METE 435 Foundry Laboratory 1

Experiment 2

Macro Examination of Cast Structures

A liquid metal freezes in many different ways depending on its composition and cooling rate. The way of cooling and composition of the metal determines its macrostructure i.e grain shape and size , defects at the end. Therefore solidification by itself comes to be very important stage during the casting process. There are three major points for consideration when a casting solidifies: 1. Growth of the solid grains 2. Heat evolution and transfer 3. Dimensional changes Freezing of a pure metal: When a pure metal is allowed to freeze in a mold, that portion of the liquid which reaches the freezing temperatures begins to solidify. This usually occurs next to the mold wall where heat extraction is greatest. The chilling action of the mold wall results in the formation of a thin skin of shell of solid metal surrounding the liquid. With sufficient extraction of heat through this thin wall of metal, the liquid begins to freeze onto it and the wall increases in thickness as determined by the existing temperature gradient. This part, in effect supercooled, and solidifies usually as fine equiaxed grains. Nucleation of the supercooled grain is governed by two factors: The first factor is the free energy available from the solidification process which is dependent upon the volume of the particle formed. The second factor is the energy required To form a liquid solid interface which is dependent upon the surface area of particle. The preceeding explanation represent so called homogeneous nucleation. In heterogeneous nucleation usually foreing particles are present which alter the liquid solid interface energy enough to assist in nucleation. Thereby reducing the amount of supercooling required to effect nucleation. When the nucleation and growth are considered together, the relative rates differ to the extent that nucleation is predominant in the early stages of freezing and as a consequence the first layer of solid metal at the metal/mold interface consists of the fine equiaxed grains mentioned previously. During the time the first skin of solid metal is being produced. The latent heat of fusion is being released and the remaining liquid rapidly looses most of its undercooling. The effect of this change is to stop further nucleation. Growth continues however on some of the grains already formed. This growth is controlled by the rate of heat transfer from the casting, and since this establishes a temperature gradient toward the casting surface, the growth occurs in a direction opposite to the heat flow. In addition because growth is also dependent on crystallographic direction as well as the direction of heat flow, only those grains which happen to be favorably oriented will grow toward the center of the casting and other less favorably oriented grains will be pinched off. The net effect will be to create a zone of columnar grains next to the outer layers of fine grains. In pure metals these columnar grains extend to the center of the casting, but in alloys the columnar grain growth may be interrupted by the formation of the equiaxed grains which are coarser than the ones formed already at the portion next to the mold wall. Columnar dendritic grains near the surface and the equiaxed dendritic grains near the centre of the casting can be observed.

In the foregoing section the processes or nucleation and growth have been considered in relation to the principal alternative features of crystal structure in cast metals. So far this structure can be seen as an outcome of three major influences:

1. Alloy constitution.

2. 3.

Metal composition governs the basic mode of crystallisation and determines whether the structure will consist of single phase or eutectic grains or both. The alloy composition is also characterised by particular distribution and diffusion coefficients for solute in liquid and solid phases and thus establishes the relative tendency to constitutional undercooling. Thermal conditions. The temperature distribution and rate of cooling in a casting are derived from the initial temperature conditions and the thermal properties or metal and mould. Inherent nucleation and growth conditions in the liquid. The relative possibilities for nucleation and growth depend upon foreign particles or solutes present in the liquid, whether as trace impurities or as deliberate additions.

Since wide variations in thermal conditions can occur at various stages during the cooling of a single casting, its overall structure may consist or separate zones with widely different characteristics. The
nature and extent of these zones depend partly upon factors yet to be discussed, but it will be useful at the present stage to summarise the effects of thermal conditions alone.

Figure 1. Interaction of temperature and compositional gradients in determining structure. (a) Influence of temperature gradient (T). (b) Influence of liquidus temperature profile (TE). (i) condition favouring plane front solidification, (ii) condition producing undercooling. Considering firstly the alloys forming a continuous range of solid solutions, it has been shown that the mode of crystallisation is governed by the interaction of

temperature and compositional gradients in the liquid.

Figure 2. Thermal explanation of mixed structures in castings. (a) Columnar growth stage. (b) Central equiaxed region.

Figure 3. Typical duplex macrostructure in cast metals showing columnar and equiaxed zones. Columnar growth from the mould wall towards the centre of the casting is favoured by the existence of a steep temperature gradient, since this increases the probability that renewed growth at the interface will occur before undercooling is sufficient to bring about further nucleation elsewhere (Figure 1a). Columnar growth is also promoted by slow cooling, which allows more time for solute transport in the liquid, diminishing the concentration gradient at the interface. Slow cooling is, moreover, associated with an inherently low rate of nucleation relative to rate of growth in all processes of crystallisation. The influence of foundry variables upon structure must accordingly be determined by their effects upon the temperature gradient G and the rate of freezing R, and it follows that the

ratio G/R is a significant parameter with respect both to mode of growth and to final grain structure in solid solution alloys. The effect of this ratio may now be summarised. Progressive change in the parameter from a high to a low value is accompanied by successive transitions in the mode of crystallisation as the effect of undercooling becomes more pronounced. These successive stages are illustrated schematically in Figure 4. and the. associated thermal conditions in Figure 5.

Figure 4.Influence of undercooling on interface morphology and mode of growth.

With a very high ratio, columnar growth takes place with the advance of a plane interface. which first gives way to the cellular growth form previously described. Diminishing values of G/R bring about the cell - dendrite transition with columnar growth now occurring on probes of solid some distance ahead of the main interface. At still lower values of G/R, heterogeneous nucleation in the undercooled zone brings about the growth of new grains in positions remote from the existing interface; these grains may themselves.

Figure 5. Influence of temperature gradient G and freezing rate R on solidification morphology of a given alloy

Additional influences upon structure: The structural zones in castings have so far been explained largely in terms of thermal and constitutional influences upon nucleation and growth conditions at particular locations. Significant effects also arise, however, from crystal multiplication and from movement within the liquid of individual crystals or blocks of grains, away from the sites of their original nucleation. Such movement can result from turbulence originating during pouring, from mass feeding, from thermal convection, or from gravitational separation due to the difference in density between liquid and solid phases. Direct evidence of dendrite fragmentation as an important mechanism in the formation of the equi-axed zone in castings was obtained by Jackson and Hunt and their collaborators in studies of solidification in transparent organic compounds analogous to metals. Dendrite arms in the columnar zone become detached by local recalescence due to thermal fluctuations and changes in growth rate. These are carried by convective stirring and turbulence into the central region, where they grow independently in undercooled liquid. This phenomenon has been confirmed by Tiller and O'Hara 3 5. Fragmentation is not the only source of such centres for equi-axed growth. Contact with the cool mould surface on pouring initiates the nucleation of many crystallites, which become widely distributed by pouring turbulence. In castings poured with little superheat these continue to grow rapidly to form a wholly equiaxed structure: this has been termed' big-bang' nucleation. With higher superheat the initial crystals may remelt completely or may survive in sufficient numbers to participate in forming- the equi-axed zone. Crystallites can also become detached and fall through the melt from the upper metal-mould interface or from the exposed and chilled free surface of the liquid, a phenomenon long recognised in ingot solidification. To summarise, therefore, three distinct phenomena can contribute to the formation of the equi-axed region; 1. heterogeneous nucleation in situ, 2. crystal multiplication and 3. transport of crystallites by gravity or by mass movement of liquid. The significance and practical control of cast structure The principal factors governing the final metallographic structure of a casting may now be listed. They are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Constitution and thermal properties of the alloy; Casting design and dimensions; Thermal properties of the mould; Superheat and final casting temperature; Conditions for heterogeneous nucleation; Conditions affecting motion during solidification; Subsequent heat treatment.

Thus, although the structure of a casting is in the first instance a function of alloy composition and casting geometry, it is also sensitive to measures taken in founding. These include preliminary treatment or the liquid metal and variation of cooling rate within the mould. It would, however, be true to say that manipulation of the freezing process in castings has been

more usually directed at the problems of feeding than at structure. The importance of structure -in cast alloys lies mainly in the structure sensitive properties which can be utilised in engineering. These properties are determined primarily by the influence of the microstructure on the behaviour of dislocations in the lattices of the individual crystals. Unlike wrought materials, in which further opportunities exist for changing both structure and dislocation density, the initial microstructure is frequently the main vehicle for the control of properties, although subsequent heat treatment plays this role in some cast alloys. In examining the critical characteristics of cast structures, it will be convenient to consider two types of metallographic feature, 1. Grain structure (size, shape and orientation). The boundaries of primary grains formed during freezing are normally visible on macroscopic or microscopic examination, although their detection may be complicated by solid state transformations occurring on further cooling to shop temperature. In a structure consisting largely of eutectic grains, however, boundaries may be more difficult to distinguish unless highlighted by the segregation of impurities . The determination of grain size in castings has been the subject of a special group of three papers dealing respectively with non-ferrous alloys, steels and cast irons. Substructure. Important features include the distribution and state of division of alloy components and microconstituents, including solutes, second phase networks or particles, and the separate phases within the eutectic grain. Dendrite substructure too falls in this category.

2.

The normal cast structure can be complicated by the presence of shrinkage cavities or by the macroscopic segregation of alloying elements. Control of cast structure may take either of two directions. Most widely established are measures directed towards refinement of grain and constituent size. Special treatments for this purpose are a well established feature of the production of light alloys and cast irons, whilst there has more recently been increasing attention to grain size control in cast steels and other alloys. The second form of structure control has received only limited attention and involves the manipulation of grain shape and crystallographic orientation to produce anisotropy of structure and properties.

The ratio of equiaxed to columnar grains E/C depends the following parameters; 1) Inversely proportional to the effective superheat 2) Inversely proportional to the critical degree of supercooling necessary for nucleation to occur at a fairly high rate. 3) Proportional to the freezing range 4) Inversely proportional to the thermal conductivity 5) Inversely proportional to the slopes of the solidus and liquidus lines If the liquid metal is supercooled, grain growth can occur dendritically, that is in a tree-like fashion. This type of growth represents only about 10 percent of the total freezing process of pure metals, whereas it is condition for the freezing of alloys.

Laboratory Practice: Pure Al, pure Zn and an Al-Si alloy will be melted in the induction furnace and cast into the ingot molds. The cast part then will be sectioned and examined by macroetching. a) Induction furnace melting : During the experimental work we utilize one of the furnaces. The furnaces are two types 1- Low frequency 160-180 cycles 2- High frequency 2500 cycles. Induction furnaces are essentialy an air transformer in which the primary is a coil of water cooled copper tubing and the secondary is the metal charge. Furnace capacity rarely exceeds 1 ton. The shell of the furnace consists of thermal paper(alumina fibre texture sheet) and is supported on trunnions on which the furnace pivots when pouring. Inside the shell is placed the circular winding of copper tubing. Firebrick is placed on the bottom portion of the shell, and the space between that and the coil is rammed with grain refractory. The furnace chamber may be a refractory crucible or it may consists of a rammed and sintered lining. The process consists of charging the furnace with metal ingot and passing a frequency current through the primary coil, thus inducing the secondary current in the charge, which results in heating the metal charge by its resistance. As soon as a pool of metal is formed very pronounce stirring action in the molten metal takes place, which helps to accelerate melting. In this process melting is quite rapid therefore oxidation losses are at a minimum. b) Permanent Molds: The molds which can be reused many times are made of cast iron or steel, though sometimes of bronze. Al,Mg,Zn,Pb,Cu based alloys and cast irons are the principal alloys so cast. The extremely high temperature of casting and consequent mold attrition usually make is unsuitable for most steel casting. The process consists of mold preparation, pouring and casting ejection. Mold must be kept within a fixed operation temperature range at the start of the delivery. Operating temp of the mold is one of the most important factors in successful permanent mold casting. c) Precautions during Al melting: Aluminium melting practices aimed at producing the most favorable results may include the following measures: * Start with clear materials of known analysis. Normal metal charge must consists of clean foundry scrap. Scrap must not contain oil or humidity which cause serious difficulties. * Use clean melting practice. Good melting practice requires that the furnace as well as metal charge be clean. Crucibles and of adhering dross and entrapped metal. Objectionable contamination of the melt with iron from metal pots occur unless the pot is coated in some way. Extremely low Fe contents can be maintained only with the use of silicon carbide or clay bonded crucibles. Zinc Alloy Foundry Practice: Metal temperature for casting the zinc alloys range from 390 to 415 0C, the minimum being used for casting with thick sections and maximum for thin sectioned castings. To obtain best results including best casting finish optimum metal temperature for a specific application is found by experimentation. Optimum thus established should be controlled within +_ 10 0C. High temperature limit protection should be provided for both the melting and holding equipment. Die casting is the process most often used for shaping zinc alloys although alloys those can be gravity poured have ben adopted recently. Furnaces are frequently an integral part of the die casting machine. Fuel fired open pot furnaces are mostly used although

application of lower melting cost immersion tube furnaces is increasing. Most crucibles for melting zinc alloys are made of gray or ductile cast iron. Zinc alloys are more sensitive to variations in composition than aluminium alloys. Agitation during melting results in air entrapment and should be minimized. Overheating results in loss of alloying elements, primarily aluminium through oxidation. Clean scrap returned from the foundry may be used as charge provided it is of acceptable chemical composition and free of oil and moisture, which create exploision hazards. No flux is needed when the melting stock is clean ingot, but a chloride of fluoride is used when the melting stock is partially or totally composed of returned scrap. Macro examination of cast structures: It consists of three steps. 1) Sampling: A suitable specimen should be selected for the purpose of examination. Large sections should be avoided whenever possible. Generally, thin slabs and discs are the most convenient to handle and manipulate during etching. 2) Surface Preparation After cutting the sample with a hack saw usually machining or grinding gives reasonable surface. On the other hand, for fine details smoother surface may be needed which can be obtained by rough grinding on the emergy papers. But never polish the surface as in the case of microexamination. One has to take enough care to avoid excess heating during surface preparation. 3) Etching of the surface: A suitable reagent should be selected. The degree of attack of the reagent depends on the time and time of application. Both variables on the other hand vary with the condition of the material. Suitable reagents for macroetching of the metals and alloy cast will be ready for use. For pure aluminium Roultans reagent: 12 parts conc HCl+6p conc HNO3+1p 48% HF+1p H2O)for zinc conc HCl (%37 ) and for Al-Si alloy an etcing reagent of composition: 1p. 48% HF+1.5p. conc HCL+10p.conc. HNO3+87.5p H2O will be used as macroetching agents Experimental details of the permanent molds will be used during experiments Melt delivery condition Slow Fast Slow Slow
Gr 1 MeltTemperature:430 Mold Temperatures (0C) Gr 1 MeltTemperature:430 Mold Temperatures (0C) Gr 2 MeltTemperature:500 Mold Temperatures (0C) Gr 2 MeltTemperature:500 Mold Temperatures (0C)

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