Dual high-strength steel eccentrically braced frames with removable links

D. Dubina*; A. Stratan; F. Dinu

Department of Steel Structures and Structural Mechanics, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Politehnica University of Timisoara, str. Ioan Curea nr. 1, 300224 Timisoara, Romania

Abstract Structural damage in buildings designed according to the dissipative design philosophy can be significant, even under moderate earthquakes. Repair of damaged members is an expensive operation and may affect building use, which in turn increases the overall economic loss. If damage can be isolated to certain dissipative members realised to be removable following an earthquake, the repair costs and time of interruption of building use can be reduced. Dual structural configurations, composed of a rigid subsystem with removable ductile elements and a flexible subsystem, are shown to be appropriate for the application of removable dissipative element concept. Eccentrically braced frames with removable links connected to the beams using flush-end plate bolted connections are investigated as a practical way of implementing this design concept. High strength steel is used for members outside links in order to enhance global seismic performance of the structure, by constraining plastic deformations to removable links and reducing permanent drifts of the structure. Keywords dual configuration, high strength steel, eccentrically braced frames, removable bolted links, seismic performance 1. Introduction The present paper investigates seismic performance of eccentrically braced frames with removable links with flush end-plate bolted connections. The objective is to avoid inelastic deformations in structural elements outside links and to allow easy repair of structural damage experienced during a seismic event. Bolted extended end-plate connections for eccentrically braced frames with link-column connection configuration were previously investigated experimentally by Ghobarah and Ramadan, 1994 [1]. Their inelastic performance was found to be similar to fully-welded connections. Balut and Gioncu, 2003 [2] suggested two replaceable solutions for links in eccentrically braced frames: one using an I-beam extended end-plate bolted connection, and another one consisting of two channels bolted using high-strength friction-grip bolts to the beam. Recently, Mansour et al., 2006 [3] investigated experimentally replaceable shear links composed of two bolted back-to-back channels. The links exhibited a ductile behaviour, with stable hysteretic response, but the connections were found to be critical in the design of removable links. Links in eccentrically braced frames can be realized as horizontal ones, part of the beam, or as a vertical segment connecting the beam to the braces. The latter approach is especially suited for strengthening of existing structures. Gobarah and Abou Elfath (2001) [4] studied seismic performance of a low-rise nonductile reinforced concrete

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +40 256 403 920 E-mail address: dan.dubina@ct.upt.ro (Dan Dubina)

building rehabilitated using eccentric steel bracing. Authors concluded that seismic performance of nonductile reinforced concrete buildings strengthened with eccentric braces is expected to be higher than that of concentric bracing. Distribution of eccentric brace over the height of the building was found to have a significant effect on characteristics of the developed plastic mechanism under seismic loading. A low cost shear panel device (vertical link) for rehabilitation of steel moment resisting frames was investigated at the European Laboratory for Structural Assessment (ELSA) by Schmidt et al. (2004) [5]. Though the device was intended to be replaceable (bolted), it was welded in the final test configuration. Authors showed that rehabilitation solution provided a drastic reduction in displacements and linear behaviour of the conventional structure, with a minimum of structural changes. D'aniello et al., 2006 [6] studied experimentally and numerically eccentrically braced frames with detachable vertical links for seismic upgrading of reinforced concrete buildings. They concluded that bolted connection of short link represents the key role in determining the system ductility, and that considered link cross-sections showed large overstrength values. Particularly, with reference to the ductility and overstrength capacity of short links, the results obtained by Dusicka et al. 2004 [7] and Okazaki et al., 2004 [8] are mentioned. 2. Removable link concept According to modern seismic design codes (e.g. EN 1998 [9], AISC 2005 [10]), design of buildings is carried out for two limit states: Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and Serviceability Limit State (SLS). Two earthquake hazard levels are associated with the ULS and SLS and are expressed through the return period of the seismic event. The seismic event associated to ULS is a rare one (return period of 475 years in EN 1998), while the one associated to SLS is more frequent (approximately accounted for in EN 1998 by a factor =0.4-0.5 with respect to the ULS event). For ordinary occupancy buildings, the fundamental requirement at the ULS is to assure life safety of people by avoiding local or global collapse of the structure [9]. In the design of dissipative structures the behaviour factor q is used to reduce the elastic response spectrum to the design one. The components that contribute to the value of the behaviour factor q are related to structural ductility, redundancy and overstrength. Large values of q factor are specified in codes for ductile structures like moment resisting frames or eccentrically braced frames. Structures designed using large values of behaviour factor q are expected to experience considerable damage under the design seismic event, making repair of such structures unfeasible technically and economically. The primary requirement at the SLS is prevention of damage that may result in limitation of use. Acceptance of SLS requirements is accomplished in codes by imposing limits on interstorey drifts, related to type of non-structural elements (brittle or ductile). Considering that drift limits are not related to the structural typology, SLS criteria do not prevent damage (plastic deformations) of structural elements. When considerable structural damage is experienced under a moderate earthquake event, repair of damaged elements is necessary, which may result in high economic losses due to interruption of use, costs of repair, etc. A bolted connection between dissipative zone and the rest of the structure would allow replacement of the dissipative elements damaged as a result of a moderate to strong earthquake, reducing the repair costs. Application of this principle to eccentrically braced frames, where links act as dissipative zones, is presented in Figure 1. The connection of the link to the beam is realized by a flush end-plate and high-strength 2

friction grip bolts. In order to isolate inelastic deformations in removable dissipative elements only, these elements may be realised using lower yield steel.

Figure 1. Bolted link concept Recent research by Dubina et al. [11], suggested that a similar effect can be obtained by using High Strength Steel (HSS) in non-dissipative elements. For a system containing removable dissipative elements to be efficient, it must fulfil to requirements. The first one consists in isolating inelastic to removable elements only, assuring an easy repair of the damaged structure. Capacity design rules incorporated in modern design codes can be used in order to attain this objective. The second requirement is related to the possibility to replace damaged dissipative elements that can be difficult to realise if the structure has experienced large permanent deformations. Several researchers (Akiyama, 1999 [12]; Iyama & Kuwamura, 1999 [13]; Astaneh-Asl 2001 [14]) investigated seismic performance of dual systems, consisting of rigid and flexible subsystems. According to these studies, the potential benefits of dual structural configurations may be summarised as follows: Efficient earthquake resistance due to prevention of excessive development of drifts in the flexible subsystem, and dissipation of seismic energy in the rigid subsystem by plastic deformations. Alternative load path to seismic loading provided by the secondary subsystem (the flexible one) in the case of failure of the primary subsystem (the rigid one) In order to analyse the factors controlling the two requirements for structures with removable dissipative elements (isolation of damage and limitation of permanent drifts), it is useful to consider a simple dual system consisting of two inelastic springs connected in parallel [15] (see Figure 2a).
F Fyf +Fyr Kf , Fyf Fyr+Kf xyr Fyr Fyf F Kr, Fyr yr yf pD pr Kr Kf K Kf plr F Fyf +Fyr

Fyr Fyf

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2. Simplified model of a generalized dual system

Provided that the flexible subsystem is not very weak, plastic deformations appear first in the rigid subsystem. Therefore, an efficient dual system must be realised by combining a rigid and ductile subsystem, with a flexible subsystem. In order to maximize system performance, plastic deformations in the flexible subsystem should be avoided. At the limit, when the yield force Fyf and yield displacement yf are attained in the flexible subsystem, the rigid subsystem experiences the yield force Fyr and the total displacement yr + plr (see Figure 2b). Equating the two displacements: yf = yr + plr (1) and considering the relationship between force and deformation: F = k it can be shown that + plr yf Fyf K yr D = yr = = yr yr Fyr K yf
(2) (3)

The notation D represents the "useful" ductility of the rigid subsystem, for which the flexible subsystem still responds in the elastic range. It can be observed that there are two factors that need to be considered in order to obtain a ductile dual system with plastic deformations isolated in the rigid subsystem alone. The first one is the ratio between the yield strength of the flexible and rigid subsystems (Fyf/Fyr), while the second one is the ratio between the stiffness of the rigid subsystem and the one of the flexible subsystem. The larger are these two factors, the larger is the "useful" ductility D of the dual system. The second objective, of limitation of permanent deformations, is not easily attainable. Though the dual configuration is results in smaller permanent drifts pD in comparison with permanent deformations of the rigid system alone pr (see Figure 2c), they are not eliminated completely after unloading. However, permanent deformations can be eliminated if the rigid subsystem is realised to be removable. Once it is replaced after the system experienced inelastic deformations, the flexible subsystem alone provides the necessary stiffness and strength to the system. If the flexible subsystem is still in the elastic range, it will return the system to the initial position, implying zero permanent deformations. Considering the above, practical implementation of the concept of removable dissipative elements and dual systems can be obtained by combining eccentrically braced frames with removable links (the rigid subsystem) and moment-resisting frames (flexible subsystem). In the following, an experimental investigation on removable links is first presented, followed by a numerical analysis of seismic performance of frames realised using these concepts. 3. Experimental investigation on bolted links 3.1. Experimental program An experimental program was carried out to determine cyclic performance of bolted links and to check the feasibility of the removable link solution [16]. Link, beam, and brace cross-sections of the experimental model were determined by designing an eccentrically braced frame with 3x3 spans and five storeys (see Figure 1). Span dimensions were 5 m, while storey height was 3.5 m, except the first one, equal to 4 m. The eccentrically braced frame was designed according to EN 1993 [17] and EN 1998 (1994) [9]. Dead load on the floors amounted to 4.75 kN/m2, exterior cladding was considered of 1.70 kN/m2, while live load was 3.0 kN/m2. Seismic design parameters 4

were: 0.35g peak ground acceleration, stiff soil conditions (class A), a behaviour factor q = 5.5, and interstorey drift limitation of 0.006 of the storey height. A short link (e = 400 mm) whose behaviour is governed by shear only was considered. Capacity design according to EN 1998 governed dimensioning of non-dissipative members. HEB260 S355 columns, IPE330 S355 beams in the outer bays, IPE240 S235 links and beams in the middle bay, and RHS 120x120x(7.1-12.5) S235 were obtained. In the experimental model, the removable link was fabricated from IPE240 profile of S235 grade steel, while the rest of elements from S355 grade steel. Four link lengths were considered (e = 300, 400, 500 and 600 mm), to study the influence of moment to shear force ratio. All links were classified as short ones according to AISC 2005 [10].

support

actuator link

Figure 3. Experimental set-up for removable bolted links Another parameter considered was the spacing of web stiffeners, provided to prevent web buckling and to improve rotation capacity of the link. Two limit values of stiffener spacing were considered according AISC 2005 [10]: "close" spacing - 30tw-h/5, specified for a rotation capacity 0.08 rad, and "rare" spacing - 52tw-h/5, specified for 0.02 rad rotation capacity. For each combination of link length and stiffener spacing, three specimens were tested: one monotonically and two cyclically, following the complete ECCS 1985 [18] procedure. Bolts were preloaded to 100% of the full preload value for friction-grip bolts in the case of the monotonically loaded (m) and the first of the cyclically loaded (c1) specimens, and 50% for the second cyclically loaded specimen (c2). A total of 24 specimens were thus obtained, see Table 1. Table 1. Overview of experimental program on removable links link length e = 600 mm e = 500 mm e = 400 mm e = 300 mm stiffeners rare close rare close rare close rare close monotonic loading LL7-m LH7-m LL6-m LH6-m LL5-m LH5-m LL4-m LH4-m (100% bolt preload) cyclic loading (100% LL7-c1 LH7-c1 LL6-c1 LH6-c1 LL5-c1 LH5-c1 LL4-c1 LH4-c1 bolt preload) cyclic loading (50% LL7-c2 LH7-c2 LL6-c2 LH6-c2 LL5-c2 LH5-c2 LL4-c2 LH4-c2 bolt preload) The yield force Vy and displacement Dy, were determined from the force-displacement curve of the monotonic specimen with rare stiffeners, according to [18], as the 5

intersection of the initial stiffness line and the tangent to the shear force - link displacement curve having 10% of the initial stiffness. Yield displacement was used to apply cyclic loading to the specimens of the same length. The cyclic tests consisted of four cycles in the elastic range (0.25Dy, 0.5Dy, 0.75Dy and 1.0Dy), followed by groups of three cycles at amplitudes multiple of 2Dy (3x2Dy, 3x4Dy, 3x6Dy, etc.) The loading was applied quasi-statically, in displacement control. Previous experimental research by Dubina et al. [19] on extended end-plate beamcolumn joints in moment resisting frames showed a series of problems that undermined their cyclic performance: (1) fillet welds are inappropriate in the case of cyclic loading; (2) full-penetration 1/2V weld with the root at the exterior part of the beam crosssection promotes fragile ruptures, due to cracks initiated at weld root; (3) weld-access hole acts as a stress concentrator, causing brittle ruptures of the beam flange. Welding details used for the link to end plate connection were chosen so as to prevent the causes of poor performance mentioned above. Thus, link flange was welded to the end plate with a full-penetration 1/2V weld, realised from the exterior part of the cross-section (weld root at the interior); the weld access hole was eliminated completely, and reinforcing fillet weld was applied at the interior part of the flanges and on the web. 3.2. Design of connections Bolted connection between the link element and the beam is located in a zone of high stresses. There are two possible strategies for connection design. The first one is to provide a sufficient overstrength of the connection over the link shear resistance. The second one is to assure a ductile behaviour of the bolted connection itself. The former strategy was followed in this case, as it facilitates replacement of damaged link elements. Capacity design of the connection involves assessment of yield strength of the dissipative element (link plastic shear resistance) and its overstrength, accounting for strain hardening and the possibility of the actual yield strength of link material larger than the nominal one. Previous experimental research by Kasai and Popov [20], indicated link ultimate shear resistance about 1.5 times the plastic shear resistance. Commentaries to AISC 2005 [10] mention overstrength factors between 1.2 and 2.0 based on past experimental investigations. A relatively conservative estimation of maximum shear force was adopted in this study, by adopting an overall overstrength factor equal to 1.75:
Vmax = 1.75 Vy = ( h 2 t f ) tw f y / 3
M max = Vmax e 2

(4) (5)

Maximum moment for connection design was determined as: Design of connections to the forces determined according to equations (4) and (5) was based on EN 1993 [17]. M20 grade 10.9 high-strength bolts were used. In order to prevent excessive deformations of the end plate, a 25 mm thick plate was chosen so as to provide a mode 3 (bolts in tension) failure mode of the equivalent T-stub. A linear distribution of bolt forces was then assumed, and the bolts checked for tension, shear, combined tension and shear resistance. Demand to capacity ratio for combined tension and shear ranged from 0.7 for the LH4 and LL4 specimens to 0.98 for the LH7 and LL7 specimens. Additionally, connection slip resistance was checked.

3.3. Behaviour of specimens The instrumentation consisted of the actuator load cell, and a series of displacement transducers used to measure both absolute and relative displacements. Response of removable link elements was characterised by shear force V - shear distortion angle . For classical links, the distortion is determined as the difference of end displacements DT divided to the link length [21]. With the notations from Figure 4, is expressed as: = DT / e (6) Assuming that the edges of the panel bounding the link remain straight after deformation, the same angle may be determined from the deformations of the diagonals (DD1 and DD2) (see Figure 5):
=
a 2 + e 2 ( DD 2 DD1) 2ae
2 DD d+

(7)

d+D

D1
-1

DT

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 4. Deformation of a classical link (a), idealisation of the panel zone (b) and its deformation (c) Values of angle determined according to relationships (6) and (7) have close values in the case of classical links. However, in the case of removable bolted links, the behaviour of the link is more complex, and angle determined from relationships (6) and (7) will be different. Total link deformation is given by the sum of: (1) shear distortion of the link panel - , (2) rotation in the two connections M=S+j, and (3) slip in the connections, characterised by an equivalent rotation AL=(DALS+DALJ)/e, and can be expressed as: T = + M + AL (8) It can be directly obtained from the total displacement DT: T = DT e (9)


DALS

DT

(a)

(b)

Figure 5. Deformation of a bolted link (a) and its idealization (b) Instrumentation permitted both direct determination of characteristic deformations according to (9), and indirect one according (8), using the component deformations. A satisfactory correlation was observed between the two methods. Strength characteristics obtained from nominal and measured geometry and strength are presented in Table 2. Account was taken of the different flange and web yield strength in determining the link plastic moment: M y = Wpl , w f y , w + Wpl * f y , f . Table 2. Yield and maximum forces evaluated from nominal and measured characteristics
specimen nominal Wpl, cm3 366.6 Wplw, cm3 75.29 Wpl*, cm3 291.31 V y, kN 185.4 185.4 185.4 185.4 266.7 266.7 266.7 266.7 My, kNm 86.2 86.2 86.2 86.2 103.5 103.5 103.5 103.5 1.6My/Vy, mm 743 743 743 743 621 621 621 621 Vmax, kN 278.1 278.1 278.1 278.1 400.1 400.1 400.1 400.1 Mmax, kNm 83.4 69.5 55.6 41.7 120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0

LH7, LL7 LH6, 366.6 75.29 291.31 LL6 LH5, 366.6 75.29 291.31 LL5 LH4, 366.6 75.29 291.31 LL4 measured LH7, 366.6 75.43 291.2 LL7 LH6, 366.6 75.43 291.2 LL6 LH5, 366.6 75.43 291.2 LL5 LH4, 366.6 75.43 291.2 LL4 note: Mmax determined according to equation (5)

Measured mechanical characteristics of steel showed higher increase of plastic shear force in comparison with plastic moment, which caused a decrease of the 1.6My/Vy limit. Even so, the links are classified as short. At the same time, maximum shear force and moment used for connection design are considerably higher than the initial estimates based on nominal characteristics. Connection strength was checked using estimates of maximum forces determined from measured geometrical and mechanical characteristics, considering a partial safety factor Mb=1.0 for the connection. Results indicated that the 8

DALJ

connection should have responded in the elastic range, though with little reserve for the longer LL7 and LH7 specimens. However, at large displacements, both bolt failures and end-plate deformations were observed during the tests. Two types of bolt failures were observed: (1) by thread stripping, which results in a ductile response (dominant in this experimental program), and (2) by fracture in bolt shank, which results in a brittle response. Bolted connections had important contributions to the overall link response and in general did not showed an elastic response. Connection suffered important degradations at the LL7 and LH7 specimens, and caused a pronounced pinching effect with a reduced energy dissipation capacity (see Figure 6). Element degradation started by bending of the end plate and bolt thread stripping, followed by local buckling of link flanges and web. Closer stiffener spacing had as main effect isolation of local flange and web buckling in outer web panels. Failure was attained by complete degradation of bolt threads.
400 200
V, kN

LL7c1

400 200
V, kN

LH7c1

0 200 400

0 200 400

0.2

0.1

0 0.1 , rad
T

0.2

0.2

0.1

0 0.1 , rad
T

0.2

Figure 6. Force-total deformation relationship V-T for specimens LL7-c1 and LH7-c1
400 200
V, kN

LL4c1

400 200
V, kN

LH4c1

0 200 400 web breathing 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 , rad

T

0 200 400

0.2

0.2

0.1

0 0.1 , rad
T

0.2

Figure 7. Force-total deformation relationship V-T for specimens LL4-c1 and LH4-c1 Smaller length of LL6 and LH6 specimens reduced the damage to connections and the pinching behaviour. Failure was attained by complete damage to bolts (see Figure 8a), but also by web cracking after repeated plastic web buckling in the case of LL6-c2 specimen, with rare stiffeners. Starting with LL5 and LH5 specimens, connections were characterised by a more stable response, plastic web buckling being more important and preceding the one of the flanges. Failure of LL5-c1 and LL5-c2 specimens, with rare stiffeners, was attained by 9

tearing of the web on three edges, at the cracks initiated in the base metal at the webstiffener and web-end plate welds. Closer stiffener spacing in the case of LH5-c1 and LH5-c2 specimens reduced web tearing due to severe and repeated buckling (but did not eliminate it completely) and failure was attained by damage of the connection. Response of specimens from the LL4 and LH4 series was dominated by web shear. Connection had a quasi-elastic response. Flange buckling was observed only after important web buckling. Hysteretic response was characterized by "full" cycles with high energy dissipation capacity (see Figure 7). Due to higher web slenderness of the LL4-c1 and LL4-c2 specimens, web buckling was marked, and plastic web "breathing" was observed, as web buckling wave was changing direction at reversals of load direction (figure 7). Repeated buckling lead to web tearing along the diagonals (see figure 8b). Close spacing of stiffeners at the LH4-c1 and LH4-c2 specimens prevented this phenomenon, failure initiating through web tearing along the stiffener weld, which extended on three edges of the web.

(a)

(b)

Figure 8. Failure by connection degradation at the LH6-c2 specimen (a); plastic web buckling at the LL4-c1 specimen (b) 3.4. Comparative analysis of results Elastic response of links was characterised by the total initial stiffness KT, determined from V-T relationship, as well as shear stiffness of the web K, stiffness of connections KJ and KS, determined from M-J, and M-S relationships (Table 3). Table 3. Yield Vy and maximum Vmax shear forces
parameter Vyth, kN Vy, kN Vmaxth, kN Vmax, kN specimen m c1 c2 m c1 LL7 228.0 234.8 216.5 304.9 296.9 LL6 209.0 218.3 216.9 333.3 308.4 LL5 189.5 245.0 175.4 348.1 343.3 LL4 LH7 266.7* 191.0 201.6 174.4 227.4 223.7 211.1 400.1** 388.3 270.1 360.9 305.2 LH6 217.8 212.9 222.2 307.5 318.5 LH5 198.2 229.6 231.5 352.5 364.1 LH4 201.5 236.6 249.0 420.6 400.6

10

c2 289.6 313.9 355.7 362.5 301.6 324.4 364.0 note: average of positive and negative values presented for specimens c1 and c2 * plastic shear resistance based on measured geometry and yield strength ** Vmaxth=1.5Vyth

402.9

Initial shear stiffness of the link (K) was in good correlation with the theoretical one (Kth=GAs), and not influenced much by the different considered test parameters. There was an important scatter in experimental values of connection rotational stiffness. Full preloading increased the stiffness of connection by approximately 50%. Upper connection resulted more flexible in comparison with the lower connection. Unsymmetrical distribution of moments and lack of fit at the upper connection may be attributed to this behaviour. Reduction of total initial stiffness of the bolted link in comparison with the classical solution is important, as a result of both the semi-rigid end-plate, and slip in the connection. Therefore, either explicit modelling of the semirigid connection behaviour, or consideration of equivalent link stiffness is necessary for global analysis of frames with bolted links. Connection slip was defined when relative displacement between the end plates of a connection exceeded 0.15 mm, according to C133/82 [10]. According to this criterion, with the exception of the first tested LL7-m, all other specimens experienced slip during the test. Connection slip was larger in the case of cyclic loading and partial preload of bolts. Yield force determined from V-DT relationship was not influenced by the test parameters and was controlled by shear response of the web. Lower experimental values (see Table 3) are partially explained by the procedure used to determine yield force, according to [18], which underestimates it for high initial stiffness. On the other hand, experimental maximum force presents an increase from the longer to the shorter links (effect of connection strength) and is higher for closer stiffeners (prevention of web plastic buckling). The maximum moment determined from equation (5) was lower than the theoretical one used to design the connections. Poor performance of connections could be explained by the fact that vertical displacement in the experimental set-up was constrained, which generated supplementary tension in the connections at large displacements. Following the experimental observations in this study, in order to reduce damage in bolted connections, it is recommended to limit the length of bolted links to e 0.8 M y Vy , which corresponds to links LL4 and LH4. Ultimate link displacement DTu, representing the stable hysteretic response is presented in Table 4. Table 4. Ultimate displacement DTu and corresponding deformationTu
DTu, mm specimen m c1 c2 m c1 c2 LL7 93.0 58.1 55.4 0.155 0.097 0.092 LL6 136.6 64.4 66.3 0.273 0.129 0.133 LL5 144.2 42.3 62.5 0.360 0.106 0.156 LL4 118.4 30.4 33.5 0.395 0.101 0.112 LH7 140.8 68.4 65.5 0.235 0.114 0.109 LH6 138.8 71.7 68.2 0.278 0.143 0.136 LH5 137.9 58.6 72.8 0.345 0.147 0.182 LH4 125.9 37.8 37.6 0.420 0.126 0.125

Tu

note: minimum of positive and negative values presented for c1 and c2 specimens

11

Cyclic loading reduced by 40% to 70% plastic deformation capacity, with the maximum reduction for short links. Ultimate displacements were slightly lower in the case of short links in comparison with longer ones. However, in terms of deformations (Tu), rotation capacity is larger in the case of shorter links, with the exception of LL4 and LH4 specimens. With the exception of longer links with rare stiffeners (LL7), specimens showed a stable deformation capacity of at least 0.1 rad, with a number of 16 to 22 cycles in the plastic range. Bolt preloading did not affect rotation capacity, while closer spacing of stiffeners improved link deformation capacity. Behaviour of long specimens was much influenced by the response of the bolted connection, characterized by a gradual reduction of strength due to bolt thread stripping, and a pinching cyclic response. The latter effect reduced the energy dissipated in the group of cycles of constant amplitude. Full bolt preloading reduced partially this effect. Response of short specimens was controlled by the shear of the link web, characterized by important hardening and energy dissipation capacity, but a more rapid degradation of strength after web tearing. Stiffener spacing had maximum importance for short links. Their effect was to limit plastic local buckling of the web, increasing the maximum force and deformation capacity, and providing a more stable cyclic response. However, after the attainment of ultimate deformation, failure of LH4 specimens was more rapid in comparison with LL4 specimens. Distribution of ductility demands between end pate and link web resulted in improved overall deformation capacity in comparison with "pure" failure modes, determined by concentration of plastic deformations in connection or web alone. This effect is characteristic of intermediate length specimens LL6-LL5 and LH6-LH5. However, it may be difficult to control this response in practice, due to variability of mechanical steel characteristics. Experimental tests demonstrated excellent plastic deformation capacities under cyclic loading and ductile failure modes (ultimate shear deformation of 0.11-0.13 rad). In order to limit damage to the connections, shorter links are recommended. There are several sources of link deformation: shear deformation, bending deformation, end plate rotation and progressive slip in bolted connection. The most convenient way to account for these effects is by considering equivalent link stiffness. The average stiffness of bolted links was of the order of 25% of the theoretical shear deformation of a conventional continuous link. 4. Evaluation of performance of EBFs with removable links 4.1. Design and modelling In order to assess seismic performance of eccentrically braced frames with removable links, a medium rise structure was investigated as a case study. The building has 3x3 bays of 6 m each, and 8 storeys (see Figure 9).

12

A HE 0 22

A HE 0 22

IPE400 HEB300 HEB300

IPE400

IPE400 HEB300 HEB300

IPE400 HEB300

IPE400

IPE400 HEB300

HEB300

(a) (b) (c) Figure 9. Structural layout: (a) plan view; (b) elevation of B and R structures; (c) elevation of R46 structure All storeys are 3.5 m, except the first one, which equals 4.5 m. The design was carried out according to EN 1993 [17], EN 1998 (2004) [9] and P100-1/2006 [23] (Romanian seismic design code, aligned to EN 1998). A 4 kN/m2 dead load on the typical floor and 3.5 kN/m2 for the roof were considered, while the live load amounted 2.0 kN/m2. The building location was considered as Bucharest, characterised by 0.24g design peak ground acceleration and soft soil conditions with control period TC=1.6 s. A behaviour factor q=6, and interstorey drift limitation of 0.008 of the storey height were considered in design. In assessing the potential benefits of using High Strength Steel (HSS), different steel grades were used for members. The reference structure, denoted as B, used mild carbon steel (grade S235) for all members, except the central columns of the first two storeys, which are HSS steel (grade S460), see Figure 9b. A conventional link (i.e. part of the beam) was used in the B structure. In order to assess the influence of reduced stiffness of bolted links, a new structure (denoted by R) was considered. Based on experimental tests, an equivalent stiffness of 0.25 of the theoretical shear stiffness of continuous links was considered for bolted links. In order to reduce inelastic deformations in members outside links, higher steel grade was used in these members. This structure was denoted by R46, and used S460 steel grade in beams and columns of the moment-resisting bays, see Figure 9c. The period of the fundamental mode of vibration of the B structure amounted to 1.05 seconds, while for the R and R46 structures it was 1.13 seconds. Beams, columns and braces were modelled with fibre hinge beam-column elements, with plastic hinges located at the element ends. Nominal steel characteristics were used. Elastic-perfectly plastic behaviour was assumed, without strength and stiffness degradation. The inelastic shear link element model was based on the one proposed by Ricles and Popov [24]. As the original model consisted in four linear branches, it was adapted to the trilinear envelope curve available in Drain-3dx. 4.2. Ground motion records A set of seven ground motions were used. Spectral characteristics of the ground motions were modified by scaling Fourier amplitudes to match the target elastic spectrum from P100-1/2006 [23], see Figure 10.

HEB300

40 A2 HE

40 A2 HE

13

10
Spectral Acceleration, m/s2

8 6 4 2 0
VR77INCNS VR86EREN10W VR86INCNS VR86MAGNS VR90ARMS3E VR90INCNS VR90MAGNS elastic spectrum P1001/2006

2 T, s

Figure 10. Elastic response spectra of semiartificial records and P100-1/2006 elastic spectrum. This results in a group of semiartificial records representative to the seismic source affecting the building site and soft soil conditions in Bucharest. The procedure was based on the SIMQKE-1 program [25]. 4.3. Analysis procedure and results In order to assess structural performance, nonlinear static and dynamic analyses were performed. Three performance levels were considered: serviceability limit state (SLS), ultimate limit state (ULS), and collapse prevention (CPLS) limit state. Intensity of earthquake action at the ULS was equal to the design one (intensity factor = 1.0). Ground motion intensity at the SLS was reduced to = 0.5 (according to = 0.5 in EN 1998 [17]), while for the CPLS limit state was increased to = 1.5 (according to FEMA 356 [26]). Based on experimental results and FEMA 356 provisions, ultimate link deformations at ULS and CPLS were u=0.11 rad and u=0.14 rad, respectively. Pushover curves for the B, R and R46 structures are shown in Figure 11.
0.6
B

0.4
V/W

R R46 1st yield link

0.2

1st yield link u

0.01 /H

0.02

0.03

Figure 11. Pushover curves (normalised base shear vs. normalised top displacement) for the B, R and R46 structures 14

In comparison with the conventional structure B, the ones using removable links (R and R46) are characterised by slightly reduced initial stiffness. However, base shear force at the first yield in links is similar for the three structures, implying similar design strength under seismic action. Global capacity of the R structure (with removable links) is reduced in comparison with the B structure, but the R46 structure, that uses removable links and HSS in moment-resisting bays, is characterised by a larger global strength. Another advantage of HSS (R46 structure) is that elements outside links yield under larger lateral deformations than the B and R structure. ULS criteria are the deformation capacity u of member. In all cases, the critical elements were links. Results of the Incremental Dynamic Analysis (IDA) are synthetically presented in Figure 12, in terms of maximum transient Interstorey Drift Ratio (IDR) and maximum permanent IDR. The conventional structure (B) performs slightly better than the structures with removable links (R and R46). However, it can be observed that all three structures (B, R and R46) have adequate performance at the SLS (=0.5), ULS (=1.0) and CPLS (=1.5) limit states. There are no substantial differences between the two structures with removable links (R and R46) in terms of maximum IDR (at SLS) and maximum plastic deformation demands (at ULS and CPLS), see Figure 12a. The benefit of HSS for the structure with removable links (R46) is clearly identified in Figure 12b, giving the lowest values of permanent drifts up to intensity factors of = 1.0-1.2. Low permanent drifts allow easier replacement of damaged removable links.
2 1.5 1 0.5 0
B R R46 SLS ULS CPLS

2 1.5 1 0.5 0
B R R46

0.01 0.02 0.03 Max. trans. IDR, rad

0.04

0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 Max. perm. IDR, rad

0.01

(a) (b) Figure 12. IDA curves: maximum (a) and permanent (b) drift vs. acceleration multiplier, average of all records As it was presented earlier, structures designed using the dissipative approach, may experience structural damage even under moderate (SLS) earthquake. This can be seen in Figure 13, where plastic deformation demands in members are represented.

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B, =0.5

R, =0.5

R46, =0.5

max=0.026
max

=0.034

max

=0.034

Figure 13. Plastic deformation demands in members at SLS ( = 0.5) for the B, R and R46 structures, average of all records Plastic deformations in links (ranging between 0.026 rad and 0.034 rad) indicate a moderate damage to the structures at SLS. Plastic deformations in elements outside links (beams, columns, and braces) are negligible for the B and R structures, and are completely avoided for the R46 structure. Maximum plastic deformation demands in members at SLS, ULS and CPLS are presented in Table 5. The behaviour of the structures with removable links is improved when HSS is used in the moment-resisting bays, this structure showing lower plastic deformation demands in elements outside links. Smaller plastic deformations are directly related to smaller permanent drifts.

Table 5. Plastic deformation demands in members at SLS ( = 0.5), ULS ( = 1.0) and CPLS ( = 1.5) for the B, R and R46 structures, average of all records
links B 0.027 0.068 0.105 R 0.036 0.092 0.139 R46 0.036 0.092 0.145 beams B 0.002 0.010 0.017 R 0.003 0.014 0.022 R46 0.004 0.014 columns B 0.005 0.011 R 0.001 0.007 0.014 R46 0.002 0.008

SLS ULS CPLS

5.

Conclusions Structural systems with removable dissipative elements are convenient when repair of structural damage following an earthquake is considered. The main requirements related to an efficient system with removable dissipative elements are: (1) isolation of plastic deformations in removable dissipative elements and (2) limitation of permanent deformations. Considering these requirements, dual configurations, realised by a combination of a rigid subsystem (with removable ductile elements) and a flexible subsystem, were shown to represent a convenient arrangement. Eccentrically braced frames with removable links combined with moment-resisting frames were considered as a practical application. Seismic performance of removable links with flush-end plate connections were investigated experimentally, proving the technological feasibility of the solution. Performance of short removable links and possibility to be easily replaced makes them attractive for dual eccentrically braced frames. Very short links, which assure an elastic behaviour of the connection are preferred, due to their easier replacement. 16

Concentration of damage in the removable link (performing like passive energy dissipation devices) may be accomplished by the capacity design principles, including fabrication of the link from a steel with lower yield strength in comparison with rest of the structure. Experimental investigation indicated a significant reduction of stiffness of bolted links in comparison with conventional links. Structures with removable links showed larger interstorey drift and inelastic deformation demands than structures with conventional links. However, seismic performance was adequate under serviceability, ultimate and collapse prevention limit states. Dual steel structures in which high strength steel is used in moment-resisting bays of eccentrically braced frames with removable links are characterised by reduced inelastic deformation demands in members outside links and lower permanent interstorey drifts. In these conditions, the dissipative behaviour of structures can be better controlled by design. Moreover, interventions for repair of the structure affected by a moderate to strong earthquake are limited to replacing the bolted links. 6. Acknowledgements Support of the Romanian Ministry of Research and Education through the CEEXMATNANTECH grant 29/2005 "Structural Systems and Advanced Technologies for Structures from High-Performance Steels for Buildings Located in High Seismicity Areas - STOPRISC" and CEEX-ET grant 1434/2005 "Dual steel structures with removable dissipative elements for buildings located in seismic areas" is gratefully acknowledged. 7. References [1] Ghobarah, A. and Ramadan, T. 1994. Bolted link-column joints in eccentrically braced frames. Engineering Structures, Vol.16 No.1: 33-41. [2] Balut, N. and Gioncu, V. (2003). Suggestion for an improved 'dog-bone' solution. STESSA 2003, Proc. of the Conf. on Behaviour of Steel Structures in Seismic Areas, 9-12 June 2003, Naples, Italy, Mazzolani (ed.), A.A. Balkema Publishers, p. 129-134. [3] Mansour, N., Christopoulos, C., Tremblay, R. (2006). Seismic design of EBF steel frames using replaceable nonlinear links. STESSA 2006 Mazzolani & Wada (eds), Taylor & Francis Group, London, p. 745-750. [4] Ghobarah, A. and Abou Elfath, H. (2001). Rehabilitation of a reinforced concrete frame using eccentric steel bracing. Engineering Structures Vol. 23 (2001), p. 745755. [5] Schmidt, K., Dorka, U.E., Taucer, F., Magonette, G. (2004). Seismic Retrofit of a Steel Frame and a RC Frame with HYDE Systems. European Laboratory for Structural Assessment (ELSA). Report no. EUR 21180 EN. [6] DAniello, M. Della Corte, G. and Mazzolani, F.M. (2006). Seismic upgrading of RC buildings by steel eccentric braces: experimental results vs numerical modeling. STESSA 2006 Mazzolani & Wada (eds), Taylor & Francis Group, London, p. 809-814. [7] Dusicka, P., Itani, A.M. and Buckle, I.G. (2004). Evaluation of conventional and speciality steels in shear link hysteretic energy dissipators. Proc. of the 13th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, Canada.

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[8]

[9]

[10] [11]

[12]

[13]

[14] [15]

[16]

[17] [18]

[19]

[20] [21]

[22]

Okazaki, T., Arce, G., Ryu, H., Engelhardt, M.D. (2004). Recent research on link performance in steel eccentrically braced frames. Proc. of the 13th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, Canada. EN 1998 (1994, 2003). "Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance. Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings". CEN European Committee for Standardization. AISC 2005. "Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings". American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. Chicago, Illinois, USA. Dubina, D., Dinu, F., Zaharia, R., Ungureanu, V., Grecea, D. (2006). "Opportunity and effectiveness of using high strength steel in seismic resistant building frames". Proc. of the Int. Conf. in Metal Struct., Poiana Brasov, Romania, September 20-22, 2006, Eds. D. Dubina & V. Ungureanu, Taylor & Francis Group, p. 501-510. Akiyama H., 1999. Behaviour of connections under seismic loads. Control of semi-rigid behaviour of civil engineering structural connections. COST C1. Proceedings of the international conference, Liege, 17-19 September 1998. Iyama, J., Kuwamura, H., 1999. Probabilistic advantage of vibrational redundancy in earthquake-resistant steel frames. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 52: 33-46. Astaneh-Asl A., 2001. Seismic Behavior and Design of Steel Shear Walls, Steel TIPS, USA. Stratan, A. and Dubina, D. (2004). "Eccentrically braced dual steel frames with removable link". Improvement of Buildings Structural Quality by New technologies, Outcome of the Cooperative Action, Final scientific report, September 2004. A.A. Balkema Publishers, ISBN 04-1536-610-0. p. 111-116. Stratan, A. and Dubina, D. (2004). "Bolted links for eccentrically braced steel frames". Proc. of the Fifth AISC / ECCS International Workshop "Connections in Steel Structures V. Behaviour, Strength & Design", June 3-5, 2004. Ed. F.S.K. Bijlaard, A.M. Gresnigt, G.J. van der Vegte. Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, pp. 223-232 EN 1993 (2004). "Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures - Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings". CEN - European Committee for Standardization. ECCS (1985). "Recommended Testing Procedures for Assessing the Behaviour of Structural Elements under Cyclic Loads", European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Technical Committee 1, TWG 1.3 Seismic Design, No.45 Dubina, D., Ciutina, A., Stratan, A., (2000). "Cyclic Tests on Bolted Steel Double Sided Beam-to-Column Joints". The International AISC / ECCS Workshop Connections in Steel Structures IV: Steel Connections in the New Millenium. October 22-25, 2000, Roanoke, Virginia, USA. Kasai, K., and Popov, E.P., (1986). "General Behaviour of WF Steel Shear Link Beams", ASCE, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.112, No.2: 362-381. Engelhartd, M.D. and Popov, E.P. (1992). "Experimental performance of long links in eccentrically braced frames". Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.188, No.11:3067-3088. C133/82 (1982). "Technical guide for connections id steel structures with high strength friction grip bolts ". ICB, INCERC (in Romanian).

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[23] P100-1/2006 (2006). "Seismic design code Part 1: Rules for buildings" (in Romanian). [24] Ricles J.M., Popov E.P. (1994). "Inelastic link element for EBF seismic analysis". ASCE, Journal of Structural Engineering, 1994, Vol. 120, No. 2: 441-463. [25] Gasparini, D.A., and Vanmarcke, E.H. (1976). "Simulated Earthquake Motions Compatible with Prescribed Response Spectra", Department of Civil Engineering, Research Report R76-4, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. [26] FEMA 356 (2000). "Prestandard and commentary for the seismic rehabilitation of buildings", Washington (DC): Federal Emergency Management Agency. 8. Notation link shear distortion angle - multiplier factor for earthquake intensity - reduction factor which takes into account the lower return period of the seismic action associated with the damage limitation requirement AL equivalent link rotation angle due to connection slip M, S, j average, bottom, and top connection rotation Mb partial safety factor for bolt resistance T total link distortion angle As - link shear area As = tw ( h 2t f ) DALJ, DALS measurements of link slip displacement transducers DD1, DD2 measurements of link diagonal displacement transducers DT total link displacement DTu, Tu ultimate displacement, ultimate deformation Dy, Vy yield displacement, yield shear force e bolted link length e, b link panel dimensions fy, fu yield stress, tensile strength fy,w, fy,f web and flange yield stress G - shear modulus KT, K, KJ and KS total, web shear, and connection initial stiffness q - behaviour factor tf, tw, h flange thickness, web thickness, and cross-section height respectively Vmax, Mmax maximum shear force, maximum moment Vy , My plastic shear resistance, plastic moment Wpl,w, W*pl plastic modulus of the web and flanges, respectively (W*pl = Wpl - Wpl,w, Wpl)

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