Pavement Analysis and Design

Pavement Types- overview

Pavement Types
Road pavement a structure of superimposed layers of selected and processed material that is placed on a foundation/ subgrade. Traditionally pavements are divided into two categories - flexible and rigid This categorization is on the basis of how the pavement responds to load and climatic conditions

Pavement Types

Flexible pavements : bituminous surfacing over base, subbase and subgrade Rigid pavement : Portland cement concrete slab with or without base and placed over subgrade

Flexible Pavement
Flexible pavements- surfaced with bituminous (or asphalt) materials. These types of pavements are called "flexible" since the total pavement structure "bends" or "deflects" due to traffic loads. A flexible pavement structure - composed of several layers of materials which can accommodate this "flexing

Flexible pavements
Conventional flexible pavements- layered systems with better materials at top where intensity of stress is high and interior at the bottom where stress is low.

Examples of flexible pavements

Surface layer of flexible pavement

Cross section of WBM

Load Distribution Flexible Pavement

Basic Structural Elements of Flexible Pavement Material layers are usually arranged within a pavement structure in order of descending load bearing capacity with the highest load bearing capacity material (and most expensive) on the top and the lowest load bearing capacity material (and least expensive) on the bottom.

Surface Course- contact with traffic loads provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise control, rut resistance and drainage. prevents entrance of surface water into the underlying base, subbase and subgrade This top structural layer of material is sometimes subdivided into two layers: the wearing course (top) and binder course (bottom). Surface courses are most often constructed out of HMA.

Base Course- immediately beneath the surface course. provides additional load distribution and contributes to drainage Base courses are usually constructed out of crushed aggregate or HMA. Subbase Course- between the base course and subgrade. primarily as structural support but it can also minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement structure and improve drainage. Generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but better than the subgrade soils. A subbase course is not always needed or used. Subbase courses are generally constructed out of crushed aggregate or engineered fill.

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Bituminous pavement

WBM

WBM

Rigid Pavement -high flexural strength -Load- through slab action -Structural failure -- joints --stresses- load, temperature

Concrete Pavement

Design Approaches
empirical analytical/theoretical/rational

Pavement Design Determination of combination of thickness of various layers in most economical way to sustain the load for given input parameters such that no part of the structure is excessively stressed.

Pavement Analysis - stress/strain/ deflection at any point in the pavement system for applied wheel load conditions

Design Approaches
Empirical Design

Relationships between design inputs (e.g., loads, materials, layer configurations and environment) and pavement failure were determined using experience, experimentation or a combination of both. Although the scientific basis for these relationships is not firmly established, they can be used with confidence as long as the limitations with such an approach are recognized. Specifically, it is not prudent to use an empirically derived relationship to describe phenomena that occur outside the range of the original data used to develop the relationship.

Empirical Approach- Design CBR Method of Pavement Design Input: CBR Value ( strength of subgrade) and Traffic details ( No. of commericial vehilces, standard axle load (msa), damage factor (VDF), annual rate of growth of trafficetc)
365 X A [(1 + r ) x 1] NS = X F r (1)

IRC: 37 1984 Empirical Method

CBR of soil

Thickness of pavement

Traffic, msa

Analytical Design Approach

Analytical/ Mechanistic / Rational Takes into Account the Mechanistic Behaviour of Pavement Components Structural Responses of Pavement to applied load are analyzed Critical Responses having strong bearing on the performance are identified and Controlled during design

IRC-37-2001 ( mechanistic approach)

IRC-37-2001 ( mechanistic approach)

Nc = where, Nc = Cumulative Standard Axles to be catered for in the design A = Initial traffic, in the year of construction, in terms of the number of commercial vehicles per day r n F D = annual growth rate of commercial traffic. = Design life in years = VDF (number of standard axles per Commercial axle) = Lane Distribution Factor 365 X A [ (1+r)n - 1 ] ----------------------------- x F x D r

 Wheel Load: Standard load (8.2T)- To convert all wheel loads- std. wheel load- AASHTO load equivalency factors(ESLF). Measured using-portable

weigh pad
EASL = Fi ni
i =1 m

where m = no.of axle load groups; Fi = EALF for i th Group

ni= no. of passes of the ith axle load group Generally damage due to wheel load fourth power formula

Axle Load Survey

VDF calculation
Sl No Load on Tyre Front Rear Axle Load Front Rear 02 2-4 46

Frequency of Axle load (T)

68 810 10-12 12-14 14-16 16-18 18-20

1 2 3 4 5 6

VDF
Axle Load Group, T Mid Point T Frequency AASHTO Equivalency factor Equivalent Std. axles

0-2 2-4 4-6 6-8

01 03 05 07

n1 n2 n3

(1/8.2)4 (3/8.2)4 (5/8.2)4

n1*(1/8.2)4 n2*(3/8.2)4 n3*(5/8.2)4

Sum=

AASHTO Equivalency factor: Forth power law

VDF= sum of equivalent std. axles/ No. of commercial vehicles observed

Mechanistic-Empirical Design
Unlike an empirical approach, a mechanistic approach seeks to explain phenomena only by reference to physical causes. Design phenomena : stresses, strains and deflections within a pavement structure, and the physical causes are the loads and material properties of the pavement structure. The relationship between these phenomena and their physical causes is typically described using a mathematical model. Various mathematical models can be used.

Mechanistic Method of flexible pavement Design Basic advantages of a mechanistic-empirical pavement design method over a purely empirical one are: It can be used for both existing pavement rehabilitation and new pavement construction. Accommodates changing load types. Better characterize materials. Uses material properties that relate better to actual pavement performance. Provides more reliable performance predictions. Better defines the role of construction. Accommodates environmental and aging effects on materials.

Analysis of linear elastic multilayer system

P
Contact pressure, p Circular contact area, radius a

E, zr
three normal stresses (vertical, radial, tangential) and one shear stress (zr = zr ) on any cylindrical element in a homogenous, isotropic material

z z rz t r r

Elastic multilayered system - Assumptions

2a p
Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3 E1, 1 E2, 2 E3, 3 h1 h2 h3

Layer n

En, n

Elastic multilayered system - Assumptions

The material in each layer is homogeneous The material in each layer is isotropic The materials are linearly elastic with an elastic modulus of E and a Poissons ratio of The layers are infinite in areal extent Each layer is of finite thickness except the nth layer. The material is weightless

Elastic multilayered system - Assumptions

Uniform pressure applied at surface over circular contact area Continuity conditions For full friction between layers (same vertical stress, shear stress, vertical displacement and radial displacement) For frictionless (smooth) interface, Zero shear stress at each side of the interface No shearing forces at the surface some models consider them

3 - layer systems
K1 = E1/E2, k2 = E2/E3, A = a/h2, H = h1/h2 Peattie charts and Jones tables for obtaining different stress parameters for a given combination of K1, K2, A and H sz1 (sz1 sr1) (sz2 sr2) (sz2 sr3) = (ZZ1)p; = (ZZ1 RR1)p = (ZZ2 RR2)p = (ZZ2 RR3)p sz2 = (ZZ2)p

Five coefficients ZZ1, ZZ2, (ZZ1-RR1), ZZ2-RR2) and (ZZ2RR3) to be obtained from charts and tables

3 - layer systems
Computation of two critical strains Tensile strain at the bottom of first layer and vertical compressive strain on subgrade er1 = (sr1/E1 m1*st1/E1 m1*sz1/E1) For m1 = 0.5 and since st1= sr1 due to symmetry) er1 = (1/2E1)*(sr1- sz1) ez3 = (sz2/E3 m3*st3/E3 m3*sr3/E3) = (1/2E3)*(sz2 sr3) (for Poisson ratio of 0.5)

Analysis of layered systems

Commercial software No. of software are available for analysis of layered systems with different capabilities No. of layers that can be handled Loading normal and shear stresses at surface Rough and smooth interfaces FEM analysis for non-linear analysis of pavements layers (especially the granular layers)

Main Structural Failures

Fatigue Cracking of Bituminous bound Layer Caused by Repeated Application of Wheel Loads of Commercial Vehicles Rutting along Wheel paths Due to Permanent Deformation in pavement layers (mainly in subgrade)

Critical Pavement Responses

h1 h2

E1, 1 E2, 2 z E3, 3

Tensile Strain at the Bottom of Bituminous layer Vertical Strain on Top on Subgrade

Inputs to Mechanistic Pavement Design

Strength of all layers Poisson ratio values Standard Load , tyre pressure Traffic Loads- standard axle ( msa) Temperature Failure criteria ( Rutting and fatigue failures)

Rut Depth Bituminous Layer Granular Layer Subgrade

Crocodile Cracking

Rigid Pavement

Rigid pavements

These are portland cement concrete pavements, which may or may not incorporate underlying layers of stabilized or unstabilized granular materials. Since PCC is quite stiff, rigid pavements do not flex appreciably to accommodate traffic loads

Rigid Pavement
Rigid pavement, because of PCC's high stiffness, tends to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of subgrade The concrete slab itself supplies most of a rigid pavement's structural capacity. Flexible pavement uses more flexible surface course and distributes loads over a smaller area and relies on a combination of layers for transmitting load to the subgrade

Concrete Pavements
Deflections are very small and hence the name rigid pavement The high flexural strength of the slab is predominant and the subgrade strength does not have as much importance as it has in the case of flexible pavements Usually finite slabs with joints (jointed concrete pavements) Continuous slabs also can be constructed (without joints). Usually with reinforcement

Concrete Pavements

Concrete Slab Granular Base Subgrade

Concrete Pavements
Longitudinal joint Transverse joints

Tie bars Subgrade

Dowel bars Subbase or base Concrete Slab

Concrete Pavement

Concrete Pavement - Components

Concrete Slab Granular or stabilised base Granular or stabilised subbase Subgrade Joints are the other main features of concrete pavement significantly affecting its performance

Concrete Pavements
Stresses in slabs are caused by Wheel loads flexural (repeated applications) Temperature differential within the thickness of the slab causing curling Uniform temperature variation causing shrinkage or expansion Change in moisture and the corresponding volumetric change in subgrade, base or slab A combination of all these factors

Concrete Pavements Mechanical Model

The two commonly used models for concrete pavements differ in their assumption about foundation Dense liquid / spring / Winkler foundation Elastic foundation

Foundation Types

Slab on Spring Foundation Most commonly used No shear strength Suitable for soft cohesive soils

Slab on Elastic layers Complex analysis Suitable for stiff base layers

Spring Foundation

Slab on Spring Foundation

Foundation is represented by its spring constant known as modulus of subgrade reaction (k) K determined by conducting plate load test

Radius of relative stiffness of slab and subgrade

p=k Reactive pressure on foundation, p a D

Radius of relative stiffness of slab and subgrade

Stiffness term for a slab = (Eh3/(12(1-m2))
Equating this to kl4, where k is the modulus of subgrade reaction and l is the radius of relative stiffness of slab and subgrade

l = ((Eh3/(12 k (1- m2)))(1/4)

Modulus of Subgrade Reaction Plate Load Test

Reaction frame Hydraulic Jack Stiff loading plate

Load is gradually increased and the deflection of the foundation observed

Modulus of Subgrade Reaction Plate Load Test Bearing Pressure, p

750mm plate Correction for moisture

K=p/ Settlement,

Determined for 1.25mm

Westergaards Analysis Slab on Winkler Foundation

Considered three wheel load positions for analysis Corner, edge, interior

Wheel Load Stresses

Westergaard (1926) developed equations for solution of load stresses at three critical regions of the slab interior, corner and edge Interior Load in the interior and away from all the edges Edge Load applied on the edge away from the corners Corner Load located on the bisector of the corner angle

Wheel Load Stresses

Edge Corner Interior

Wheel Load Stresses

Westergaard solutions for a Poisson ratio of 0.15 for concrete Interior loading (tensile stress at the slab bottom)

i (psi) = (0.3162P/h2) 4 log10 (l / b) + 1.069)

Edge loading (tensile stress at the slab bottom)

e (psi) = (0.572P/h2)

4 log10 (l / b) + 0.359)

Corner loading (tensile stress at slab top)

c (psi) = (3P/h2) 1 ((a (2)(1/2)) / l)0.6

Wheel Load Stresses

Where, P = wheel load, lbs h = slab thickness, inches a = radius of wheel contact area (circular contact) b = radius of resisting section, inches = (1.6a2 + h2)(1/2) 0.675 (h) for a < 1.724 h = a when a >= 1.724 h l = radius of relative stiffness, inches

Curling Stresses in a Finite Slab y x

Interior
sx = (CxEaDt)/(2(1- m2) + (CymEaDt)/(2(1- m2) = ((EaDt)/(2(1- m2))(Cx + mCy) sy = ((EaDt)/(2(1- m2))(Cy + mCx)

Ly

Lx

a = Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete

Bradbury Coefficients
1.2 Warping Stress Coefficient, C 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 5 10 15

B = Free length or width of slab

Ratio B/l

Curling Stresses Edge Stresses

= (CEaDt)/2

Corner Stress - Negligible

Stresses due to Friction

Volumetric change in concrete induces tensile stresses in concrete and Causes opening of joints leading to reduction in load transfer efficiency

Stresses due to Temperature Difference within the slab

Due to temperature differential within the slab thickness Day Time The slab curls up (top convex) Night time slab curls down (top concave) Due to weight of slab and resistance offered by the foundation, stresses are induced

Stresses due to Temperature Difference within the slab Day time C T T1 > T2 T2

Night time

T1 > T2 T T2 C

Critical Combination of Stresses

Night Time Thermal stresses (tension at top) compensate stresses due to loads (compression at top) Afternoon Thermal stresses will be additive to load stresses Concrete Pavements without expansion joints End restraint stresses (compression) in summer

Flexible Pavements
Load distribution from grain to grain Possess less flexural strength Design is based on Foundation layer strength and wheel load associated parameters Temperature stresses not considered, however modulus value of bituminous layer is selected based on temperature sub base, base course, surface course are the layer over foundation [subgrade]

Examples of Flexible Pavements Water Bound Macadam (WBM), Wet Mix Macadam (WMM), Earthen Roads, All types of bituminous pavement [ BC, BM, SDBM, PMetc] Design Methods: IRC:37-2001 [In India] for BC IRC: SP:20-2002 for Rural roads AASHTO- 2002; AUSTROADS, SHELL Method

Design input parameters

Strength of foundation layer and other layers Traffic, wheel load associated parameters such as standard axle load [ 8.2 t], tyre pressure, Vehicle damage factor, Performance criteria [ relating rutting and fatigue with critical parameters and controlling these to avoid failure in these modes] Relating strains with life of the pavement [N with strain]

Rigid Pavement Load distribution- slab action { wider area] Posses high flexural strength Design is based on wheel load, temperature Depends less on foundation layer parameters or Placed directly over subgrade[ foundation] on base course.

Rigid Pavement Design

IRC: 58-2002 [ In India] AASHTO Rigid Pavement Design PCA Method

Rigid Pavement Design Load stresses- three places [ interior, edge and corner] stresses using Westergaard Analysis

Rigid Pavement- Stress equations

Interior loading (tensile stress at the slab bottom)

i (psi) = (0.3162P/h2) 4 log10 (l / b) + 1.069)

Edge loading (tensile stress at the slab bottom)

e (psi) = (0.572P/h2)

4 log10 (l / b) + 0.359)

Corner loading (tensile stress at slab top)

c (psi) = (3P/h2) 1 ((a (2)(1/2)) / l)0.6

Rigid Pavement Design Similarly Temperature stresses at three locations Combination of stress [ load and temperature stress]- to be compared with flexural strength of the concrete to calculate the thickness of concrete slab. No. of joints are present- these are to be designed [ expansion, contraction, long. Jointetc]