computer. Then check the environment of the place, then go for the problem’s actual
location that whether it is a hardware or software problem.

Basic Networking
Networking means the sharing of resources and it is same in computer networking that you can
access one printer from another computer. It may possible that you can print your document from
a remote printer through network redirector.

Types of Networking
There are basically three types of network but originally in real world only two types are used and
found.

 Local Area Network

Local area network is the network type that is consists within one building or within one
geographical area. All small networks like college lab and Internet café are the common
examples of LAN.
Physical Topologies under LAN
• Bus
• Star
• Ring

 Metropolitan Area Network

In real world there is no implement of MAN, but it is the network within the city or
where area code is same.

 Wide Area Network

Now a day’s world is based on web and Internet is the most efficient example of WAN.

Physical Layout of Local Area Network

There are three main physical topologies of network.
Bus Topology
 Bus topology is such network layout that all computers used the same media and attached
with that.
 The worst condition is in bus topology is that, if the network cable breaks from anywhere
all network goes down.
 The trouble shooting of this network is quite difficult as compare to star.
 Coaxial cable is used in this Topology.
Star Topology
 This type of network has the centralized management that is implemented with a device
called HUB.
 All computers in star topology are directly connected to that hub.
 Trouble shooting of star is quite easy.
 Every computer has its own connection to the hub if any computer’s cable breaks or
down the LED’s can easily helps you to determine which computer has problem.
 Twisted Pair cable is used in this network Topology.

Ring Topology
 Ring topology has no implement in real world but required in course. In ring topology all
computers are connected as the bus.
 It is also called the MAU (Multi Station Access Unit).
 There is no chance of collision in this topology due to the ‘Token passing’.
 Fiber Optic cable is used in this Topology.
 The default method of network access is Token Passing, if the network is about 1
 It is same as bus topology that if the cable is breaking from anywhere all networks goes
down.

IEEE Standard
LLC 802.2
Ethernet 802.3
Token Ring LAN 802.5
Token Bus LAN 802.4
MAN 802.6

Logical Networking
Logical types of networking is the way that how computers access the network.

Peer To Peer
 In such network all computers have the equal access to the network.
 All computers have the equal rights and share the resources equally.
 Microsoft Windows 95,98,Me support this type of network.

Client Server
 In client server architecture one computer have all the rights of any network and allows
the other computers to access the resources in a predefined limit.
 Server has the right to restrict any user to access the networks resources.
 Client have proper authentication from the server and then enter in the network.
Client Server Operating Systems
Microsoft windows NT workstation and Server
Microsoft windows 2000 professional and Advance Server
Red Hat Linux
Unix
Sun Solaris
Basic networking concepts

Cabling
RG58 with 50ohm impedance for Thinnet.
RG59 with 75ohm impedance for TV.
RG8 and 11 for Thicknet cable.
Coaxial cable has two different types that are used in networking.

Thinnet Cable
 Thinnet cable is commonly used it the Bus Topology.
 Its connectors are as follows…
o BNC (British Naval Connector)
o T-Connector
o ETR (End Terminator (50 ohm))
 Thinnet cable can take the data up to 185 or 180 meter (610 feet).
 After that limit a device is used called “Repeater” to regenerate the signals.
 This cable has more EMI effect as compare to Thicknet.
 It supports 30 nodes on one segment.

Thicknet Cable
 Thicknet cable is used where EMI chances are great.
 It is more thick then the Thinnet and attached with a transceiver.
 The connector in this cable is used called ‘N’ connector.
 Thicknet cable can take the data up to 500 meter (1650 feet).
 It supports 100 nodes on one segment.

Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cable has two types…
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)

UTP Shielded Twisted Pair

Cat1Cat2 4Mb/sec voice
Cat3 16 Mb/sec telephone
Cat4 100\20Mb/sec network
Cat5 100 Mb/sec Ethernet and Fast Ethernet
Cat6 155Mb/sec Fast Ethernet
Cat7 1000Mb/sec Gigabit Ethernet

(Connector for UTP and STP cable is “RJ45”)

UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair
 It supports the 75 nodes on a channel.
 It has not efficient against the EMI.
 It has the limit of 100 meters or 328 feet.
 Data transferring speed is 100mb/s

STP Shielded Twisted Pair

 It supports the 200 nodes on a channel.
 It has more efficient against the EMI.
 It has the limit of 100 meters.
 Data transferring speed is 100mb/s

Ethernet Standards
Cable Standard
Thinnet 10base2
Thicknet 10base5
Twisted pair 10baseT

Attenuation
Weakness of network signals after a specific limit is called Attenuation.

Cross Talk
When the signals of one cable attract with other is called cross talk. It is happened due to
combined path of cables.

Noise
Noise is another term of cross talk but it is happened due to the heavy machinery like UPS and
other. UPS provides the noise filter in it so it has no effect of our cables.

FIBER FOPTIC
It is the fastest media of transmission. Its data transmitting speed is2gb\sec.
This cable has two types of manufacturing.
It is the media that is transferred data in shape of light.
 Tight configuration
 Loose configuration

 Single Mode Optic Fiber

Injection laser diodes ILD’s are commonly used in the single mode.

 Multi Mode Optic Fiber

Light-emitting diodes LED are to transmit the data.
Network Interface Cards
NIC card is the expansion card that is used for networking. Its basic working is to transmit the
data out from computer and receive the incoming messages.
It is the I/O device.
NIC card is

Network Access
In a network when all or some computers sends the data at the same time, that data can cause the
jam on the network or mess up and block the media is called collision.
To avoid or protect the network from collision there are network access method are used as
follows…

 CSMA\CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access\Collision Detection)

This network access method is used in Ethernet networks. In this method all NIC cards sense the
network media that is there any data transferring is going on or not.
If the media is found free then NIC card transmit the data on the cable otherwise wait for free
path.
 CSMA\CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access\Collision Avoidance)
This is the way if any collision is occurred on network then how to make it normal.
In this method all computers stops the data transferring on media and remaining data that is being
mess up in media, back to their originators.
There is ‘BACK OFF’ algorithm is used in this method.
 Token Passing
This is network access method of Token Ring network. In this method there is no chance of
collision because of a software packet that is called token is passed through all nodes of network.
When any nodes pick this packet then he transmits the data.
If the network is 200 meter then token is to be passed 10000 times to every computer.

Protocols
There are basic two protocols used in the networking…

Routable
There is the protocol that is used on the Internetworks called routable protocol.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

TCP/IP suit is the most common protocol that is used in Internet. You cannot connect or used the
Internet without it. TCP/IP is based on ip addressing.
It is called 32 bit addressing and used the classes…
0-255
Class A 1-126
Class B 128-191
Class C 192-223
It is also supports the sub-netting of any network…
Class A 255.0.0.0
Class B 255.255.0.0
Class C 255.255.255.0

IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange)

IPX/SPX is the routable protocol of Netware.
It is not used in Internet only used in Novell’s systems.
No-Routable
There is the common Microsoft’s protocol that is used commonly on LAN.
NETBEUI
NetBEUI is the small network’s protocol that is commonly used by the Microsoft.
It is very easier to configure and is working on the computer name or Net Bios name.

Broadband & Baseband

To understand broadband and baseband, one needs to know two basic terms first: TDM and FDM.

 TDM stands for Time Division Multiplexing. You can think of TDM as Time Division
plus Multiplexing. Multiplexing means that you can transmit multiple signals
simultaneously over a single transmission path. Time Division means that you slice the
time in order to transmit different signals. TDM technology is used in T carries such as
T1, T2, which is very popular in WAN environment.

 FDM means Frequency Division Multiplexing. Same as TDM, FDM also transmits
signals simultaneously over a single transmission path, such as a cable or wireless
system. However, TDM slice the time while FDM separate signals by its own unique
frequency range. Typical example of FDM is cable TV system. Although you only have
one cable (means one channel), you can receive several TV channels. Each channel has a
different frequency range. That is the reason why when you switch to channel 3, you go
to NBC, and to channel 5 you go to CNN…

 Baseband A communications technique in which digital signals are placed onto the
transmission line without change in modulation. If you study TDM and FDM carefully,
you will find TDM doesn't need modulation because it just put the signal into a specific
time interval. While FDM needs modulation because it put all the signals together for the
transmission. Therefore, Baseband is using the TDM technology.

 Broadband A technique for transmitting data, voice and video using FDM. Modems are
required for this method, because the digital data has to be modulated onto the line. The
typical example of broadband is cable TV as well as radio station.

1. Baseband refers to single frequency while broadband refers to multiple frequency ranges.
2. Baseband is bi-directional while broadband is unidirectional.
3. Baseband uses repeater to regenerate the signal while Broadband uses amplifier to
regenerate signals.
Configuring network interface cards
Configuration of network interfacing card is so simple now a days due to pnp.
They held an IRQ and IO address. Mostly in Windows NT the problem is occurred because LAN
card and sound card accept the same IRQ, that is 5.

Problems on the network

There are some common problems are faced in a network.
 Wrong Driver
  Physical cable damaged
 LAN card is damaged
 Hub is not plugged properly
 EMI effect due to magnetic field
 High voltage machines near the cables
 Excessive traffic and low bandwidth

Reduce Bandwidth
Reduce Bandwidth occurs when user’s data transmission across the network being to take longer.
The time out of application for requesting of transmission is occurred. It is commonly occur when
network traffic is acceding. The most efficient solution for this problem is to increase the network
components.
Increase the bandwidth 10mb\sec to 100mb\sec by replacing the hubs, NIC and cables.

Loss of Data
Network’s main issues are Data safety and security.
Loss of data can be occurring due to some transmission problems, some transmission methods
provide the assurance for successfully data transmission across the nodes.
It is not cause of excessive traffic on network but can be occur due to failure of some hardware.

Network Slowdown
Mostly when administrator takes the backup of network data the network slow down.
Another cause of slow network is low bandwidth, that if your network is so big and the data
transfer rate among nodes is high then you should increase the bandwidth for avoid the slowdown
of network.

DUPLEXING

Simplex
It is just one-sided transmission

Half Duplex
Half duplex is the transmission of one sided just like when you send the data, other
person cannot.
Full Duplex
It is just like your normal phone lines.
It is two-way communication that allows the both sides to transmit the data at the same time.

EXPANDING NETWORK’S DEVICES

Hubs
It is used in star network for the centralized management. It has two main types..
Active Hub
Passive Hub
Switches
It is just like hub but so intelligent and used to combine more then 100 networks individually.
That is mostly used in ISPs.

Repeater
It is the device that is used to regenerate the network signals after the end limit of any cable.

Router
It combines the different networks and used to expand the network through the World Wide Web
commonly. It is mostly used in ISPs.
Router creates the routing table that is so efficient way to control the network traffic.

Modem
It is used to dial the Internet. It has two main forms…
Internal modem
External modem
Bridge
Bridge can combine the two networks using the ip addresses.

Brouter
Router + Bridge = Brouter

Gateway
Gateway is basically used to convert the protocols. Its working is to combine the different
networks.