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Oil platform
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anoffshore platform,alsoreferredtoasanoil platformor oil rig,isalrgestructurewithfacilitiestodrillwellsand extractandprocessoilandnaturalgasandexportthe productstoshore. Dependingonthecircumstances,theplatformmaybefixed totheoceanfloor,mayconsistofanartificialisland,ormay float.[1] Remotesubseawellsmayalsobeconnectedtoaplatform byflowlinesandbyumbilicalconnections;thesesubsea solutionsmayconsistofsinglewellsorofamanifoldcentre formultiplewells.

AtypicaloffshoreOil/Gasplatform.

Contents
1History 2Types 2.1Fixedplatforms 2.2Complianttowers 2.3Semi-submersibleplatform 2.4Jack-updrillingrigs 2.5Drillships 2.6Floatingproductionsystems 2.7Tension-legplatform 2.8Sparplatforms 2.9Normallyunmannedinstallations(NUI) 2.10Conductorsupportsystems 3Particularlylargeexamples 4Maintenanceandsupply 5Crew 5.1Essentialpersonnel 5.2Incidentalpersonnel 6Drawbacks 6.1Risks 6.2Ecologicaleffects 7Deepestoilplatforms 8Seealso 9References 10Externallinks

History

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Around1891thefirstsubmergedoilwellsweredrilledfrom platformsbuiltonpilesinthefreshwatersoftheGrand LakeSt.Marys(a.k.a.MercerCountyReservoir)inOhio. Thewidebutshallowreservoirwasbuiltfrom1837to1845 toprovidewatertotheMiamiandErieCanal. Around1896thefirstsubmergedoilwellsinsaltwaterwere drilledintheportionoftheSummerlandfieldextending undertheSantaBarbaraChannelinCalifornia.Thewells weredrilledfrompiersextendingfromlandoutintothe channel. Othernotableearlysubmergeddrillingactivitiesoccurred ontheCanadiansideofLakeErieinthe1900sandCaddo LakeinLouisianainthe1910s.Shortlythereafter,wells weredrilledintidalzonesalongtheGulfCoastofTexasand Louisiana.TheGooseCreekfieldnearBaytown,Texasis onesuchexample.Inthe1920sdrillingwasdonefrom concreteplatformsinLakeMaracaibo,Venezuela.

TheoldestsubseawellrecordedinInfield'soffshore databaseistheBibiEibatwellwhichcameonstreamin 1923inAzerbaijan.Landfillwasusedtoraiseshallow portionsoftheCaspianSea.

OffshoreplatformGulfofMexico

Intheearly1930stheTexasCompanydevelopedthefirstmobilesteelbargesfordrillinginthebrackish coastalareasofthegulf. In1937PureOilCompany(nowpartofChevronCorporation)anditspartnerSuperiorOilCompany (nowpartofExxonMobilCorporation)usedafixedplatformtodevelopafieldin14feetofwater,one mileoffshoreofCalcasieuParish,Louisiana. In1946,MagnoliaPetroleumCompany(nowpartofExxonMobil)erectedadrillingplatformin18ftof water,18milesoffthecoastofSt.MaryParish,Louisiana.[citation needed] Inearly1947SuperiorOilerectedadrilling/productionplatformin20ftofwatersome18milesoff VermilionParish,Louisiana.ButitwasKerr-McGeeOilIndustries(nowAnadarkoPetroleum Corporation),asoperatorforpartnersPhillipsPetroleum(ConocoPhillips)andStanolindOil&Gas (BP),thatcompleteditshistoricShipShoalBlock32wellinOctober1947,monthsbeforeSuperior actuallydrilledadiscoveryfromtheirVermilionplatformfartheroffshore.Inanycase,thatmadeKerrMcGee'swellthefirstoildiscoverydrilledoutofsightofland.[2][3] TheThamesSeaFortsofWorldWarIIareconsideredthedirectpredecessorsofmodernoffshore platforms.Havingbeenpre-constructedinaveryshorttime,theywerethenfloatedtotheirlocationand placedontheshallowbottomoftheThamesestuary.[4][5]

Types
Largerlake-andsea-basedoffshoreplatformsanddrillingrigsaresomeofthelargestmoveablemanmadestructuresintheworld.Thereareseveraltypesofoilplatformsandrigs:

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1,2)conventionalfixedplatforms;3)complianttower;4,5)verticallymooredtensionlegandmini -tensionlegplatform;6)Spar;7,8)Semi-submersibles;9)Floatingproduction,storage,and offloadingfacility;10)sub-seacompletionandtie-backtohostfacility.[6]

Fixed platforms
Main article: Fixed Platform Theseplatformsarebuiltonconcreteorsteellegs,orboth, anchoreddirectlyontotheseabed,supportingadeckwith spacefordrillingrigs,productionfacilitiesandcrew quarters.Suchplatformsare,byvirtueoftheirimmobility, designedforverylongtermuse(forinstancetheHibernia platform).Varioustypesofstructureareused,steeljacket, concretecaisson,floatingsteelandevenfloatingconcrete. Steeljacketsareverticalsectionsmadeoftubularsteel members,andareusuallypiledintotheseabed.Concrete caissonstructures,pioneeredbytheCondeepconcept,often havein-builtoilstorageintanksbelowtheseasurfaceand thesetankswereoftenusedasaflotationcapability, Afixedplatformbaseunderconstruction allowingthemtobebuiltclosetoshore(Norwegianfjords onaLouisianariver andScottishfirthsarepopularbecausetheyaresheltered anddeepenough)andthenfloatedtotheirfinalposition wheretheyaresunktotheseabed.Fixedplatformsareeconomicallyfeasibleforinstallationinwater depthsuptoabout1,700ft(520m).

Compliant towers
Main article: Compliant Tower Theseplatformsconsistofslenderflexibletowersandapilefoundationsupportingaconventionaldeck fordrillingandproductionoperations.Complianttowersaredesignedtosustainsignificantlateral deflectionsandforces,andaretypicallyusedinwaterdepthsrangingfrom1,500to3,000feet(460to 910m).

Semi-submersible platform

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Main article: Semi-submersible Theseplatformshavehulls(columnsandpontoons)of sufficientbuoyancytocausethestructuretofloat,butof weightsufficienttokeepthestructureupright.Semisubmersibleplatformscanbemovedfromplacetoplace; canbeballastedupordownbyalteringtheamountof floodinginbuoyancytanks;theyaregenerallyanchoredby combinationsofchain,wireropeorpolyesterrope,orboth, duringdrillingorproductionoperations,orboth,though theycanalsobekeptinplacebytheuseofdynamic positioning.Semi-submersiblescanbeusedinwaterdepths from200to10,000feet(60to3,000m).

PlatformP-51offtheBraziliancoastisa semi-submersibleplatform

Jack-up drilling rigs

Main article: Jackup rig Jack-upMobileDrillingUnits(orjack-ups),asthenamesuggests,arerigsthatcanbejackedupabove theseausinglegsthatcanbelowered,muchlikejacks.TheseMODU's-MobileOffshoreDrillingUnits aretypicallyusedinwaterdepthsupto400feet(120m),althoughsomedesignscangoto550ft(170 m)depth.Theyaredesignedtomovefromplacetoplace,andthenanchorthemselvesbydeployingthe legstotheoceanbottomusingarackandpiniongearsystemoneachleg.

Drillships
Main article: Drillship Adrillshipisamaritimevesselthathasbeenfittedwithdrillingapparatus.Itismostoftenusedfor exploratorydrillingofnewoilorgaswellsindeepwaterbutcanalsobeusedforscientificdrilling. Earlyversionswerebuiltonamodifiedtankerhull,butpurpose-builtdesignsareusedtoday.Most drillshipsareoutfittedwithadynamicpositioningsystemtomaintainpositionoverthewell.Theycan drillinwaterdepthsupto12,000ft(3,700m).[7]

Floating production systems

Main article: Floating Production Storage and Offloading ThemaintypesoffloatingproductionsystemsareFPSO(floatingproduction,storage,andoffloading system).FPSOsconsistoflargemonohullstructures,generally(butnotalways)shipshaped,equipped withprocessingfacilities.Theseplatformsaremooredtoalocationforextendedperiods,anddonot actuallydrillforoilorgas.Somevariantsoftheseapplications,calledFSO(floatingstorageand offloadingsystem)orFSU(floatingstorageunit),areusedexclusivelyforstoragepurposes,andhost verylittleprocessequipment.

Tension-leg platform
Main article: Tension-leg platform

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TLPsarefloatingplatformstetheredtotheseabedinamannerthateliminatesmostverticalmovement ofthestructure.TLPsareusedinwaterdepthsuptoabout6,000feet(2,000m).The"conventional" TLPisa4-columndesignwhichlookssimilartoasemisubmersible.Proprietaryversionsincludethe SeastarandMOSESminiTLPs;theyarerelativelylowcost,usedinwaterdepthsbetween600and 4,300feet(180and1,300m).MiniTLPscanalsobeusedasutility,satelliteorearlyproduction platformsforlargerdeepwaterdiscoveries.

Spar platforms
Main article: Spar (platform) SparsaremooredtotheseabedlikeTLPs,but whereasaTLPhasverticaltensiontethers,aspar hasmoreconventionalmooringlines.Sparshavetodatebeendesignedinthreeconfigurations:the "conventional"one-piececylindricalhull,the"truss spar"wherethemidsectioniscomposedoftruss elementsconnectingtheupperbuoyanthull(calleda hardtank)withthebottomsofttankcontaining permanentballast,andthe"cellspar"whichisbuilt frommultipleverticalcylinders.Thesparhasmore inherentstabilitythanaTLPsinceithasalarge counterweightatthebottomanddoesnotdependon themooringtoholditupright.Italsohastheability, byadjustingthemooringlinetensions(usingchainjacksattachedtothemooringlines),tomove horizontallyandtopositionitselfoverwellsatsome distancefromthemainplatformlocation.Thefirst productionsparwasKerr-McGee'sNeptune, anchoredin1,930ft(590m)intheGulfofMexico; however,spars(suchasBrentSpar)werepreviously usedasFSOs.

Devil'sTowerSparPlatform

Eni'sDevil'sTowerlocatedin5,610ft(1,710m)ofwater,intheGulfofMexico,wastheworld's deepestsparuntil2010.Theworld'sdeepestplatformiscurrentlythePerdidosparintheGulfof Mexico,floatingin2,438metersofwater.ItisoperatedbyRoyalDutchShellandwasbuiltatacostof $3billion.[8] ThefirsttrusssparswereKerr-McGee'sBoomvangandNansen.[citation needed]Thefirst(andonly)cell sparisKerr-McGee'sRedHawk.[9]

Normally unmanned installations (NUI)

Main article: Normally unmanned installation Theseinstallations(sometimescalledtoadstools)aresmallplatforms,consistingoflittlemorethana wellbay,helipadandemergencyshelter.Theyaredesignedtooperateremotelyundernormal conditions,onlytobevisitedoccasionallyforroutinemaintenanceorwellwork.

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Conductor support systems

Main article: Conductor Support Systems Theseinstallations,alsoknownassatellite platforms,aresmallunmannedplatformsconsistingoflittle morethanawellbayandasmallprocessplant.Theyaredesignedtooperateinconjunctionwithastatic productionplatformwhichisconnectedtotheplatformbyflowlinesorbyumbilicalcable,orboth.

Particularly large examples

ThePetroniusPlatformisacomplianttowerintheGulfof Mexico,whichstands2,000feet(610m)abovetheocean floor.Itisoneoftheworld'stalleststructures.[10] TheHiberniaplatformistheworld'slargest(intermsof weight)offshoreplatform,locatedontheJeanneD'Arc basin,intheAtlanticOceanoffthecoastofNewfoundland. Thisgravity base structure(GBS),whichsitsontheocean floor,is364feet(111m)highandhasstoragecapacityfor 1.3millionbarrels(210,000m3)ofcrudeoilinits278.8foot(85.0m)highcaisson.Theplatformactsasasmall concreteislandwithserratedouteredgesdesignedto withstandtheimpactofaniceberg.TheGBScontains productionstoragetanksandtheremainderofthevoidspace isfilledwithballastwiththeentirestructureweighinginat 1.2milliontons.

Maintenance and supply

Atypicaloilproductionplatformisself-sufficientinenergy A'Statfjord'Gravitybasestructureunder andwaterneeds,housingelectricalgeneration,water constructioninNorway.Almostallofthe desalinatorsandalloftheequipmentnecessarytoprocess structurewillendupsubmerged. oilandgassuchthatitcanbeeitherdelivereddirectly onshorebypipelineortoafloatingplatformortanker loadingfacility,orboth.Elementsintheoil/gasproductionprocessincludewellhead,production manifold,productionseparator,glycolprocesstodrygas,gascompressors,waterinjectionpumps, oil/gasexportmeteringandmainoillinepumps.

LargerplatformsareassistedbysmallerESVs(emergencysupportvessels)liketheBritishIolairthat aresummonedwhensomethinghasgonewrong,e.g.whenasearchandrescueoperationisrequired. Duringnormaloperations,PSVs(platformsupplyvessels)keeptheplatformsprovisionedandsupplied, andAHTSvesselscanalsosupplythem,aswellastowthemtolocationandserveasstandbyrescueand firefightingvessels.

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Crew
Essential personnel
Notallofthefollowingpersonnelarepresentoneveryplatform.Onsmallerplatforms,oneworkercan performanumberofdifferentjobs.Thefollowingalsoarenotnamesofficiallyrecognizedinthe industry: OIM(offshoreinstallationmanager)whoistheultimateauthorityduringhis/hershiftandmakes theessentialdecisionsregardingtheoperationoftheplatform; operationsteamleader(OTL); offshoreoperationsengineer(OOE)whoistheseniortechnicalauthorityontheplatform; PSTLoroperationscoordinatorformanagingcrewchanges; dynamicpositioningoperator,navigation,shiporvesselmaneuvering(MODU),stationkeeping, fireandgassystemsoperationsintheeventofincident; secondmatetomeetmanningrequirementsofflagstate,operatesfastrescuecraft,cargo operations,fireteamleader; thirdmatetomeetmanningrequirementsofflagstate,operatefastrescuecraft,cargooperations, fireteamleader; ballastcontroloperatortooperatefireandgassystems; craneoperatorstooperatethecranesforliftingcargoaroundtheplatformandbetweenboats; scaffolderstorigupscaffoldingforwhenitisrequiredforworkerstoworkatheight; coxswainstomaintainthelifeboatsandmanningthemifnecessary; controlroomoperators,especiallyFPSOorproductionplatforms; cateringcrew,includingpeopletaskedwithperformingessentialfunctionssuchascooking, laundryandcleaningtheaccommodation; productiontechstoruntheproductionplant; helicopterpilot(s)livingonsomeplatformsthathaveahelicopterbasedoffshoreandtransporting workerstootherplatformsortoshoreoncrewchanges; maintenancetechnicians(instrument,electricalormechanical).

Incidental personnel
Drillcrewwillbeonboardiftheinstallationisperformingdrillingoperations.Adrillcrewwill normallycomprise: Toolpusher Driller Roughnecks Roustabouts Companyman Mudengineer Derrickhand Geologist

Wellservicescrewwillbeonboardforwellwork.Thecrewwillnormallycomprise: Wellservicessupervisor Wirelineorcoiledtubingoperators Pumpoperator

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Drawbacks
Risks
Thenatureoftheiroperationextractionofvolatilesubstancessometimesunderextremepressureina hostileenvironmentmeansrisk;accidentsandtragediesoccurregularly.TheU.S.Minerals ManagementServicereported69offshoredeaths,1,349injuries,and858firesandexplosionson offshorerigsintheGulfofMexicofrom2001to2010.[11]InJuly1988,167peoplediedwhen OccidentalPetroleum'sPiperAlphaoffshoreproductionplatform,onthePiperfieldintheUKsectorof theNorthSea,explodedafteragasleak.TheresultinginvestigationconductedbyLordCullenand publicizedinthefirstCullenReportwashighlycriticalofanumberofareas,including,butnotlimited to,managementwithinthecompany,thedesignofthestructure,andthePermittoWorkSystem.The reportwascommissionedin1988,andwasdeliveredNovember1990.[12]Theaccidentgreatly acceleratedthepracticeofprovidinglivingaccommodationsonseparateplatforms,awayfromthose usedforextraction. However,thiswasinitselfahazardousenvironment.InMarch1980,the'flotel'(floatinghotel)platform Alexander L. KiellandcapsizedinastormintheNorthSeawiththelossof123lives.[13] In2001,Petrobras 36inBrazilexplodedandsankfivedayslater,killing11people. Giventhenumberofgrievancesandconspiracytheoriesthatinvolvetheoilbusiness,andthe importanceofgas/oilplatformstotheeconomy,platformsintheUnitedStatesarebelievedtobe potentialterroristtargets.Agenciesandmilitaryunitsresponsibleformaritimecounterterrorisminthe US(CoastGuard,NavySEALs,MarineRecon)oftentrainforplatformraids. OnApril21,2010,theDeepwater Horizonplatform,52milesoff-shoreofNewOrleans,(propertyof TransoceanandleasedtoBP)exploded,killing11people,andsanktwodayslater.Theresulting underseagusher,conservativelyestimatedtoexceed20milliongallonsasofearlyJune,2010,became theworstoilspillinUShistory,eclipsingtheExxonValdezoilspill.

Ecological effects
InBritishwaters,thecostofremovingallplatformrig structuresentirelywasestimatedin1995at1.5billion,and thecostofremovingallstructuresincludingpipelines calleda"cleansea"approachat3billion.[citation needed] IntheUnitedStates,MarineBiologistMiltonLovehas proposedthatoilplatformsofftheCaliforniacoastbe retainedasartificialreefs,insteadofbeingdismantled(at greatcost),becausehehasfoundthemtobehavensfor manyofthespeciesoffishwhichareotherwisedecliningin theregion,inthecourseof11yearsofresearch.[14]Loveis fundedmainlybygovernmentagencies,butalsoinsmall partbytheCaliforniaArtificialReefEnhancementProgram. NOAAhassaiditisconsideringthiscourseofaction,but

NOAAmapofthe3,858oilandgas platformsextantintheGulfofMexicoin 2006

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wantsmoneytostudytheeffectsoftherigsindetail.Divershavebeenusedtoassessthefish populationssurroundingtheplatforms.[15]IntheGulfofMexico,morethan200platformshavebeen similarlyconverted.[citation needed]

Deepest oil platforms

Theworld'sdeepestoilplatformisthefloatingPerdidowhichisasparplatformintheGulfofMexicoin awaterdepthof2,438metres(7,999ft). Non-floatingcomplianttowersandfixedplatforms,bywaterdepth: PetroniusPlatform,531m(1,742ft) BaldpatePlatform,502m(1,647ft) BullwinklePlatform,413m(1,355ft) PompanoPlatform,393m(1,289ft) Benguela-BelizeLobito-TombocoPlatform,390m(1,280ft) TombuaLandanaPlatform,366m(1,201ft) HarmonyPlatform,366m(1,201ft) TrollAPlatform,303m(994ft) GulfaksCPlatform,217m(712ft)

See also
NorthSeaoil Rigs-to-Reefs SAR201 TEMPSC TexasTowers USoffshoredrillingdebate Offshoreconcretestructure Offshoredrilling TheChukchiCap

References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ^OilRigsandPlatforms(http://www.solarnavigator.net/oil_rigs.htm) ^Refaccessed02-12-89bytechnicalaspectsandcoastmapping.Kerr-McGee ^ProjectRedsand(http://www.project-redsand.com/) ^ProjectRedsand(http://www.project-redsand.com/) ^11.2Azerbaijan'sOilHistoryBriefOilChronologysince1920Part2byMir-YusifMir-Babayev (http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai112_folder/112_articles/112_chronology.html) 6. ^OfficeofOceanExplorationandResearch(15December2008)."TypesofOffshoreOilandGas Structures"(http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06mexico/background/oil/media/types_600.html). NOAA Ocean Explorer: Expedition to the Deep Slope.NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration. http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06mexico/background/oil/media/types_600.html.Retrieved23 May2010. 7. ^"ChevronDrillshipaccessdate=2010-05-24"(http://www.chevron.com/news/press/release/?id=2010-0311).2010-03-11.http://www.chevron.com/news/press/release/?id=2010-03-11. 8. ^ShellstartsproductionatPerdido(http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN3123683920100331)

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9. ^"FirstCellSparaccessdate=2010-0524"(http://www.fmctechnologies.com/en/SubseaSystems/GlobalProjects/NorthAmerica/US/KMGRedHawk.aspx? tab=%7BB01D40AB-5E2F-4710-9543-19C658AF29F5%7D). http://www.fmctechnologies.com/en/SubseaSystems/GlobalProjects/NorthAmerica/US/KMGRedHawk.aspx? tab=%7BB01D40AB-5E2F-4710-9543-19C658AF29F5%7D. 10. ^"WhatistheWorld'sTallestBuilding?"(http://www.allaboutskyscrapers.com/tallest_building.htm).All About Skyscrapers.2009.http://www.allaboutskyscrapers.com/tallest_building.htm.Retrieved23May2010. 11. ^"Potentialforbigspillafteroilrigsinks"(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/36683314/ns/us_news-life/). MSNBC.2010-04-22.http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/36683314/ns/us_news-life/.Retrieved2010-06-04. 12. ^http://www.oilandgas.org.uk/issues/piperalpha/v0000864.cfm 13. ^"NorthSeaplatform collapses"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/27/newsid_2531000/2531091.stm).BBC News.1980-03-27.http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/27/newsid_2531000/2531091.stm. Retrieved2008-06-19. 14. ^PageM,DuganJ,LoveM,LenihanH.."EcologicalPerformanceandTrophicLinks:ComparisonsAmong PlatformsAndNaturalReefsForSelectedFishAndTheir Prey"(http://www.coastalresearchcenter.ucsb.edu/cmi/ecoperformance.html). http://www.coastalresearchcenter.ucsb.edu/cmi/ecoperformance.html.Retrieved2008-06-27. 15. ^SACox,CRBeaver,QRDokken,andJRRooker.(1996)."Diver-basedunderwatersurveytechniques usedtoassessfishpopulationsandfoulingcommunitydevelopmentonoffshoreoilandgasplatform structures."(http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4689).In: MA Lang, CC Baldwin (Eds.) The Diving for Science1996, "Methods and Techniques of Underwater Research".Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences(16thAnnualScientificDivingSymposium).http://archive.rubiconfoundation.org/4689.Retrieved2008-06-27.

External links
OilRigDisposal(pdf)(http://www.parliament.uk/post/pn065.pdf)PostnoteissuedbytheUK ParliamentaryOfficeofScienceandTechnology. OverviewofConventionalPlatforms(http://www.vulcanhammer.info/off/conventional.php) Pictoraltreatmentontheinstallationofplatformswhichextendfromtheseabedtotheocean surface ExploringtheFutureofOffshoreOilandGasDevelopmentinBC:LessonsfromtheAtlantic (http://www.sfu.ca/cstudies/science/oilgas.htm) OffshoreOilDrillingNews(http://www.offshore-mag.com/drillingandcompletion/)OffshoreOil DrillingNews OilRigDisasters(http://www.oilrigdisasters.co.uk)ListingofOilRigAccidents OilRigPhotos(http://www.oilrig-photos.com)CollectionofpicturesofDrillingRigsand ProductionPlatforms AnindependentreviewofOffshorePlatformsintheNorthSea (http://www.divinglore.com/Offshore_Platforms.htm) TheMaureenAlphaStory(http://www.maureenalpha.eu) Novelconcepttouseoff-shoreoilplatformsforfreshwaterproduction (http://www.spacewx.com/SpaceWater.html) TouringtheHermosaOilPlatformoffthecoastofLompoc,California(http://semicultured.com/? q=node/111) SailingaroundoffshoreCaliforniaoilrigs(http://www.sailingthedream.com/oil.html) Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_platform" Categories:Oilplatforms|Structuralengineering|Offshoreengineering|Petroleumproduction Thispagewaslastmodifiedon13January2011at20:03.

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TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution-ShareAlikeLicense;additionalterms mayapply.SeeTermsofUsefordetails. WikipediaisaregisteredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anon-profit organization.

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