Professional Growth among Preservice and Beginning Teachers Author(s): Dona M. Kagan Source: Review of Educational Research, Vol.

62, No. 2 (Summer, 1992), pp. 129-169 Published by: American Educational Research Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1170578 . Accessed: 27/09/2011 20:45
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Review of Educational Research Summer 1992, Vol. 62, No. 2, pp. 129-169

Professional Growth Among Preservice and Beginning Teachers

Dona M. Kagan University of Alabama
I beganthisreviewwiththreeobjectives: to determine whether recentlearning-to(a) teachstudies (b) form a coherent body of literature, to use any commonthemesthat a from thesestudiesto construct modelof professional growth noviceand for emerged and the teachers, (c) to drawinferences fromthemodelconcerning nature beginning of teachereducation on preservice programslikelyto promotegrowthby capitalizing studiespubnaturally occurring processesand stages.I review40 learning-to-teach 1987and 1991:27 deal withpreservice lishedor presented between 13 teachers, with All or teachers. werenaturalistic qualitative methodology. and in first-year beginning Studieswithineach of those divisionsare clustered and summarized accordingto majorthemesthatemerged fromfindings. ThemodelI ultimately inferfrom the 40 studiesconfirms,explicates, integrates and Fuller's (Fuller& Bown, 1975) developconcerns Berliner's and mentalmodelof teacher (1988)modelof teacher development studiesof expertise. Preservice first-year and basedon cognitive teaching appearsto constitute singledevelopmental during a whichnovicesaccomplish three stage primary to tasks:(a) acquireknowledge pupils;(b) use thatknowledge modifyand reconof and (c) developstandard structtheirpersonalimagesof self as teacher; procedural that classroom and In routines integrate management instruction. general, preservice fail programs to addressthesetasksadequately. Despite 4 decades of empirical research, researchers appear to know remarkably little about the evolution of teaching skill (Burden, 1990; Calderhead, 1990; Carter, 1990; Richardson, 1990). During the 1960s and 1970s, researchers conducted studies of teacher change which documented organized attempts to manipulate the professional growth of teachers via workshops and training programs. The methodology of this literature was generally quantitative and involved relatively large samples of teachers; few studies attempted to follow the long-term effects of training programs (Cruickshank & Metcalf, 1990; McLaughlin, 1990; Richardson, 1990). In the 1980s, researchers began generating different kinds of studies: naturalistic inquiries that attempted to capture the evolution of professional growth among teachers. These studies, commonly called learning-to-teachliterature, were generally qualitative in methodology and usually focused on only a handful of teachers. Where the experimental studies of teacher change focused on teacher behavior, learning-toteach studies focused on the cognitions, beliefs, and mental processes that underlie teachers' classroom behaviors. Although some of the case studies included in the learning-to-teach literature provided rich, context-specific detail about the professional growth of a few teachers, no one has examined whether these studies add up-that is, whether they provide a coherent and consistent picture of the natural course of teachers' professional development. Indeed, because of the small sample sizes, diverse contexts, and hetero129

Kagan geneous methodology of the learning-to-teach literature, some have suggested that it is too idiosyncratic to provide generalizations about processes of teacher growth: Outcomesare designatedin a varietyof ways:attitudes,dispositions, orientations, differand, despiteapparent knowledge,concerns,or commitments, perspectives, ences in meaning,these termsare often used interchangeably. Settingsare sometimes only loosely definedand varywidelyacrossstudies.Attemptsto isolate the of or relativecontributions program components experiences. . . are futile under these circumstances. except for vague referencesto Perhapsmost importantly, are development, change,andgrowth, investigators largelysilentaboutthe natureof the learningprocess in teacher education. Given this conceptualdiversityand that cumulative findingsare scarce. (Carter,1990, ambiguity,it is not surprising p. 295) of literature As a functionof the methodology case study . . . the learning-to-teach view leadsto an idiosyncratic of teachers.Thatis, the teacherteachesas he or she is. How then are we to think about affectingchange, other than througha type of individualistic, approachto teachereducation. . ? (Richardson, psychoanalytic 1990, p. 13) Objectives In essence, the purpose of this review was to test Carter's (1990) and Richardson's (1990) assumptions. Despite narrowness of scope and diversity in setting and terminology, have learning-to-teach studies revealed common themes concerning the evolution of teachers' professional growth? That is, what do these studies reveal about common sequences of change and the processes or mechanisms by which change is brought about naturally? Insights regarding the naturalistic1 stages and processes by which teachers grow would be invaluable to teacher educators, who could use them to infer the nature of teacher education programs most likely to promote professional growth. Such information would provide an empirical basis for the design of programs, a process usually dictated by tradition, bureaucracy, or the ideas of persuasive individuals (Brown, Cooney, & Jones, 1990; Eisenhart, Behm, & Romagnano, 1991; Lampert, 1988). Teacher educators can consult a number of extant models of teacher development, but these models have been constructed by (a) adapting theories of general cognitive development to teaching; (b) attempting to justify classroom practices in developmental terms; or (c) inferring a theory from a single agenda of empirical research (Burden, 1990). No one has attempted to infer a developmental model from empirical research that reflects more than one agenda. This was the second objective of this review. In fact, the only developmental models based on empirical research about teachers are Fuller's (1969; Fuller & Bown, 1975), which focus narrowlyon teachers' concerns, and Berliner's (1988), which are based on novice/expert studies and schema theory (Anderson, 1984; Chi, Glaser, & Farr, 1988).2My third objective was to compare any model of teacher development that I was able to infer from learning-to-teach studies to the models described by Fuller and Berliner. To what degree was each supported? As readers will see, despite the limitations of the learning-to-teach literature noted by Carter (1990) and contrary to Richardson's (1990) pessimism, the 40 studies reviewed in this article yielded remarkably consistent themes that partially confirmed and elaborated both Fuller's and Berliner's models. 130

Professional Growth Ground Rules I limited this review to empirical studies of growth among preservice and beginning teachers published or presented between 1987 and 1991. I left studies of growth among in-service teachers to another review because of limitations of space. I chose this time span in order to avoid covering studies already included in extant reviews of literature (e.g., Borko, 1989; Burden, 1990; Carter, 1990; Zeichner & Gore, 1990). As a result, with the exception of Grossman's (1989, 1990) study, this review does not include inquiries entailed in two major research agendas: the Knowledge Growth in Teaching project conducted by Shulman and his colleagues at Stanford University and the Knowledge Use in Learning to Teach project coordinated by Feimen-Nemser at Michigan State University (Borko, 1989). However, after reviewing and synthesizing more recent studies, I relate the emergent themes to studies published or presented prior to 1987. I also limited selection to empirical studies whose primary objectives included the description of professional growth manifested over time. For this review, professional growth is defined as changes over time in the behavior, knowledge, images, beliefs, or perceptions of novice teachers. As it turned out, all of these studies were qualitative in methodology; although a few (e.g., Griffin, 1989) included quantitative measures, major findings were based on qualitative data. Unless stated otherwise, all of the novice teachers in these studies had completed or were in the process of completing teacher education programs. This point leads to another important point about this literature: although the studies reviewed here are technically naturalistic in that researchers did not impose experimental conditions, a program of teacher education does, in essence, constitute a treatment of sorts. Unfortunately, many investigators omit descriptive details of the teacher education program(s) that was involved in a learning-to-teach study (Carter, 1990; FeimanNemser, cited in Carter, 1990). For that reason, I have included in my summaries of studies as many descriptive details of teacher education programs as the investigators themselves provided. Hopefully, this will allow readers to use their own judgment in drawing comparisons between studies and in evaluating the generalizations I ultimately draw. In some cases, readers will see that programs could not be described, because the beliefs and objectives of university and school personnel lacked coherence (e.g., Eisenhart et al., 1991). Unfortunately, this may not be a rare phenomenon (Howey & Zimpher, 1989). I want to acknowledge that the studies reviewed here do not constitute a truly random sample. Even given the same criteria for selection, another reviewer could have identified a somewhat different sample of studies. In addition, not all of the studies reviewed here represent truly independent inquiries, many having been conducted by the same researcher as part of a particular agenda of research. While one might cite this as evidence that the deck was stacked in terms of discovering consistency among learning-to-teach studies, one could also view this as a particularly rigorous test. That is, in order to emerge as a coherent body of empirical literature, the studies reviewed here had to articulate across diverse, privately defined research agendas. The themes I extract from this sample of 40 studies tell only one of many stories that could have been constructed. In that sense, this is a somewhat subjective distillation, and what follows should not be regarded as definitive in terms of organization or interpretation. 131

Kagan I use the term, subjective, as a means of suggesting that there can never be a truly objective review of literature. The unique configuration of background knowledge, values, and cognitive propensities that a particular reader brings to a text acts as a filter that affects comprehension. This is as true for academic scholars as it is for average readers. Thus, it is possible for two experts in the same field of research to disagree about the meaning or significance of a particular empirical study. By definition, comprehension of any text is interpretive (subjective). This sort of subjectivity is likely to increase, when a scholar attempts to synthesize rather than simply summarize a cluster of empirical studies. It is important to note that in writing this review it was not my intention to produce a catalogue of studies but to infer major themes, draw relationships, and extrapolate implications. Value judgments are inherent in each of these activities. In that sense, this is probably not a typical review of literature. I tried to mitigate the interpretive aspects of my task in two ways. First, I allowed the themes and the ultimate model to emerge from the studies themselves; this review represents grounded theory. I neither read the studies with any particular model in mind nor assumed that the studies could be interrelated. Second, I took care to include in my description of each study as many methodological details as I could without impairing comprehension of the article as a whole. Thus, I usually include information about: participants (undergraduate/ graduate; elementary/secondary; subject specializations, etc.) and the nature of the teacher education program, the kinds of data collected, duration of the study, andwhere important-special theoretical constructs, definitions, or coding schemes used in analyzing the data. Nevertheless, it is likely that another scholar, given the same task, might infer different themes. I suggest that this does not testify to the weakness of the method inherent in producing a synthetic review of literature but does testify to the richness of the studies themselves, each of which produced an assortment of qualitative data, findings, themes, and implications. The multivariate and longitudinal nature of these studies virtually precludes the credibility of any single "correct" synthesis. Organization of This Article In the first section of this review, I describe 27 studies of growth among preservice teachers. They are presented in five thematic clusters, each terminated by a brief summary. In the second section, I turn to 13 studies of first-year and beginning teachers organized in three thematic clusters. Because the themes recapitulate the major findings of studies in the first section, I omit summaries. The two divisions (preservice, in-service studies) overlap in cases where investigators followed candidates from entry into a preservice program through their first year of teaching. In the third section of the article, I infer a "new" model of professional development for novice teachers and relate it to Fuller's model (Fuller & Bown, 1975), Berliner's model (1988), and studies published prior to 1987. In the final section, I draw inferences about the nature of teacher education programs likely to promote professional growth by capitalizing on the apparent natural processes revealed by the 40 studies. Table 1 displays the studies according to the thematic clusters and chronological order in which they are reviewed. It should help readers locate descriptions of particular studies within this review. A word about my terminology: I try to restrict use of the term student to preservice teachers enrolled in teacher education courses or practica. I use the term pupil to 132

Professional Growth refer to elementary or secondary students. Thus, I talk about novice teachers' recollections of themselves as pupils in classrooms. Studies of Growth Among Preservice Teachers I found 27 empirical studies that examined changes in the behavior, beliefs, or images of preservice teachers. They are presented in the following section in five thematic clusters: (a) the role played by preexisting beliefs and images early in a teacher education program; (b) requisites for growth during practica and student teaching; (c) what can happen when novices try to teach with little knowledge of pupils and procedures; (d) the central role played by a novice's image of self as teacher; and (e) comprehensive evaluations of practica or student teaching. The Role Played by Preexisting Beliefs and Images Early in a Teacher Education Program Three studies focused on growth among preservice teachers at very early points in their professional programs. Each study examined changes in personal beliefs or in the ways personal beliefs/images affected what novices learned from university course work. Calderhead and Robson (1991) followed 12 students through their first year of course work in an elementary teacher education program at a British university. The novices were interviewed periodically throughout the year about their anxieties, images of self as teacher, and understanding of how pupils learn. The participants also viewed videos that showed different styles of teaching a math lesson and a writing lesson; participants were asked to evaluate the videos, describing aspects of the lessons that they liked/disliked and how they might teach similar material. Finally, toward the end of the year, the researchers asked each novice to imagine he or she were teaching a class and to project a script (dialogue that would ensue between teacher and pupils). Data indicated that each of the 12 novices entered the program with clear images of good teaching that were related to their own classroom experiences as pupils. These images appeared to be derived from one or two role models and were inflexible across classroom contexts. When performing the experimental tasks, the novices tended to focus on and describe their own actions as teachers rather than the actions of pupils. They appeared to be unable to adapt their images of teachers and lessons to different situations and pupil needs. McDaniel (1991) examined how 22 preservice teachers (3 elementary, 19 secondary) made sense of a foundations course in the philosophy and history of education. Each participant was interviewed six times and asked to relate class sessions to field observations. Findings indicated that the preservice teachers tended to relate the content of the course to their own beliefs and prior experiences in classrooms. Neither the content of the course nor the field observations affected their prior beliefs. In the third study, Weinstein (1990) examined changes in students' beliefs about teaching. Participants were 38 prospective elementary teachers enrolled in an introductory education course that included a 21-hour field experience. All of the candidates completed questionnaires; a subset of 12 students was then interviewed periodically throughout the semester. The questionnaire and the interviews probed the candidates' preconceptions about: the definition of good teaching, their expectations 133

TABLE 1 Researchers Participants How growthwas defined

Studies of professional growth among preservice and beginning teachers: 1987-1991, organized themati

Duratio

Studiesof preserviceteachers Role playedby preexisting beliefs and imagesearly in a teachereducationprogram Calderhead & 12 elementaryeducation First yr. of co Changesin images of self Robson(1991) students as teacherand in under[Britain] standingof pupils McDaniel(1991) 22 elementaryand seconHow studentsmade sense 1 semesterco of course content daryeducationstudents ophy/histo with field o Weinstein 38 elementaryeducation (1990) 1 semesterin Changesin beliefs about students educationc teaching, self-confidence, 21-hr.field expectations for Requisites growthduringpracticaand studentteaching McLaughlin (1991) 26 secondarystudent teachers(social studies) Changesin how student teachersevaluatedthemselves

1 semesterof ing

Pigge & Marso (1989) Florio-Ruane & Lensmire(1990)

153 elementaryand secondary novicesin a preservice program 6 elementarystudents

Changesin attitudes,concerns, self-confidence Changesin beliefs, perceptions of pupil learning, the natureof writing instruction

Data collecte programan completing ing (2-3 yr 1 semesterm with a field

Shapiro(1991) [Canada] Aitken & Mildon (1991) [Canada] Gore & Zeicher (1991)

23 secondarystudents

Changesin perceptions, knowledgeof pupils and classrooms

4 elementaryand secondary Changesin personalknowlstudents edge and perceptions 18 student teachersin a programthat stressed reflection Amount and level of selfreflection

1 semester(f programco 7-wk. meth and a 4-wk Entire cours vice progr of teachin Studentteac ters)

Whatcan happenwhen novices try to teach with little knowledgeof pupilsand procedures Wodlinger(1990) [Canada] Mcneely& Mertz (1990) Hoy & Woolfolk (1990) 1 preserviceteacher 11 secondaryteachers Amount and level of reflection Changesin behavior,planning, attitudes,knowledge of pupils and classrooms Changesin perceptionsand beliefs about pupil control, self-confidence

10-wk.pract

Studentteac (1 semeste 1 semester

191 liberal arts majors: student teachers; 1/3 course;

(1/2 1/3

1/3

enrolledin a methods
in a develop-

mental psychologycourse
intending to teach)

Kagan& Tippins (1991) Eisenhartet al. (1991) Lidstone& Hollingsworth (1990)

12 elementaryand secondary studentteachers math stu8 middle-school dent teachers 1 elementarynovice in a graduateteachereducation (5th yr.) program

Studentteac Changesin how they describedtheir pupils (1 semeste Changesin beliefs, percep- Studentteac tions, knowledgeof (2 semeste pupilsand classrooms Changesin behavior, Throughthe knowledgeof classrooms, programa of teachin problemsolvingstrategies

TABLE 1 (Continued) Researchers Participants How growthwas defined Studiesof preserviceteachers

Studies of professional growth among preservice and beginning teachers: 1987-1991, organized thematic

Duratio

when novicestry to teach with little knowledgeof pupilsand procedures Whatcan happen-, . 14 elementaryand seconThroughthe Changesin behavior, (1989) Hollingsworth gram, inclu knowledgeof pupilsand dary studentsin a graduate teachereducation classrooms,problem teaching solving program 1 semesteror 14 elementarystudents Shefelbine& Changesin behavior, a readingp knowledgeof pupilsand Hollingsworth classrooms,problem (1987) solving 1 semesteror Changesin behavior, (1988) 16 elementarystudents Hollingsworth methodsco knowledgeof pupils and classrooms,problem readingins solving Centralrole playedby a novice'simage of self as teacher Laboskey(1991) 2 elementarystudentsin a graduateteachereducation programdesignedto promotereflection 15 secondarystudent teachers 28 studentsin a graduate teacher education program(secondarily: cooperatingteachers,supervisors,10 graduatesof the program) Changesin level of reflection, beliefs, perceptions Changesin personalteaching metaphors,beliefs, images Changesin knowledgeof classrooms,beliefs, goals, perceptions

1 yr. (last yr. includings teaching)

Bullough(1991)

Studentteach (1 semeste

Hollingsworth (in press)

2 yrs. (the co programan first yr. of

Strahan(1990) Bennett (1991)

4 middle-school math candidates

Changesin perceptionsand knowledgeof classrooms

12 middle-school candidates Changesin perceptionsand in a 5th yr. graduate knowledgeof classrooms program

Last 2 yrs. of program(i studenttea Throughthe

evaluations practicaor student teachingexperiences of Comprehensive Borko et al. (1991) 38 preservicemiddle-school math teachers Changesin beliefs, perceptions, behavior,knowledge of classrooms Changesin perceptions, knowledgeof classrooms Changesin knowledgeof classroomsand pupils, perceptions Teachers' perceptions Textureof studentteaching experience:knowledge and beliefs of particiwith pants, satisfaction program

Studentteach ters)

Jacknicke& Samiroden(1991) [Canada] & Chamberlin Vallance(1991) [Canada] Cochran-Smith (1989) Griffin(1989)

5 secondaryteachersin a 1-yr. internshipfollowing certification 68 novicesin thirdyr. of a teacher education program 3 elementarystudent teachers,5 cooperating teachers,1 supervisor in Participants 2 teacher educationprograms:93 studentteachers,88 cooperatingteachers, 17 supervisors[lookedclosely at 20 triads]

1 yr. internsh

1 semester (i

9-hr. block

of each da 1 yr. innovat teachingas a research Studentteach (1 semeste

TABLE 1 (Continued) Researchers Participants

Studies of professional growth among preservice and beginning teachers: 1987-1991, organized thematic

How growthwas defined Duratio Studiesof first-year beginningteachers and Need to acquireknowledgeof pupilsand applyit to the image of self as teacher Grossman (1989) 3 Englishsecondary teacherswho completed an alternative certification program 3 secondaryteachers 1 junior-high English teacher 4 secondaryteachers 1 junior-high English teacher 1 secondaryscience teacher Changesin knowledgeof pupils and classrooms, behavior,perceptions Changesin knowledgeof classrooms Changesin knowledgeof classrooms,beliefs, and behavior Changesin beliefs and knowledgeof classrooms Changesin beliefs and perceptions Changesin beliefs and perceptions

Firstyr. of te

Bulloughet al. (1989) Bullough(1987) Wendel(1989) Bullough& Knowles (1991) Bullough& Knowles (1990)

First yr. of te

Firstyr. of te

First 2 yrs. of

First yr. of te

Firstyr. of te

Bullough(1990) Wildman al. (1989) et

1 high-schoolEnglish/ Spanishteacher 15 elementaryand secondary teachers

Changesin beliefs and perceptions Changesin perceptions

First yr. of te

First yr. of te

Cole (1990) Clandinin(1989) [Canada] Kilgore,Ross, & Zbikowski(1990) Levin & Ammon (1991) Magliaroet al. (1989)

4 elementaryand secondary Changesin images and beliefs teachers 1 kindergarten teacher Changesin beliefs and images 6 elementaryteachers Changesin levels of self-reflection

First yr. of te

First yr. of te

First yr. of te

Growthin problemsolvingskills 4 elementaryteachers Changesin natureof problemsolving

6 elementaryand secondary Changesin problemsolving skills teachers

2 yr. gradua programan teaching First 3 yrs. of

Kagan for student teaching, and their perceptions of their own strengths and weaknesses as teachers. Data suggested that the candidates were extremely optimistic about their future teaching assignments and that their conceptions of good teaching centered on affective traits (e.g., the capacity to care for children). Despite course work and field experiences, the candidates' beliefs about teaching and themselves as teachers remained unchanged throughout the semester. Summary of Themes Although the contexts of these studies differed, findings were relatively cohesive. Each study documented the central role played by preexisting beliefs/images and prior experience in filtering the content of education course work. Each study also testified to the stability and inflexibility of prior beliefs and images. Calderhead and Robson (1991) attributed this inflexibility in part to novices' lack of knowledge about adapting lessons to meet pupil needs. These studies of the earliest components of teacher education programs introduce a theme that echoes throughout the remaining sections of this review: the important role played by a novice's image of self as teacher. Requisites for Growth During Practica and Student Teaching The following six studies examined how candidates' knowledge of teaching changed during a practicum, student teaching, or the course of an entire preservice program. For example, McLaughlin (1991) tracked changes in the methods student teachers used to evaluate themselves over the course of the student teaching experience. Participants were 26 secondary social studies teachers completing a 2-year teacher education program. Data (classroom observations, interviews, journals, audiotapes of postteaching conferences, written self-evaluations) were presented in terms of in-depth profiles of four of the student teachers. Although the student teachers differed in many ways, they all focused progressively more on pupil needs as the semester continued. Their primary concerns could be categorized in terms of self, classroom teaching and learning, and views of significant others. The student teachers used several methods to evaluate themselves: that is, comparing their classroom behaviors to their teaching objectives, seeking the opinions of supervisors and cooperating teachers, using pupil feedback. Their conceptions of success in teaching remained consistent with their prior beliefs/images of teachers and pupils. McLaughlin (1991) found little evidence of reflection or change in those prior beliefs. Pigge and Marso (1989) examined changes in the concerns of 133 preservice teachers (75 elementary, 58 secondary) as they progressed through course work and student teaching. Questionnaires assessing anxiety, concerns, and self-confidence were completed periodically. The novices became less concerned about themselves and more aware of classroom variables as they progressed through the program. Their attitudes about teaching, their future impact on pupils, and their probable success in teaching remained optimistic and unchanged. Florio-Ruane and Lensmire (1990) studied six preservice elementary teachers enrolled in a methods course in the teaching of writing. The researchers were particularly interested in how the novices' ideas about writing instruction changed during the course, which drew from developmental psychology and research on 140

Growth Professional
writing as a social process. The course included field assignments that required the novices to interact with and interview small groups of children engaged in nontraditional classroom activities (e.g., cooperative learning groups, peer writing/editing). Findings revealed that the six preservice candidates entered the course with clear personal beliefs/images about teachers. They viewed the teacher as information giver, and they defined learning to write in terms of learning rules. As they began the course, the novices had only vague ideas about the nature of pupils. As the course progressed and the novices engaged in extended interaction with children, their beliefs and images were reconstructed. By observing and studying how children learned to write, the novices were able to step back from their prior beliefs, acknowledge where they were inaccurate or incomplete, and reconstruct them. In Canada, Shapiro (1991) examined changes in the perceptions of 23 preservice secondary teachers. Participants were interviewed before, during, and after the first phase of their teacher education program: a 7-week methods course followed by a 4-week classroom practicum. Shapiro (1991) was able to identify four kinds of conceptual change: an awareness on the part of the novices that (a) their initial beliefs/images had been incorrect (e.g., "I thought that students would be far more interested in science than they were"); (b) they had acquired new technical know-how ("I discovered how to pace a lesson and organize my questions logically"); (c) they had discovered new ways of categorizing experience ("In my mind, lesson plans are not just another outline for teaching. I see them now as a guide for involving students"); (d) they had acquired new selfknowledge ("I saw myself as a student, somewhat uninvolved. Now I see myself as a teacher"); and (e) new dilemmas had emerged ("I found that the curriculum can really tie you down. I'd like to focus on thinking, not just conveying content, next time around"). Another study in Canada was conducted by Aitken and Mildon (1991), who tracked the personal knowledge and perceptions of four teacher candidates over the course of their preservice program and into their first 4 months of teaching. Using data derived from periodic interviews, Aitken and Mildon (1991) concluded that each novice's experiences were partially unique but that there were also some common themes. One common theme was a close connection between each candidate's biography and how he or she experienced the teacher education program. Prior experiences in classrooms appeared to determine what could be learned from course work. A second common theme was an apparent lack of connection between the content of university courses and the exigencies of classroom teaching. All of the candidates felt that courses had focused too much on theory and too little on practical strategies. Novices' prior experiences also seemed to determine how successfully they would complete the first 4 months of teaching. Those who entered the teacher education program with dysfunctional images of themselves as teachers retained them despite the problems they caused. Novices who entered with self-images more compatible with the realities of classrooms were able to adjust and learn from problems. The final study in this section was conducted by Gore and Zeichner (1991) who examined the amount of reflection manifested by 18 student teachers as they completed a program designed to promote inquiry and reflection. Thoughts captured in journals and reports of action research written by the novices over 2 semesters of 141

Kagan student teaching were evaluated according to levels of reflection inspired by van Manen (1977). Despite the nature and objectives of the teacher education program, Gore and Zeichner (1991) found little evidence of reflection; what little they did find consisted of technical rationality, the lowest level. The researchers speculated that the failure of the program to promote reflection may have been attributable to the traditional nature of the supervision that accompanied student teaching or to the absence of role models (experienced teachers) engaging in self-reflection. Summary of Common Themes This group of studies confirmed what was suggested by the prior cluster of studies: that preservice students enter programs of teacher education with personal beliefs about teaching images of good teachers, images of self as teacher, and memories of themselves as pupils in classrooms. These personal beliefs and images generally remain unchanged by a preservice program and follow candidates into classroom practica and student teaching. For professional growth to occur, prior beliefs and images must be modified and reconstructed; the studies in this section provide clues about the nature of that process. Student teachers approach the classroom with a critical lack of knowledge about pupils. To acquire useful knowledge of pupils, direct experience appears to be crucial, particularly extended opportunities to interact with and study pupils in systematic ways. This may require structured "research" assignments that allow novices to stand back temporarily from their personal beliefs. It is a novice's growing knowledge of pupils that must be used to challenge, mitigate, and reconstruct prior beliefs and images. Whether a novice is able to accomplish this also appears to depend on the novice's biography-particularly on whether he or she has reached a point in life where dysfunctional beliefs can be acknowledged and altered. The availability of role models, seasoned teachers who question and reflect on their pedagogical beliefs, may also facilitate the process. Thus, there are many personal and contextual factors that can affect a novice's (a) acquisition of knowledge about pupils and (b) ability to use that knowledge to modify preexisting beliefs and images. This may explain why many preservice programs of teacher education-even those specifically designed to promote reflection-fail to effect conceptual change among novices. Another common theme underlying these six studies is the inadequate procedural knowledge provided to novices in university courses. The ramifications of a novice entering a classroom with inadequate knowledge of pupils and procedures were documented by the next cluster of studies. What Can Happen When Novices Try to Teach With Little Knowledge of Pupils and Procedures The following eight studies examined perceptual change and knowledge acquisition during student teaching or extended practica. Each ultimately documented important limitations in the beliefs and knowledge novices brought to the classroom. In Canada, Wodlinger (1990) studied the journals kept by one preservice candidate enrolled in a 10-week practicum. The teacher was instructed to keep her journal in the form of critical incidents: that is, describing and discussing specific classroom situations in terms of context, analysis, and implications. Most of the critical incidents 142

Professional Growth

concernedproblemsof class control. In the descriptions,Wodlinger(1990) found evidenceof only the lowestlevel of reflection,technicalrationality, and an almost exclusivefocus on self ratherthan pupils. student growthamong11secondary McneelyandMertz(1990)tracked knowledge teachersin a varietyof contentfields. Data consistedof observations, journals,and the studentteachplanningdocumentscollectedat intervalsthroughout 1-semester ing experience.At the beginningof the semester,candidateshad a high sense of lessons,anddesignedlessonsso thatthey efficacy,spenta greatdealof timeplanning includedmorethanone activity.By the end of studentteaching,these samenovices wereobsessedwithclasscontrol,spentless time preparing sawpupilsas adversaries, lessons, and limited lessons to single activitiesnot likely to encouragedisruption. that disillusionMcneelyandMertz(1990)speculated the studentteachers' apparent ment may have been causedby idealizedviews of pupilsand classroomscommunicated duringteacher educationcourses. to and Hoy andWoolfolk(1990)attempted chartchangesin the perceptions beliefs were 191liberalartsmajors:one thirdwas engaged of studentteachers.Participants in student teachingduringthe currentsemester (some elementary,others secondary); one third was enrolled in an educationalmethods course; one third was enrolled in a developmentalpsychologycourse, half just beginningtheir teacher educationprogram,half not planningto teach. At the beginningand end of the that semester,all participants completedquestionnaires assessedteachingefficacy, orientation. ideology, and problem-solving pupil-control Only the studentscurrentlystudentteachingmanifestedchangesin attitudesin growingmorecustodialin theirbeliefsaboutpupilcontrol,morecontrolling their to orientations social problemsolving,and less confidentthat they could overcome these samestudentteachers of the limitations pupils'home environments. However, remainedoptimisticabout their personalabilityto motivatepupils. In the fourthstudyin this cluster,KaganandTippins(1991)examinedthe knowledge of pupilspossessedby 12 studentteachers(5 elementary,7 secondary)at the studentteachingexperience. The student beginning,middle,andend of a 1-semester teacherswere requiredto submitwrittenprofilesof targetpupilsin theirrespective classes at the intervalscited above. The researchers,who also supervisedthe studentteachers, evaluatedthe pupil growthoverthe profilesforteacherandpupiltraitsandjudgedeachstudentteacher's student teachersdescribedpupils in terms of many traits semester. High-growth few whilelow-growth studentteachersdescribed pupilsin termsof relatively dimenstudentteacherstendedto injectthemselvesinto sions.In addition,the high-growth Thatis, whendescribing their the profilesmorethantheirlow-growth counterparts. studentteachersmore frequentlyincluded:psychologizing pupils, the high-growth of (attemptsto accountfor pupilbehaviorin cause-effectterms),descriptions interventionsthey (the studentteachers)had tried, andtheirown (the studentteachers') affectiveresponsesto pupils. This suggestedthat a gauge of professionalgrowth knowledgeof pupilsand a willingnessto amongnovicesmaybe a multidimensional see oneself (as teacher)intimatelyconnectedto pupils'problems. Eisenhart, Behm, and Romagnano (1991) studied eight middle school math teacherscompletinga 2-semesterstudentteachingexperience.Each candidatewas observedand interviewedintermittently duringthe first semesterof studentteachThe researchersalso tried to documentthe nature of the entire preservice ing. programby interviewingfaculty and staff. 143

Kagan Data indicated little coherence underlying the program; candidates were presented with confusing, sometimes contradictory, messages about the nature of teaching and learning. Moreover, the eight novices found the content of courses too theoretical to be applicable to classroom practice. Eisenhart et al. (1991) also discovered that the novices were expected to perform on a sophisticated level: to solve their own problems, relate theory to practice, acquire advanced instructional skills, and use innovative classroom strategies. Although encouraged to reflect on their actions, the student teachers were so overwhelmed by these demands and their concomitant lack of procedural knowledge that they had no time to engage in introspection. Perhaps more importantly, feeling ill equipped to perform routine classroom tasks, the novices fell back on the culture of their respective schools, in some cases adopting pedagogical orientations contrary to those encouraged by the university program. University faculty, particularly methods instructors, were aware of this and expressed disappointment in the novices' tendency to imitate the practices they saw modeled at their school sites. Eisenhart et al. (1991) drew several conclusions from their data. First, the experiences and perceptions of the eight student teachers revealed a sharp gap between the expectations of their skills held by university faculty and their actual skills. Novices were expected to function as advanced beginners when, in fact, they did not even possess minimal survival skills. Because the faculty appeared to be insensitive or nonresponsive to the developmental needs of candidates and failed to provide them with procedural knowledge, candidates were forced to rely on prevalent school cultures. Lidstone and Hollingsworth (1990) studied one elementary novice as she completed a fifth-year graduate teacher education program and her first year of teaching. Data from classroom observations and interviews were used to chart changes in her problem solving strategies and professional knowledge. Changes in the novice's knowledge of classrooms could be described in terms of a progression in attention: beginning with classroom management and organization, moving to subject matter and pedagogy, and finally turning to what students were learning from academic tasks. Changes in the novice's practices could be described in terms of a progression in understanding derived from Doyle's (1983) work on the cognitive processing of tasks and schema theory (Anderson, 1984). The progression included three stages: rote knowledge of classroom strategy (a teacher can talk about an instructional strategy but cannot perform it, performs it poorly, or performs it with only a superficial understanding); routine knowledge (the teacher can talk about the rationale underlying the strategy and can apply it but only with much effort and thought and in a specific context); comprehensive knowledge (the teacher can talk about the strategy and can apply it across contexts automatically, thus freeing mental space to focus on pupils). By the end of her first year of teaching, the novice studied by Lidstone and Hollingsworth (1990) had progressed to a stage where she was beginning to focus on pupil learning and was just approaching comprehensive knowledge of some classroom strategies. Hollingsworth (1989) reported similar findings from her study of 14 elementary and secondary candidates whom she followed from entry into a graduate program through student teaching. From observations and interviews, Hollingsworth (1989) also discovered that general managerial routines had to be in place before novices 144

Professional Growth could focus on pedagogy and content knowledge; routines that integrated managerial and academic strategies had to be in place before the novices could focus on what pupils were learning from academic tasks, a point reached by only five of the student teachers. Regardless of their extent of subject matter knowledge, all novices who failed to routinize and integrate management and instruction failed to reach a point of understanding what pupils learned. Finally, Hollingsworth (1989) identified four factors that appeared to affect the acquisition of classroom knowledge by the novices: (a) their images of themselves as learners; (b) an awareness that they needed to temper initial beliefs and come to terms with classroom management; (c) the presence of a cooperating teacher who was a role model that facilitated growth; (d) placement with a cooperating teacher whose ideas and practices were somewhat different from the student teacher's beliefs. Modeling seasoned teachers was not sufficient to promote conceptual change; cognitive dissonance was needed to force novices to confront and modify their personal beliefs. Similar findings were reported by Shefelbine and Hollingsworth (1987) in a study of 14 elementary candidates enrolled in a reading practicum and by Hollingsworth (1988) in a study of 16 elementary candidates enrolled in a methods course in reading instruction. In both these studies, data derived from classroom observations, interviews, and lesson plans testified to the patterns described above. Summary of Common Themes The reality of the classroom rarely conforms to novices' expectations or images; instead, most novice teachers confront pupils who have little academic motivation and interest and a tendency to misbehave. Quickly disillusioned and possessing inadequate procedural knowledge, novice teachers tend to grow increasingly authoritarian and custodial. Obsessed with class control, novices may also begin to plan instruction designed, not to promote learning, but to discourage misbehavior. This shift in attitudes and concerns among novices completing student teaching and extended classroom practica has been documented in prior empirical research (e.g., Glassberg & Sprinthall, 1980; Hoy, 1967, 1968, 1969; Hoy & Rees, 1977; Jones, 1982). Their inadequate knowledge of classroom procedures also appears to prevent novice teachers from focusing on what pupils are learning from academic tasks. Instead, working memory is devoted to monitoring their own behavior as they attempt to imitate or invent workable procedures. To be functional, procedures must become standardized and reflect an integration of management and instruction; in this sense, class control and instruction appear to be inextricably interrelated pedagogical tasks. Until such standard procedures are routinized and fairly automated, novices may continue to focus on their own rather than their pupils' behaviors. A provocative insight suggested by Hollingsworth's work (1988, 1989) concerns the nature of the images of self as teacher that novices initially bring to the classroom. It appears that a novice's self-image as a teacher may be strongly related to the novice's self-image as a learner. That is, in constructing images of teachers, novices may extrapolate (albeit unconsciously) from their own experiences as learners, in essence, assuming that their pupils will possess learning styles, aptitudes, interests, and problems similar to their own. This may partially explain why novices' images of pupils are usually inaccurate. 145

Kagan Thus, the central role played by a novice's image of self as teacher emerges once again as an important theme in studies of professional growth. In the following section, I describe four studies that explicate and elaborate this theme. The Central Role Played by a Novice's Image of Self as Teacher Laboskey (1991) presented case studies of two elementary teachers enrolled in their final year of a teacher education program designed to promote reflection. Laboskey examined reflectivity of the teachers by interviewing them about their lesson plans and by evaluating case studies they wrote about their pupils. A questionnaire was used to measure their initial levels of spontaneous reflectivity. As the year progressed, the novices manifested more self-reflection and began to acknowledge the limitations of their prior beliefs and knowledge. Laboskey (1991) was able to infer a continuum of reflectivity: from commonsense thinker (a novice focuses on himself or herself rather than pupils and relies on personal experience) to alert novice to pedagogical thinker (the novice's attention has shifted from self to pupils, means-end thinking is displayed, and knowledge of children and the moral aspects of teaching is demonstrated). Bullough (1991) studied the personal teaching metaphors of 15 secondary candidates completing student teaching. Using data from interviews and classroom observations conducted at multiple points in the student teaching experience, Bullough presented his findings in terms of in-depth case studies of three of the teachers. Although the developmental path of each teacher was somewhat unique, several common themes emerged. All of the student teachers began by inferring from their own experiences as pupils in classrooms and by seeking confirmation of their beliefs and images. Bullough (1991) observed that novices needed to possess clear images of themselves as teachers before growth could occur; without a clear self-image, blindly imitating a cooperating teacher did not cause a lasting acquisition of classroom skills. This suggests that novices who enter the classroom without clear images of themselves as teachers are doomed to flounder. Bullough speculated that this may account for many cases where the effects of a teacher education program appear to be erased by classroom practice (e.g., Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1981). That is, when novices do not possess clear self-images with which to integrate program knowledge, program knowledge remains superficial and easily replaced. Hollingsworth (in press) tracked the beliefs and expectations of multiple parties involved in a graduate program of teacher education: 28 preservice candidates, 64 cooperating teachers, 6 university supervisors, and 10 graduates of the program. Using interview data, Hollingsworth found a lack of common goals and perceptions (which also may explain the lack of influence many programs have on novices' beliefs and practices). She distinguished between public and private learning. Candidates espoused publicly the beliefs held by their supervisors while retaining contradictory personal beliefs. Hollingsworth found almost no change in candidates' personal beliefs and images during the program; when change did occur, it involved cognitive dissonance, a direct challenge to personal beliefs. In the absence of cognitive dissonance, learning among novices remained shallow and imitative. Novices placed with cooperating teachers who facilitated the integration of new knowledge with novices' preexisting beliefs appeared to experience the greatest professional growth (Hollingsworth, in press). 146

Growth Professional The final study in this clusterwas conductedby Strahan(1990) who examined changesin the knowledgeand perceptionsof four middleschool math teachersas they completedthe last 2 years of a teachereducationprogram(course work and studentteaching).Fromintermittent interviews,classroomobservations,and journals, Strahan(1990) was able to infer a standardevolutionary patternamong the novices:Theybeganby seekingconfirmation themselvesin theirrolesas teachers; of of they then sought affirmation their teacherstatusfrom their pupils;finally,they validationof their success as teachersfrom pupil achievement.The same sought (in patternemergedin Strahan's press) earlierstudiesof perceptualchangeamong novices. Summaryof CommonThemes Thesefourstudiesconfirm candidates that enterpractica studentteaching and with images of themselvesas teachersthat have been derived in part from their own experiencesas learners.Indeed, withouta strongimage of self as teacher,a novice may be doomed to flounder. Oncein the classroom,novicesfirstseek to confirmandvalidatetheirself-images; gradually,given the appropriateconditions,novices begin to use their growing of to theirimagesof knowledge pupilsandclassrooms modify,adapt,andreconstruct self asteacher.Thus,in a veryrealsense, the initialfocusof noviceteachers inward. is These studies also suggestthat, for modification(growth)to occur, initial images mustbe clearlydefinedand a novicemustexperiencedissonance,perhapsby being teacherwhosebeliefsandpractices not congruent are with placedwitha cooperating those of the novice.Withoutcognitivedissonance the concomitant and of mitigation teachereducation preexisting images,knowledge during preservice acquired appears to be superficialand ephemeral. Moreover,only afternovicesresolvetheirimagesof self as teachercan theybegin to turn their focus outwardsand concentrateon what pupils are learningfrom academictasks. This suggeststhat the schematanovice teachersacquirefor pupils andtheirownrolesas teachersevolvetogether.The specificnatureof those schemata was the focus of a study conductedby Bennett (1991). Bennett's (1991) study was ostensiblya multimethodevaluationof a graduate teacher educationprogramdesigned to promote reflectivethinking.Bennett followed two cohorts (12 middle and secondarycandidates)throughthe program, collected tracingchangesin perceptionand knowledge.Data that were periodically over the 1-year(graduate)program included:autobiographical interviews,concept maps, journals,classroomobservations,and stimulatedrecall. In reporting findings,Bennett (1991)leanedheavilyon conceptmapsof teaching thatwereconstructed the novicesat eachof fourpointsin the program: the first on by day, at the end of the firstsummerof courseworkandpractica,at the end of the fall semester, and at the end of student teaching in the spring. The concept maps of suggestedthreestagesin the evolutionof the novices'understanding teaching:(a) entrylevel schematathat were idealisticand basedon priorexperiencesas pupilsin classrooms,(b) theoreticalschematathatmanifesteda commonlanguagerelatedto decisionmakingand (one can assume)reflectedcoursework, and (c) revisedschematathat emergedafter completionof a practicum studentteaching.As novices or knowlthroughthe program, progressed linkagesamongtheirpriorbeliefs,program andclassroom to growstronger; knowledge pupils and of experiences appeared edge, increasedin size and importance. 147

Kagan In sum, knowledge of self, classrooms, and pupils does not appear to evolve separately. In this sense, a novice's past and present experiences are ultimately merged, as professional growth encroaches on the novice's most intimate knowledge of self. Comprehensive Evaluations of Practica or Student Teaching Experiences With these themes as a backdrop, it is interesting to look at a final cluster of studies-large, multimethod evaluations of practica or student teaching experiences-that focused on growth among preservice candidates. Each of the five studies described in this section attempted to capture the texture of a practicum, internship, or student teaching experience. They can be distinguished from studies discussed earlier by their scope and complexity. Borko, Eisenhart, Underhill, Brown, Jones, and Agard (1991) followed 38 preservice teachers enrolled in a middle school math program. The researchers presented data (interviews, observations, questionnaires), obtained for eight candidates during their student teaching experiences, which entailed four different placements over the course of 2 semesters. Because the program emphasized the teaching of math for conceptual rather than procedural knowledge, the researchers were particularly interested in examining the student teachers' choices in this regard. Borko et al. (1991) discovered that each student teacher faced many contextual pressures that influenced his or her instructional choices. Pressures, which were often contradictory, emanated from evaluation procedures, principals' beliefs, availability of procedures, nature of pupils, and attitudes of parents and fellow teachers. The researchers concluded that teacher educators oversimplify the reality of student teaching and ignore the many social and pedagogical variables that can affect a novice's instructional decisions. Two studies, both conducted in Canada, documented innovative projects: a 1-year paid internship following completion of a preservice program (Jacknicke & Samiroden, 1991) and a clinical practicum codesigned by teachers and university professors (Chamberlin & Vallance, 1991). Jacknicke and Samiroden's (1991) study of the internship program focused on five secondary interns and their supervising teachers. In-depth interviews indicated that the personal relationship between an intern and his or her supervising teacher determined the amount and nature of professional growth experienced by the intern. Autonomy and responsibility for instruction appeared to promote growth. All of the interns felt that the separation of theory (university course work) and practice was unproductive and expressed the wish that their (prior) teacher education could have been completed in combination with the internship. The innovative block course examined by Chamberlin and Vallance (1991) attempted to accomplish just that: to integrate 9 hours of university course work with an extended classroom practicum that required candidates to work in schools half of every weekday. The experimental program involved 68 undergraduates in the third year of their preparation and cooperating teachers in three schools. Data consisted of journals, written assignments, and interviews conducted with all participants. Like Jacknicke and Samiroden (1991), Chamberlin and Vallance (1991) found that the individual novice-cooperating-teacher relationship played a major role in determining how much knowledge a novice acquired. Like the interns in the former study, the students in the block course felt that the knowledge provided in university courses 148

Professional Growth

was too abstractto be useful in classrooms; did not providethem with practical it procedures.Teamworkamongblockstudentsassignedto the sameschoolwascited as beneficial,but a consistent lackof communication betweenprofessors cooperand inhibited atingteacherswasalso reported.In some cases, thislackof communication an atmospherein which risk takingwas regardedas safe. Cochran-Smith studentteachingexperiencein which (1989)studiedan innovative novicesandtheircooperating teachersmet in teamsto conductresearch theirown on classes. The experiencecame at the end of a graduatepreserviceprogram.Participants were three elementarystudentteachers,five cooperatingteachers,and one universitysupervisorwho met as a team for 1 year. Field notes, audiotapes,and of transcripts their meetingsserved as raw data. Twoprimary littleto the findingsemerged.First,the studentteacherscontributed team meetings, making it difficultto assess how the experience affected them. focusedon theirinteractions individteachers' research with Second,the cooperating ual pupils,as they triedto explainbehaviorin cause-effect terms. In the processof constructed theirownprivatepedagogigivingreasonto cases, the seasonedteachers instancesto more generalideas, linkingconcrete cal theories:"connecting specific to 1989, p. 43). (Cochran-Smith, particulars abstractexplanations" The last studyin this clusterwas conductedby Griffin(1989) who attemptedto describeand assess the studentteachingexperiencein each of two preserviceproone grams:one undergraduate, fifth-yearmaster'sprogram.The total sample of and studentteachers,88 cooperating included93 elementary secondary participants teachers, and 17 universitysupervisors.Data included classroom observations, of condocuments,audiotapes postobservation interviews,journalentries,program tests (assessingempathy, ferences,and scoresobtainedon a varietyof standardized teacherconcerns,self-esteem,conceptual locusof control,flexibility, level,cognitive of 20 style, etc.). Griffinlookedcloselyat a subsample participants: studentteaching teacher(as determinedby nomination triadsthat includedan effectivecooperating were collectedat the by school and universitypersonnel).Data on all participants beginning,middle, and end of studentteaching. beliefsandcharacteristics all Griffin(1989)foundthatthe deep-seatedpersonal of remainedunchangedover the course of student teaching.Moreover, participants were morealikethandifferentacrosssettings.Superviand participants procedures sionwas dominatedby the cooperating knowlteachers,who focusedon procedural terms,using edge. Studentteacherstended to view the experiencein interpersonal with their respectivecooperatingteachersas the the warmthof their relationships primarycriterionfor their satisfaction. baseguidedparticipants' Griffin(1989)alsofoundthatno knowledge interactions; commonpoliciesor beliefs. Moreover, teachersand professorsseldom articulated were rarelyrelatedto each triadfunctionedin isolation,and classroomexperiences checklistswere used to evaluatestudent coursework.Finally,traditional university teachers'professionalgrowth, and the ratingswere uniformlyhigh for all of the novices.
Summary of Common Themes and Relationship to Themes Described in Prior Sections

Each of these studiestestifies to the complexlandscapeswithinwhichextended classroomexperiencesoccur. Whether completed as a practicum,internship,or 149

Kagan student teaching, classroom practice teaching is affected by many school and classroom variables: the nature of pupils, principals' beliefs, parental attitudes, availability of materials, communication between school and university personnel, attitudes of teachers in a school, and the personal relationship that develops between a novice and his or her cooperating teacher. Each intern or student teacher must negotiate many social and political-as well as pedagogical-dilemmas. These studies also confirm the absence of a coherent knowledge base underlying classroom practica and the lack of connection with university course work, as noted in studies cited earlier (e.g., Eisenhart et al., 1991). Such a picture of classroom practica is particularly ironic when it is viewed in the context of the studies described in prior sections of this article. It is ironic because it fails to address the primary developmental tasks of novices: the needs to (a) confirm and validate the image of self as teacher, (b) acquire knowledge of pupils and use it to modify the image of self as teacher, (c) experience cognitive dissonance and question the appropriateness of personal images and beliefs, and (d) acquire managementinstructional procedures that are standardized and grow increasingly automated. Instead of addressing each of these needs, classroom practica appear to be structured idiosyncratically according to the kind of relationship that develops between a novice and a seasoned teacher who serves as host. One finds no systematic efforts to encourage novices to make their personal beliefs and images explicit, to study pupils, to compare ongoing experiences with preexisting images, to construct standardized routines, or to reconstruct the image of self as teacher. One might infer that, because university professors persist in not providing procedural knowledge to novices, student teaching is used primarily to acquire this knowledge from cooperating teachers. This may explain the lack of connection between practica and course work: that is, the abstract and theoretical content of most university courses is not needed by novices at this stage in their professional development. Among the studies cited in this cluster, the only exception to this picture is the experimental program documented by Cochran-Smith (1989) that attempted to give student teachers opportunities to observe and help experienced teachers study their own practice. Unfortunately, the novices in that program did not participate actively enough to allow Cochran-Smith to evaluate the effect of the program on the novices' professional growth. Studies of Growth Among First-Year and Beginning Teachers In the next section, I describe 13 naturalistic studies of first-year and beginning teachers. Again, I have clustered studies according to major themes that emerged from results. Because those themes were virtually identical to those found in the studies of preservice teachers, I do not provide summaries for each of the three clusters: (a) the need to acquire knowledge of pupils and apply it to the image of self as teacher, (b) the role played by context, and (c) the growth in problem solving skills. The Need to Acquire Knowledge of Pupils and Apply It to the Image of Self as Teacher Grossman (1989) examined the first-year experiences of three secondary teachers who completed a brief alternative orientation to teaching rather than a traditional teacher education program. The teachers held undergraduate or graduate degrees in literature but had not taken course work in teacher education. Data came from a 150

Professional Growth larger study in which Grossman (1990) compared the first-year experiences of these novices with those of novices who had completed a master's program in teacher education. To study growth among the three English teachers, Grossman (1989) collected a variety of data: classroom observations, in-depth interviews, and teachers' performances on several experimental tasks. The tasks included asking the teachers to describe how they would teach a particular poem to pupils and how they would plan particular courses and select curricular materials. Although many idiosyncratic differences were manifested by the three novices, all relied heavily on their own experiences as college students. They expected pupils to be motivated and to respond to the same instructional strategies modeled by their (the teachers') English professors. Even when problems arose, the novices were unable to reconceptualize the teaching of English for younger, less motivated pupils. All of the teachers in Grossman's (1989) study spent their first year learning by trial and error (without the help of mentors). The experience proved so frustrating that two of the teachers decided to leave the field: one to attend law school, the other to attend medical school. In sum, the crucial gap in the teachers' knowledge concerned the nature of pupils (their abilities, interests, learning styles, etc.) and ways to design instruction to meet their needs. In contrast, the first-year teachers who had completed a teacher education program entered classrooms with some realistic understanding of pupils and ways to adapt instruction (Grossman, 1990). Bullough, Knowles, and Crow (1989) also examined the first-year experiences of three secondary teachers (science/math, English, English/Spanish), all of whom had completed a program of teacher education. To examine changes in pedagogical knowledge, the researchers observed classrooms, examined journals, and conducted interviews at 3-week intervals throughout the year. In addition, the teachers met in seminars 3 times per month to discuss their experiences. Several common themes emerged. First, in forming their images of pupils, the teachers went through similar processes that began by drawing on their own prior experiences as pupils. These initial images were then elaborated with information acquired by interacting with small groups of pupils; from these interactions, the teachers generalized to entire classes. A key factor in this process was teachers' recognition of commonalities among pupils, and, in this regard, the labels that pupils themselves used to refer to social cliques were often helpful. By the end of the first year, the teachers had acquired a functional knowledge of pupils and had modified their images of self as teacher. Bullough conducted a similar study of one junior high English teacher, Kerrie, whose first-year experiences he describes (1987, 1989). As a theoretical foundation for his study, Bullough (1987) used Ryan's (1986) stage theory of teacher development, which was inspired by Fuller's (1969) work. According to Ryan's theory, teachers pass through four developmental stages: fantasy, survival, mastery, and impact (on pupils). Bullough (1987) tracked Kerrie's growth during her first year using the same kinds of data described for Bullough et al. (1989) above. During the year, Kerrie appeared to pass through the first two stages in Ryan's theory (1986). Initially, she focused on management problems; when procedures for resolving those were in place, she was able to develop instructional routines and concentrate on pupil learning. Once a set of basic management and instructional routines were in place, Kerrie used her growing knowledge of pupils to refine them. 151

Kagan She felt that her teacher education program had not prepared her adequately for the first-year experience, because little of the knowledge acquired in university courses proved to be directly applicable to classrooms. Wendel (1989) examined the experiences of four secondary teachers (math, business education, English, social studies) over their first 2 years of teaching. The teachers were videotaped 4 times a year and interviewed in connection with stimulated recall tasks. Student surveys were also completed. Findings indicated that the teachers quickly established images as teachers which-according to the teachers and their pupils-remained relatively stable and unresponsive to pupil needs. The next three studies illustrate in specific terms how beginning teachers' knowledge of pupils can affect the teachers' images of self as teacher. In the first study, Bullough and Knowles (1991) studied one junior high English teacher's beliefs during her first year of teaching. Barbara, a mature mother of five young children, entered the classroom with an image of herself as nurturer. She had retained that image through her preservice education, using the information she acquired in courses to confirm rather than modify her existing beliefs. Bullough and Knowles (1991) used Barbara's journal entries, classroom observations, and intermittent interviews to track changes in that self-image. As the year progressed, Barbara found that the job of parenting pupils was taxing, time consuming, and often disappointing. She began to realize that a certain amount of detachment was desirable and that getting too involved with pupils' personal lives was not always best. By the end of the year, Barbara had used her newly acquired knowledge of pupils to alter her image of self as teacher and assume a more traditional role. Bullough and Knowles (1990) conducted another study of first-year experiences, this time focusing on a secondary science teacher who came to the classroom from a prior career. Lyle brought to his pupils a passionate commitment to his subject matter but only a vague image of self as teacher. The problems of class control he experienced initially threatened his tentative self-image, and he responded by abandoning his goal to be an inquiry-oriented teacher with caring pupil relationships and instead assuming the role of a policeman. Lyle's problems were exacerbated by the nature of his pupils (generally unmotivated low achievers) and by a professional culture that defined science teaching as following the textbook. In sum, Lyle's first year was disillusioning and frustrating. In yet another study of first-year experiences, Bullough (1990) tracked the perceptions of one high school English/Spanish teacher. Again, Bullough used classroom observations, interviews, and journal entries to document changes in Heidi's beliefs and classroom practices. Heidi entered the classroom with an image of herself as subject matter expert. This initial image was challenged immediately by the nature of her pupils and her teaching assignment. She was forced to revise her self-image, first changing it to friend, then to caring adult. Interestingly, the colleague who served as Heidi's mentor during her first year was unaware of these shifts in self-image and the struggles they involved, perhaps because Heidi possessed no obvious deficiencies in teaching skills. The Role Played by Context A beginning teacher's growing knowledge of pupils is not the only factor that appears to affect the teacher's image of self as teacher. Four studies documented the role played by classroom and school contexts. Wildman, Niles, Magliaro, and 152

Professional Growth McLaughlin (1989) tracked perceptual changes among 15 teachers completing their first year. Data consisted of semistructured interviews conducted at least twice a year, logs, activity reports, and audiotapes of meetings held between the beginning teachers and their respective mentors. The researchers presented in-depth profiles of four of the teachers (3 elementary, 1 secondary). Although no prototypical experience emerged, three common factors appeared to be determinants of growth and success: the teaching assignment (the nature of the content and pupils to be taught); colleagues (their willingness to provide support and assistance); and parental relationships. Similar findings were reported by Cole (1990) who followed the first-year experiences of four teachers (teaching kindergarten, general elementary, K-8 French, high school French/English). Each entered the classroom with a clear image of self as teacher, and three of the four were forced to compromise those images because of the same contextual factors described by Wildman et al. (1989). Similarly, Clandinin's (1989) study of a first-year kindergarten teacher in Canada described the teacher's continuous struggle to express his image of self as teacher within the constraints of his workplace. A particularly significant contextual factor may be the degree of autonomy and leadership afforded to teachers within a school. Kilgore, Ross, and Zbikowski (1990) interviewed six elementary teachers periodically over their first year of teaching, asking them to describe specific problems and how they had solved them. The transcripts of the interviews were evaluated for levels of reflectivity, using a scale derived from Kitchener and King's (1981) work. According to Kitchener, mature reflective judgment is a willingness to: consider new evidence, search for alternative explanations, view situations from multiple perspectives, and judge the adequacy of a decision using supportive evidence. Kilgore et al. (1990) found a negative relationship between teachers' frequency of reflectivity and the degree of control administrators exercised over the teachers in their respective schools. Beginning teachers who reflected most often and most deeply on classroom problems tended to work in schools where principals delegated major curricular decisions to teachers.3 Growth in Problem Solving Skills I found two studies that focused more narrowly on growth in the problem solving skills of beginning teachers. One, conducted by Levin and Ammon (1991), followed four elementary teachers as they completed a 2-year graduate program in teacher education and entered their first year of teaching. Data included periodic interviews, classroom observations, and postobservation interviews. The researchers coded the data for levels of pedagogical understanding derived from Ammon and Hutcheson's (1989) model of cognitive development. According to that model, higher (as opposed to lower) level thinking is characterized by evidence of differentiation and integration of information. Results indicated that all four teachers grew in pedagogical problem solving during their preservice program and during their first year teaching. Initially, their pedagogical conceptions were vague, global, and relatively undifferentiated. By the time the teachers had completed their preservice program, their problem solving strategies had become more specific, differentiated, and concrete. By the end of their first year teaching, problem solving had become multidimensional, and pedagogical 153

Kagan concepts tended to be subject- and context specific. Levin and Ammon (1991) also identified some inconsistencies between the teachers' beliefs and practices, perhaps caused by constraints imposed by school contexts. The second study that focused on problem solving skills was conducted by Magliaro, Wildman, Niles, McLaughlin, and Ferro (1989), who followed six teachers (2 elementary, 4 secondary) through their first 3 years of teaching. Data consisted of interviews, logs, activity reports, and audiotapes of meetings held between the teachers and their respective mentors. As their classroom experience accumulated, the teachers found more ways of solving problems and grew in their ability to recognize problems. The teachers also began to develop standard procedures appropriate for certain kinds of problems; with growing experience, these strategies increased in size, complexity, and cohesiveness. In many instances, the process of solving problems-a process guided by pedagogical beliefs-ultimately caused changes in beliefs. As they entered their third year, the teachers began to generalize problem solving strategies across contexts, simplifying and economizing their efforts. They also appeared to be more aware of their own strengths, weaknesses, and evolving beliefs. The Emergent Model of Professional Development Despite differences in methodology, focus, and theoretical rationale, the studies described in preceding sections of this article provide generally consistent and complementary insights. Indeed, as a body of empirical literature, they define a narrative of sorts: Candidates come to programs of teacher education with personal beliefs about classrooms and pupils and images of themselves as teachers. For the most part, these prior beliefs and images are associated with a candidate's biography: his or her experiences in classrooms, relationships with teachers and other authority figures, recollections of how it felt to be a pupil in classrooms. Two particularly important elements in shaping prior beliefs/images are exemplary models of teachers and a candidate's image of self as learner. Candidates often extrapolate from their own experiences as learners, assuming that the pupils they will teach will possess aptitudes, problems, and learning styles similar to their own. The personal beliefs and images that preservice candidates bring to programs of teacher education usually remain inflexible. Candidates tend to use the information provided in course work to confirm rather than to confront and correct their preexisting beliefs. Thus, a candidate's personal beliefs and images determine how much knowledge the candidate acquires from a preservice program and how it is interpreted. While working through a preservice program, candidates are often presented with inconsistent and contradictory views of teaching and learning. The practica entailed in programs are generally inadequate in length and number and stand apart from the content of course work; information presented in courses is rarely connected to candidates' experiences in classrooms. In general, candidates approach practica and student teaching with inadequate knowledge of pupils and classroom procedures. They come instead with idealized views of pupils and an optimistic, oversimplified picture of classroom practice. They are usually unprepared to deal with problems of class control and discipline. As a 154

Professional Growth

not result,mostnovicesbecomeobsessedwithclasscontrol,designing instruction, to promote pupil learning,but to discouragedisruptivebehavior.In addition, their attitudestowardpupils grow more custodialand controlling. By interactingat lengthwith pupils,novicesmay begin to standback from their wherethey areincorrect inapproprior personalbeliefs andimages,acknowledging ate. Structured "research" the observation pupilsas of projectsinvolving systematic they learnmayfacilitatethis process.As novicesacquireknowledgeof pupils,they use it to modify, adapt, and reconstruct their images of self as teacher.Cognitive dissonance the formof a cooperating in teacherwhosebeliefsarenot consistent with those of the novice facilitatesthe reconstruction beliefs. If a novice enters the of classroomwithout a clear image of self as teacher, the reconstruction process is perverted,and the novice may be doomed to flounder. As the imageof self as teacheris adaptedandreconstructed, novicestend to focus on their own behaviorsratherthan those of their pupils. As the image of self as teacheris resolved, attentionshifts to the designof instruction finallyto what and pupils are learningfrom academictasks. The initial focus on self appearsto be a elementin the firststageof teacherdevelopment. thisis true, If necessaryandcrucial then attemptsby supervisors shortenor aborta studentteacher's to periodof inward focus may be counterproductive. The earlystageof classroom is practice also spentacquiring procedural knowledge thatwas not providedin university coursework.Forthis knowledge,novicesusually in and teachers.The first relyon theirownexperiences classrooms theircooperating step in this task is the developmentof standardized proceduresfor handlingclass and management discipline.After these are in place, novicesturntheirattentionto instruction.Ultimately,standardroutinesthat integrateinstructionand management are needed; only when they are in place can novicesbegin to focus on pupil of routines,novicesmovefromaninitialstage learning.In the acquisition procedural where performance laboriouslyself-consciousto more automated,unconscious is performance. As these developmental tasks are being accomplished, novices'problemsolving skills evolve. They become better able to recognizeproblems;thinkingbecomes more concrete and context specific;repertoiresfor solvingproblemsgrow larger, morecomplex,andmorecoherent.The developmental tasksdescribedabovebegin duringextendedpracticaor studentteachingand continuethroughthe firstyearof and teaching.In that sense, the preservice first-year experiences maybe regardedas a singledevelopmental period.Thereis some evidencethat beginningteacherswho fail to reconstructtheir images of self as teacher appropriately may encounter frustrations sufficientto drive them to other occupations. When and how completely these developmentaltasks are accomplishedby a novicedependson at leastthreemajorfactors:(a) the novice'sbiography clarity (the of the imageof self as teacher,developmental readinessto acknowledge images that and beliefs are incorrect),(b) the configuration a preserviceteachereducation of information (amountof extendedclassroom practice,amountof procedural program providedin courses), and (c) the contextsin whichpracticeand beginningteaching occur (the natureof pupils;beliefs of, and relationships with, other teachersin the of with parents).Two beliefs;relationships school;availability materials; principal's contextualfactorsof special importance that demay be the personalrelationship velops between a novice and his or her cooperatingteacher and the degree of autonomyaffordedto teachersby a principal.
155

Kagan Defining Professional Growth Thus, professional growth among novice and beginning teachers is both behavioral and conceptual. Shallow, imitative learning is superficial and ephemeral. Growth consists of at least five components: 1. An increase in metacognition: Novices become more aware of what they know and believe about pupils and classrooms and how their knowledge and beliefs are changing. 2. The acquisition of knowledge about pupils: Idealized and inaccurate images of pupils are reconstructed. Knowledge of pupils is used to modify, adapt, and reconstruct the novice's image of self as teacher. 3. A shift in attention: As the image of self as teacher is resolved, a novice's attention shifts from self to the design of instruction to pupil learning. 4. The development of standard procedures: Novices develop standardized routines that integrate instruction and management and grow increasingly automated. 5. Growth in problem solving skills: Thinking associated with classroom problem solving grows more differentiated, multidimensional, and context specific. Eventually, novices are able to determine which aspects of problem solving repertoires can be generalized across contexts. Inconsistent Findings This is not to say that the body of literature reviewed here is without inconsistencies and even contradictions. Indeed, a close examination of inconsistencies is particularly enlightening. Inconsistencies were found in regard to seven issues, most of which can be explained in terms of differences in the ways investigators defined or measured key variables. The issues, phrased as questions, and the inconsistent findings associated with them are listed below: 1. Is the content of course work in teacher education related to practica and student teaching? All but one of the studies indicated a lack of connection between the information provided to novices in university courses and the exigencies of classroom practice (e.g., Chamberlin & Vallance, 1991; Eisenhart et al., 1991; Griffin, 1989; Hollingsworth, 1988, 1989). The one exception to this finding was Bennett's (1991) study of 12 middle and secondary school teachers as they progressed through a preservice program and student teaching. This discrepancy may be attributable to the nature of Bennett's evidence: novices' concept maps of teaching. The studies indicating a gap between course work and practica relied primarily on interview data. One might reasonably question the ability of one of these methods to reflect novices' true perceptions about the immediate utility of university course work. 2. Do preservice candidates change their personal beliefs and images during the course of a teacher education program? All but one study indicated that personal beliefs remained stable (e.g., Calderhead & Robson, 1991; McDaniel, 1991; McLaughlin, 1991; Weinstein, 1990). The single exception was Florio-Ruane and Lensmire's (1990) study of six elementary teachers enrolled in a methods course on teaching writing. Here, conceptual change among novices might be accounted for by the unique nature of the course: its practicum, closely connected with "research" assignments that required novices to interact with and study pupils as they learned. 156

Professional Growth 3. Are there changes in the frequencies or levels of reflection manifested by novices as they progress through a teacher education program? Evidence was almost equally divided on this issue, and, contrary to what one might expect, it was unrelated to the nature of the preservice program (i.e., whether it was designed explicitly to promote self-reflection). Studies that found little evidence of reflection, or only the lowest level, used van Manen's (1977) hierarchy to evaluate novices' thoughts, captured in interviews or journals. Studies that found growth in reflective thinking evaluated thoughts according to hierarchies of problem solving: Laboskey (1991), in terms of pedagogical, means-end thinking; Levin and Ammon (1991), in terms of concrete and differentiated problem solving. The particular way an investigator defines and operationalizes higher level problem solving, thinking, or self-reflection may determine the nature of findings. 4. As novices completepractice teaching in extendedpractica or student teaching, do they manage to shift theirfocus of attentionfrom themselves to theirpupils? Pigge and Marso (1989), who used questionnaires to answer this question, reported that student teachers were able to turn their attention to pupils. Wodlinger (1990), who evaluated the journal of one novice completing a practicum, found that focus remained fixed on self. Findings reported by Hollingsworth (1988, 1989) may explain this discrepancy: This shift in attention may depend on the speed with which a novice can develop standard management-instructional routines. The candidates studied by Wodlinger and Pigge and Marso may have differed in their ability to put routines in place; this would have affected the foci of their attention. 5. Do student teachers tend to grow less optimistic and more controlling in their attitudes about pupils and teaching? Hoy and Woolfolk (1990) and Mcneely and Mertz (1990), who used self-report questionnaires to measure novices' attitudes, found a shift toward pessimism and custodial attitudes. Pigge and Marso (1989), who used yet a different questionnaire, found that student teachers remained optimistic. This inconsistency may be attributable to the differences in questionnaires: for example, whether optimism was defined in terms of candidates' (generalized) teacher self-efficacy or personal self-efficacy. Hoy and Woolfolk's (1990) findings suggest that this may be a crucial distinction: The student teachers they studied remained optimistic about their personal ability to affect pupils while they grew more pessimistic about the ability of teachers in general to counteract the influences of home and family. 6. Is cognitive dissonance between a student teacher and his or her cooperating teacher desirable? Hollingsworth (1988, 1989, in press; Shefelbine & Hollingsworth, 1987) found that student teachers were more likely to examine and reconstruct their own beliefs if they were confronted with cooperating teachers whose beliefs were different from their own. However, several evaluations of the student teaching experience (Chamberlin & Vallance, 1991; Griffin, 1989) reported that student teachers were more satisfied when their personal relationships with their respective cooperating teachers were warm. This may not constitute a true contradiction: Although experiencing cognitive dissonance and disagreement may be ultimately beneficial for growth, it is often uncomfortable. 7. Do first-year teachers modify and reconstruct their images of self as teacher? Bullough's work suggests that the modification of the image of self as teacher is a priority for first-year teachers (Bullough, 1987, 1990; Bullough & Knowles, 1990, 1991; Bullough, Knowles, & Crow, 1989). However, Wendel (1989) found that four 157

Kagan first-year teachers quickly established teaching personalities that remained stable and inflexible to student needs. Bullough and Wendel both studied secondary teachers. This discrepancy in findings may be explained by differences in classroom/ school contexts (Borko et al., 1991; Cole, 1990; Wildman et al., 1989). For example, the nature of pupils would obviously have a great effect on whether and how much a first-year teacher might adapt his or her initial image of self as teacher. Almost any inconsistency in studies of student or first-year teaching might be attributable to the interaction among the three fundamental factors that appear to affect the nature and speed of professional growth: the biography of a novice, the nature of the particular preservice program, and the school/classroom context in which teaching occurred. It is also possible that some discrepant findings occurred because some investigators tapped novices' public learning while others tapped their private learning (Hollingsworth, in press). Indeed, the consistency one can find in these learning-to-teach studies is that much more impressive when one considers the ability of such (often unassessed) factors to affect professional growth. Relationships to Studies Published Prior to 1987 The themes extracted from this group of 40 studies are quite consistent with learning-to-teach studies published or presented prior to 1987. The following paragraphs outline consistencies with major research agendas and frequently cited works. 1. Many prior studies have found that student teachers maintained prior beliefs despite extended classroom practice. Perhaps the most frequently cited of these studies was conducted by Tabachnick and Zeichner (1984), who observed and interviewed 13 student teachers over the course of 1 semester. In a later study, they followed four of the teachers into their first year of teaching (Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1985). During the first year, almost all the novices were forced to modify their beliefs because of a variety of contextual factors, including: the degree of contradiction between beliefs and the school culture, the amount of support from colleagues, and the nature of the teaching assignment (pupils, content). This is consistent with the 40 studies reviewed here, which illustrated how (a) first-year teachers used their growing knowledge of pupils and classrooms to reconstruct their images of self as teacher and (b) classroom and school contextual factors could affect the professional growth of novices. 2. In the Knowledge Growth in Teaching project at Stanford, a major finding of Shulman and his colleagues was the discovery of pedagogical content knowledge among beginning teachers (Wilson, Shulman, & Richert, 1987). The researchers described this as a unique interface of content and pedagogy, an understanding of how topics and skills can be organized and taught to pupils. This interface can be regarded as a direct product of novices' growing knowledge of pupils, a major theme that emerged from the 40 studies reviewed in this article. In fact, knowledge of content, reconstructed as pedagogical content knowledge, might be viewed as the analog of the novice's initial image of self as teacher mitigated by knowledge of pupils and classrooms. 3. In the Knowledge Use in Learning to Teach project at Michigan State University, investigators found that course work in teacher education did not provide novices with sufficient pedagogical content knowledge, nor did it force them to question their preexisting beliefs (Feiman-Nemser & Buchmann, 1987). Preservice teachers could not critically analyze the beliefs or reasons underlying their classroom 158

Professional Growth decisions, and teacher education course work did not remedy deficits in candidates' knowledge of subject matter. Candidates attempted to compensate for deficits by relying on textbooks and recollections of their own experiences as pupils. Due to limited knowledge of subject matter and pedagogy, most experienced great difficulty making the transition to pedagogical thinking. Feiman-Nemser and Buchmann concluded that professors and cooperating teachers need to stimulate self-reflection among preservice candidates and to verbalize rationale that underlies classroom practice. This is consistent with the majority of studies reviewed here. As FlorioRuane and Lensmire (1990) suggested, structured "research" projects may be required to allow novices to stand back from their own beliefs and view the realities of pupils and classrooms.4 4. Doyle (1979) argued for the important role pupils play in socializing teachers. This argument is confirmed by almost all of the studies reviewed here in terms of novices' crucial lack of knowledge about pupils and the role that knowledge plays in tempering the initial image of self as teacher. 5. A variety of research has testified to the atheoretical nature of teachers' professional knowledge (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Duffy, 1977; Harste, 1985; MorineDershimer, 1987, 1988; Olson, 1981; Richardson & Hamilton, 1988; Sosniak, Ethington, & Varelas, 1991). The novice teachers described in the studies reviewed here found no connections between the abstract theories presented in university courses and their experiences in classrooms. Formal, propositional theory may be incompatible with classroom teaching. As Cochran-Smith's (1989) study suggests, for teachers, theory may simply mean giving reason to cases. This may explain in part why postobservation conferences between student teachers and their supervisors rarely focus on theory (Kagan, 1988). 6. Finally, a variety of research has documented the close connection between a teacher's biography (personal beliefs, past experiences, personality) and his or her classroom practice. Wright and Tuska (1968) expressed this in psychoanalytic terms, suggesting that a novice's beliefs and images of teaching are rooted in psychodynamic processes that occurred early in life. Lortie (1975) contended that novices acquire models of good teaching as pupils in classrooms. The studies reviewed here testify that novices' early experiences with teachers and other authority figures can greatly affect their images of self as teacher. Recent case studies of seasoned teachers-particularly studies that have established teachers' narratives (e.g., Connelly & Clandinin, 1990, Louden, 1991)suggest that each teacher represents a unique ecological system of pedagogical beliefs and practices that is inextricably connected to the teacher's personality and prior experiences in life. For example, in studying five exemplary high school teachers, Cohen (1991) found that the styles of the teachers seemed "to have developed not out of any self-conscious attempt to apply learned principles of pedagogy but out of their individual relationships with the subjects they love .... Teaching style, in short, is a natural outgrowth of personality and predilection" (Cohen, 1991, p. 99). She found that teaching methods were carefully crafted to suit the individual styles and temperaments of the teachers, who appeared to be more concerned with self-actualization than pupil-actualization. Relationships to Fuller's and Berliner's Models data obtained directly from 50 student teachers and indirectly from Using survey other data bases and reports of similar surveys, Fuller (1969) inferred a three-stage 159

Kagan model of teacher development that focused on teachers' concerns. Several years later, it was modified to accommodate a fourth stage (Fuller & Bown, 1975). In the first preteaching stage, candidates tend to identify realistically with pupils but unrealistically with teachers. Their concerns as teachers consist of only vague apprehensions. The second stage is characterized by concerns for survival: class control, mastery of content, the teacher's own adequacy in fulfilling his or her role. In the third stage, concerns turn to teaching performance, the limitations and frustrations of teaching situations. In the fourth and final stage, the teacher's concerns turn to the pupils: their social, academic, and emotional needs, and the teacher's ability to relate to pupils as individuals. Subsequent research on Fuller's model indicated that these stages are neither pure nor invariant (Burden, 1990). The model portrays growth in teaching as "constant, unremitting self-confrontation" (Fuller & Bown, 1975, p. 48). Twenty years later, Berliner (1988) used schema theory and comparative studies of the cognitions underlying novice and expert performances in the field of teaching (Berliner, 1986; Borko & Livingston, 1989; Clarridge, 1991; Sabers, Cushing, & Berliner, 1991; Swanson, O'Connor, & Cooney, 1990) and in other domains (Chi et al., 1988) to infer a five-stage model of teacher development. Berliner's (1988) model focuses on the cognition that underlies a teacher's classroom behaviors: 1. Stage 1: Novice. At this stage, a teacher is labeling and learning each element of a classroom task, as a set of context-free rules is acquired. Classroom teaching performance is rational, is relatively inflexible, and requires purposeful concentration. 2. Stage 2: Advanced beginner. Many second- and third-year teachers reach this stage, where episodic knowledge is acquired and similarities across contexts are recognized. The teacher develops strategic knowledge, an understanding of when to ignore or break rules. The teacher's prior classroom experiences and the contexts of problems begin to guide his or her behavior. 3. Stage 3: Competent. The teacher is now able to make conscious choices about his or her actions, set priorities, and make plans. From prior experience, the teacher knows what is and is not important. In addition, the teacher knows the nature of timing and targeting errors. However, performance is not yet fluid or flexible. 4. Proficient. Fifth-year teachers may reach this stage, when intuition and knowhow begin to guide performance and a holistic recognition of similarities among contexts is acquired. The teacher can now pick up information from the classroom without conscious effort and can predict events with some precision. 5. Expert. Not all teachers reach this stage which is characterized by an intuitive grasp of situations and a nonanalytic, nondeliberate sense of appropriate behavior. Teaching performance is now fluid and seemingly effortless, as the teacher no longer consciously chooses the focus of his or her attention. At this stage, teachers operate on automatic pilot; standardized, automated routines to handle instruction and management are in place. When asked to explain or reflect on his or her performance, an expert teacher is likely to have difficulty "unpacking" and describing his or her cognition. The stages in Berliner's (1988) model differ in at least four fundamental ways. They describe differences in (a) the way a teacher monitors classroom events, moving toward an unconscious recognition of common patterns; (b) the degree of conscious effort involved in classroom performance, moving toward fluid, flexible, automated

160

Professional Growth routines; (c) the degree to which performance is guided by personal experience and the degree to which the teacher can predict events accurately; (d) the teacher's focus, as student work and academic tasks ultimately become the major organizing framework of instruction. The model of teacher development that I inferred from the 40 learning-to-teach studies validates and elaborates Fuller's and Berliner's models. The new model accounts for the shift in concerns from self to pupils in terms of the resolution of a novice's image of self as teacher. The new model suggests that the novice's initial inward focus constitutes necessary and valuable behavior, for, until the initial selfimage is adapted and reconstructed, the novice cannot progress. This idea differs from Fuller's (Fuller & Bown, 1975) implication that the novice's initial focus on self is a weakness or inadequacy that is best shortened or aborted. According to the new model, a novice's primary tasks are to acquire knowledge of pupils and, by inference, knowledge of self as teacher. In essence, the new model provides a cognitive explanation for the progression through Fuller's (Fuller & Bown, 1975) stages and translates concerns and unremitting self-confrontation into terms of the acquisition of knowledge. The new model also inserts schema theory into Fuller's model, suggesting that a novice's schemata for pupils and self as teacher evolve together. The formation of standardized procedural routines, a major theme of Berliner's (1988) model, is also confirmed by the new model. The new model suggests further that effective routines integrate class management and instruction. The acquisition of procedural routines, with the resolution of the image of self as teacher, allows the beginning teacher's focus to turn outward to pupils and what they are learning from academic tasks. Finally, the new model confirms Fuller's and Berliner's observations about the developmental inappropriateness of contemporary preservice teacher education programs: To help [the novice]navigatethe chasmdividingpupilhoodfrom teacherhood,an in program. inadequateknowledgebase is communicated a low statuspreparation as She gets mixedsignalsaboutgoals and meansfromher differenttrainers well as that fromherdifferent clients .... Littleis taught[novices] theyfindhelpful.(Fuller & Bown, 1975, pp. 47-49) of withthe development expertiseleadus to believe The theoryanddataassociated traditional alternative or thatthe realgoalof the first-year teacher,enteringthrough untilit all startsmakingsense, anduntilsome of routes,is thatof muddling through what is requiredto run the classroomcan be routinized.(Berliner,1988, p. 61) In agreement with Eisenhart et al. (1991), who found that student teachers were expected to perform at inappropriate levels of sophistication, Berliner also observed: The teacher educationprogramsthat have tried to make use of the notion of of teachers or reflective maybe arguments preservice practice to changethe practical misguided... novice teachersmay have too little experienceto reflect on.... theremaybe too littlein has experience been acquired, [Until]extensiveclassroom the minds of preserviceteachersabout what actionsmight be realistic,relevant, moral, and so forth. (Berliner,1988, pp. 63-64) appropriate, The new model of teacher development does not suggest that self-reflection is inappropriate for novice and beginning teachers. However, it defines the focus of that 161

Kagan self-reflection somewhat differently from current parlance (e.g., Gore & Zeichner, 1991). This and other inferences one can draw from the new model are discussed in the following section of this article. Inferences Regarding the Nature of Preservice Teacher Education One of my objectives in undertaking this review of learning-to-teach studies was to use any emergent model to infer the nature of preservice teacher education programs likely to promote professional growth by capitalizing on naturally occurring processes and stages. Underlying this objective is the assumption that the design and content of a preservice program should speak to the genuine developmental needs of novices: can some otherneeds It does not appearthata teachereducation program mandate or thinkthemmoreappropriate sophisticated, proponents justbecausethe program makeno otherstructural changes,andthenexpectthe studentteachersto "see"the of to wisdomandrelevance the alternatives. Rather,it seemsmoreproductive think aboutways to addressand then buildupon the students'needs. (Eisenhartet al., 1991, p. 67) If one accepts this assumption and regards most contemporary programs, one realizes that things have not changed much in 20 years: "Teacher education is not speaking to teachers where they are. Feelings of anger and frustration about teacher education are typical among teachers" (Fuller & Bown, 1975, p. 50). Almost every one of the 40 studies reviewed in earlier sections of this article indicates that university courses fail to provide novices with adequate procedural knowledge of classrooms, adequate knowledge of pupils or the extended practica needed to acquire that knowledge, or a realistic view of teaching in its full classroom/school context. In addition: The emphasison developingskill and rating performances results in a serious of oversimplification the processof becominga teacher,whichmustbe viewedin to and relationship biographyand conceptionsof self-as-teacher to the teacher's of entirelife situation .... The problem findingoneselfas a teacher,of establishing frommostlistsof beginning a professional teachers' identity,is conspicuously missing problems.(Bullough,1990, p. 357) Some of the other concrete inferences one can draw from the new model of teacher development include: Procedural, not theoretical knowledge. A primary goal of preservice programs should be providing procedural knowledge to novices and promoting the acquisition of standardized routines that integrate management and instruction. Procedural routines appear to be the sine qua non of classroom teaching; novices sense this and continue to express their frustrations with the abstract content of most education courses. Instead of decrying student teachers' interests in quick fixes and tricks of the trade, perhaps teacher educators should acknowledge that this is a genuine, mostly unmet need. Novices may engage in technical rationality rather than other levels of reflection, because that is where their developmental needs lie: in understanding what works and why it works. The relevance of self-reflection. The necessary and proper focus of a novice's attention and reflection may be inward: on the novice's own behaviors, beliefs, and image of self as teacher. Novices who do not possess strong images of self as teacher 162

Professional Growth

whentheyfirstenterthe classroom maybe doomedto flounder.Insteadof expecting novices to reflect on the moral and ethical implicationsof classroompractices, teachereducatorsmightbe wiserto guide novicesthroughtheirbiographical histories:for example,helpingthem examinetheirpriorexperiences classrooms,their in figures,and their tendenciesto assumethat other priorexperienceswith authority learnersshare their own problemsand propensities.
Extended interaction with pupils. As novices are making their images and beliefs

of knowledge pupils:theiraptitudes,interests, explicit,theyalsoneedto be acquiring It appearsthat this can only be accomplished throughextendedpractica; problems. entailedin mostcontemporary the two to fourlimitedkindsof practica are programs and not sufficient.Courseworkin childdevelopment educational cannot psychology providenoviceswith the kindsof knowledgetheywill internalize.Novicesmayalso "research" these need structured projectsto completein associationwith practica; may allow novicesto step back from their own beliefs and images long enough to perceive the reality of pupils and classrooms. Novicesneed to applytheirgrowing knowledgeof pupilsto theirimagesof self as activitiesthat force novteacher,and preserviceprograms mightincludestructured wheretheirpersonalimagesmaybe inappropriate, ices to: acknowledge modify,and the reconstruct images. The image of self as teachermust also be adaptedfor the needto presentthe intra-and realitiesof teaching.Thismeansthatteachereducators choices:social and political that affect teachers'instructional extramural pressures the fromfellowteachers,principals' beliefs,parental pressures, availability pressures focus for self-reflection. of materials.This may be anotherappropriate dissonance.Cognitivedissonancemaybe necessaryfor novicesto conCognitive that This fronttheirownbeliefsandimagesandacknowledge theyneed adjustment. may mean purposelyplacinga novice in a classroomwith an experiencedteacher whose beliefs are at variancewith the those of the novice. Studentteachersneed to the understand benefits that may accruefrom immediatediscomfort; cooperating teachersneed to be preparedto discussopposingbeliefs ratherthan demandblind conformity. routinesand withclasscontrol.Until noviceshaveestablishedstandard Obsession and resolvedtheirimagesof self as teacher,theywillbe obsessedwithdiscipline class control. Supervisorsshould expect this. Attempts to force a different focus of attentionmay be misguided. readiness.Some novicesmaynot be developmentally preparedto Developmental that dysfunctional aspectsof theirimagesof self as teacher.It is unlikely acknowledge of teaching.Theyshouldbe counseled will matureduringthe firststressful years they out of preserviceprograms. The relevance theory.One might begin to questionwhetherformaltheory is of relevantto teachersat anypointin theirprofessional development.A growingbody of literature suggeststhateventhe mostseasonedandexpertteachersbuildinformal, contextual,highlypersonaltheoriesfromtheirownexperiences.As the cooperating teachersin Cochran-Smith's theoryfor teachersmaybe (1989)studydemonstrated, more codified than givingreason to cases. nothing
Coda

The life stories of teachers(e.g., Cohen, 1991;Louden, 1991) explainthat the and practiceof classroomteachingremainsforeverrootedin personality experience 163

Kagan and that learning to teach requires a journey into the deepest recesses of one's selfawareness, where failures, fears, and hopes are hidden. Perhaps that is what Richardson meant by "an individualistic, psychoanalytic approach to teacher education" (Richardson, 1990, p. 13). That may not conform to what one traditionally envisions as professional preparation, but perhaps it is time to acknowledge that teaching is not a traditional occupation-not in the clean, technical sense of that term. Classroom teaching appears to be a peculiar form of self-expression in which the artist, the subject, and the medium are one. Whether any academic program of study can truly prepare someone to practice it is perhaps a question that one dares not ask. Notes thansome readersmayunderstand term. Investigators that of 'I use naturalistic differently the thesestudiesdidnot manipulate conditions underwhichnoviceteachers studiedthe content of education coursesor practice underscrutiny was taught.The teachereducation program(s) methodsor technologies.However,the not altered to examinethe effects of experimental contexts of some studies were innovativeformatsfor organizingstudent teaching (e.g., & Cochran-Smith, 1989) or integrating practicainto courses(e.g., Florio-Ruane Lensmire, was the and but 1990).The purpose not to compare effectsof innovative traditional approaches to describegrowthamongthe noviceteacherswho participated. 2WhenI say that Fuller'sand Berliner's modelsare the only ones basedon developmental teachersper se, I am includingtheoriesderivedfrom those models (e.g., Ryan, 1986). 3The degree of autonomyaffordedteachersby principalshas emerged as a significant variable severalstudies.Rosenholtz in contextual was (1989)foundthatteacherautonomy one of to characteristic schoolsthatappeared producehighachievement pupilsandjob satisfacin tion in teachers.Yee (1990) discoveredthat teacherautonomycontributed teachers'job to and satisfaction the tendencyto remainin the classroom. HartandMurphy's (1990)surveyof workperceptionsheld by new (5 yearsor less experience)teachersof varyingpromiseand new abilitydistinguished teacherswithhighpromiseby theirdesirefor autonomy, leadership, And of andempowerment. the importance classroom/school contextual in variables, general,to teachers' sense of successandsatisfaction documented a largesurveyconducted was in among teachersin Australia(Watson,Hatton, Squires,& Soliman,1991). 1,322 second-year 4Theseare highlycondensedsummaries two importantresearchagendas.Readersare of referredto Borko's(1989)andWilsonet al.'s (1987)reviewsfor morecompletedescriptions. The KnowledgeGrowthin Teachingprojectand the KnowledgeUse in Learningto Teach and projectare consistentwith the modelI inferin this article:(a) preservice noviceteachers of beginwith inadequate knowledge pupilsandclassrooms; withoutadequateknowledge, (b) novicestend to fall backon memoriesof theirown experiences pupils;and (c) learningto as of teachinvolvesnot just the acquisition contentknowledge detailedknowledge pupils but of and classrooms,and allowingthe latterto mitigatethe former. References of and Aitken, J. L., & Mildon,D. (1991).The dynamics personalknowledge teachereducathe of Ammon,P., & Hutcheson,B. P. (1989).Promoting development teachers' pedagogical Anderson, R. C. (1984). Some reflectionson the acquisitionof knowledge.Educational as An for Bennett,C. (1991).TheTeacher DecisionMaker program: alternative career-change Berliner, D. C. (1986). In pursuit of the expert pedagogue. EducationalResearcher,
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Professional Growth B. of Social Zeichner,K. M., & Tabachnick, R. (1985).Thedevelopment teacherperspectives: control in the socializationof beginningteachers.Journalof strategiesand institutional Education Teachers, 1-25. 11, for Author of DONA M. KAGANis Professor, University Alabama,207Graves,Box 870231,Tuscaloosa, in and and AL 35487.She specializes teachereducation cognition school-university partnerships.

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