1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

1.1 INTRODUCTION
A structure immersed in a flow field is subjected to aerodynamic forces. For typical tall
buildings, aerodynamic forces include drag (along-wind) forces, lift (across-wind) forces
and torsional moments. The along wind forces act in the direction of the mean flow. The
along wind motion primarily results from pressure fluctuations on windward and leeward
faces and generally follows fluctuations in the approaching flow.
As building systems become taller, more lightweight, and efficient, they become
increasingly sensitive to the effects of wind. There have been numerous investigations,
both analytical and experimental, into the area of passive vibration control of tall
buildings. Passive vibration control devices such as tuned mass dampers (TMD) have
proven to be effective for certain applications but they are limited in the magnitude of
motion reduction which they can achieve. These limitations have led to the development
of active control devices. These devices use a control algorithm which analyses the
dynamic structural feedback to create a control force which drives a mass.
An aircraft is subjected to aerodynamic loading during flight. The redistribution of
air loads caused by structural deformation will change the lifting effectiveness on the
aerodynamic surfaces from that of a rigid vehicle. Self-excited vibrations are possible if
disturbance to an aero elastic system gives rise to unsteady aerodynamic loads such that
the ensuing motion can be sustained. This happens when the motion and the loading
permits extraction of an amount of energy from the airstream more than that dissipated by
internal damping during each cycle and thereby resulting in high amplitude vibrations
thus damaging the structure.
The traditional solution to these aero elastic issues has been primarily to stiffen
the airframe structure, thereby either eliminating undesirable excitation of structural
characteristics or ensuring that the undesirable phenomena occur only at conditions
beyond the flight envelope. Unfortunately, this passive approach involves adding
additional structural elements to stiffen the existing structure that is already sufficiently

2

strong to carry normal flight loads. These weight penalties adversely affect costs and
mission performance, and add to operational costs throughout the life of the airplane.



The active control scheme for a typical aircraft engine mount is as shown in figure
1.1. The benefits of active control of aero elastic response are significant. For example, if
the stiffening requirements for wings can be reduced; the weight reduction could be
absorbed in additional passengers and payload revenues for commercial transports.
Active control of tail buffet for highly maneuverable fighter aircraft could result in
weight savings, increased structural service life, and reduced maintenance and cost.
Active vibration control (AVC) is the active application of force which tends to
nullify the effect of the vibrations imposed by external forces. With this application, a
process can be maintained as essentially vibration-free. Active vibration control is now

Fig 1.1: Active cancellation and vibration isolation with feedback and
feed forward for an aircraft engine mount (Luo &Young, 2007)

3

commercially available for reducing vibration in helicopters, offering better comfort with
less weight penalty than traditional passive technologies. Active vibration control
techniques are employed in wind turbine mount systems which respond actively to the
forces experienced by wind turbines. Active vibration absorbers optimally counter these
forces by providing broad band vibration compensation. Gas turbine engine designers
extensively employ AVC techniques for vibration suppression.
Aerodynamically induced vibrations consist of interaction between elastic, inertial
and aerodynamic forces. Collars triangle is a diagram that is used to describe the
interactions of aerodynamic, elastic and inertial forces. In Figure 1.2, the three different
types of forces are placed at the corners of the triangle and are represented by letters A,
E, and I, respectively. Aero elastic phenomena are located on the triangle according to
their relation to the three forces in each corner.
Such interactions exert aerodynamic force on the structure. This dynamic force
leads to motion of the structure. Therefore, the vibration control problem requires the
modeling of aerodynamic forces as well as the structure for designing an optimum
control system for damping the vibration.
The main elements that comprise such actively controlled structure under aerodynamic
excitation are:-
(a) Structural member: say, a beam/frame/plate/ curved panel
(b) Loading on structure: Aerodynamic forces
(c) AVC components: sensors and actuators ; Robust controller


4


Forces Aeroelastic Phenomena
A: Aerodynamic Force F: Flutter
E: Elastic Force B: Buffeting
I: Inertial Force Z: Dynamic Response
L: Load Distribution
D: Divergence
C: Control effectiveness
R: Control system Reversal


Related Fields

V: Mechanical Vibrations DSA: Aero elastic Effects on Dynamic Stability
DS: Dynamic Stability SSA: Aero elastic Effects on Stability



Figure 1.2: Collars Aero elastic Triangle of Forces (Winkelaar,2006)



5

1.2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF ACTIVELY CONTROLLED
STRUCTURES
Piezoelectric material has proven to be an excellent choice for both sensing and
actuating elements in the active control of structures. The finite element modeling of the
structure with distributed sensor and piezoelectric actuator layer as well as suitable
control electronics is an important component of structural model formulation. Due to
ease in accommodating piezo elements in the numerical model, FE Method has become a
standard procedure for the analysis of such structures. In general, to obtain reasonable
accuracy, a structure has to be modeled with finer mesh leading to a large number of
degrees of freedom. This increases the problem size as well as the computational time
and cost. The finite element modeling incorporates the stiffness, mass and coupling
effects of the piezoelectric laminates in the constitutive relations. The formulations are
primarily based on first order shear deformation theory.
The research community has undertaken active and semi-active vibration control
of simple structures like beam, plate and shell. The simple structure of flexible beam can
be modeled using finite element method. The motion of the points in the element is
defined in terms of nodal displacements and interpolation functions. Therefore, first the
stiffness and mass matrix of the element is analyzed. The elements are assembled to
determine the stiffness and mass matrix of the structure. The control force is separately
added depending on states of the system.
The governing equation of motion for a piezoelectric continuum is as follows:-
M + K
uu
u + K
u
= f (1)
K

+ K
u
u = q (2)
Where M is the mass matrix, K
uu
is the stiffness matrix, K
u
is the coupling matrix
combining mechanical variable u and electrical variable , K

the matrix of electrical

capacitance, is the electric potential , f is the vector of external mechanical loads
applied to the structure and q is the electric charge brought to the electrodes.


6

1.3 MODELING OF AERODYNAMIC FORCES
Various methods have been developed for the modeling of aerodynamic forces on the
structure due to wind loads .The panel method (Woodward, 1973) for estimating the
aerodynamic loads is based on the steady flow conditions. The lifting line method
( Falkner , 1949 ) assumes that lift force is acting at quarter chord which may not be a
correct assumption for certain geometries like swept wing.
Unsteady aerodynamics can be calculated with Doublet Lattice method ( Giesing et al
,1971). The Doublet Lattice method is a method for solving the integral equations
relating to normal wash and aerodynamic loading for lifting surfaces in aerodynamic
flow.
The Doublet-Lattice method is used for dynamic response analyses of structures at
subsonic speeds. It is an aerodynamic finite element method for modeling oscillating
lifting surfaces. The finite element modeling entails solution of the oscillatory subsonic
pressure-normal wash integral equation for multiple interfering surfaces:
1
1
( , ) ( , ; , ) ( , )
8
n
n
n
S
w x s K x s p d d o o o
t
=
=

} }
(3)

Fig. 1.3: Discretisation of lifting surface using trapezoidal boxes (Rodden et al, 1998)


7

In Fig 1.3 and equation (3) , (x, s) are the orthogonal coordinates on the n
th
surface S
n
such that
the undisturbed stream is parallel to the x axis, and K is the complex acceleration potential
kernel for oscillatory subsonic flow and w is the dimensionless normal wash. The (x,s) plane is
discretised into differential areas of size S located at x= and s= .
Numerical solution of random pressure field is another method of aerodynamic load estimation
by wind turbulence on a structure. The pressure field is obtained by the multiplication of squared
velocity field by the pressure coefficient and air density. The spectral function of the velocity
field can be modeled by suitable auto-spectral density function which represents a typical wind
type load. The von Karman auto-spectral density function is as follows:
5.6
2
4
( )
2
*
1 70.8
x
u
x
u
nL
nS n
U
u
nL
U
|
=
(
| |
+ (
|
( \ .

(4)
Where
1 2
0
( )
x
u u u
L R x dx

=
}
; R
u1u2
is the cross variance function of the longitudinal velocity
components 1 u and 2 u .
*
u is the shear velocity of the flow. U is the mean velocity. n is
the frequency of eddies. is the function of roughness of surface. The function S
n
is the
spectral density function For each frequency n (0<n< ), there is a elemental
contribution S
n
dn .

1.4 CONTROL STRATEGIES
1.4.1 Use of Piezoelectric Materials for Active Vibration Control
Piezoelectric materials are characterized by their ability to produce voltage when
subjected to mechanical strain. The converse piezoelectric effect can be utilized to
actuate a structure by applying voltage. The coupled electromechanical properties of
piezoelectric materials and availability in the form of thin sheets make them suitable for
use as distributed sensor and actuator for controlling of structural vibrations. There are
two broad classes of piezoelectric materials used in vibration control: Polymer and

8

Ceramics. While ceramics can give large forces at low strain value, the polymers give
low forces but can undergo large strains and also can be cut to a required shape and size.
They are primarily useful as sensors due to their low weight. The piezo-fiber composites
have intermediate values of stress and strain and may be useful as both sensor and
actuator.
The behavior of an electromechanical system can be described with both electrical and
mechanical variables.
Mechanical variables are stress vector {} and strain vector {}. Both are 6X1 vectors.
Electrical variables are electric displacement {D} and electric field {E} vector. Both are
3X1 vectors.
Moreover,
{D} = []. {E}: where [] is 3x3 permittivity matrix
{} = [Q]. {}: where [Q] is 6X6 elastic stiffness coefficient matrix
In piezoelectric materials, the above equations are coupled.

1.4.2 For Actuators

The independent stress vector {} and electric field vector {E} are assumed as state
variables. The constitutive relation is as follows:

1
'
E const
Const
Q d
D E d
o
c o

=
=
(
=
` ` (
) )
(5)

The matrix d
ij
represents coupling between electric field in i direction and strain in j
direction.

9

[d]=
15
26
31 32 33
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
d
d
d d d
(
(
(
(

(6)

1.4.3 For Sensors

The independent stress vector {} and electric field vector {D} are assumed as state
variables.
The constitutive relation is as follows:
1
const
1
const
g
g
D
Q
E D
o
c o

=
(
=
` ` (
) )
(7)

The matrix g
ij
represents coupling between electric field in i direction and stress in j
direction.
[g] = [
=const
][d] =
15
26
31 32 33
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
g
g
g g g
(
(
(
(

(8)


The constitutive relations are as follows:

const
E Const

' E
E
Q e
e D
o c

=
=
(
=
` `
(

) )

(9)

The connection between elements is
e=Q
E=const
.d

=Const
=
=const
- d.Q
E=const
.d


10

The Piezoelectric effect is taken into account by {e}. It joins the elements of {E} with
elements of stress vector {}.
Through coding in computing software like MATLAB, the above relations can be used to
formulate a numerical model representing structure with piezoelectric elements.
1.4.4 Controller
A controller is a device which monitors and affects the operational conditions of a given
dynamical system. The operational conditions are typically referred to as output variables
of the system which can be affected by adjusting certain input variables. In control theory
there are two basic types of control. These are feedback and feed-forward. The input to a
feedback controller is the same as what it is trying to control - the controlled variable is
"fed back" into the controller. However, feedback control usually results in intermediate
periods where the controlled variable is not at the desired set-point. Feed-forward control
can avoid the slowness of feedback control. With feed-forward control, the disturbances
are measured and accounted for before they have time to affect the system. The difficulty
with feed-forward control is that the effect of the disturbances on the system must be
accurately predicted, and there must not be any unmeasured disturbances.
There are numerous active control schemes for vibration suppression of flexible
structures with bonded piezoelectric actuators. The strain rate feedback is used for active
damping of flexible structures. The structural velocity coordinate is fed back to the
compensator and the compensator position coordinate multiplied by negative gain is fed
back to the structure.
Positive position feedback control is applied by feeding the structural position coordinate
directly to the compensator and product of the compensator and a scalar gain positively
back to the structure.
The common algorithms for controller design are as follows:-
(i) Proportional (P ) (ii) Derivative (D) (iii) Proportional-Derivative (PD) (iv)
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)

11

The P controller shows a relatively high maximum overshoot, a long settling time
as well as a steady-state error. The I controller has a higher maximum overshoot than the
P controller due to the slowly startingI behavior, but no steady-state error. The PI
controller fuses the properties of the P and I controllers. It shows a maximum overshoot
and settling time similar to the P controller but no steady-state error. The real PD
controller has a smaller maximum overshoot due to the 'faster' D action compared with
the controller types mentioned above. Also in this case a steady-state error is visible,
which is smaller than in the case of the P controller. This is because the PD controller
generally is tuned to have a larger gain due to the positive phase shift of the D action. The
PID controller fuses the properties of a PI and PD controller. It shows a smaller
maximum overshoot than the PD controller and has no steady state error due to the I
action. PID Controller is a kind of controller of which proportional gain and derivative
gain can be determined based on desired specifications and dynamics of the structure.
Too much emphasis on optimality and less attention to the model uncertainty
leads to control that fail to work in real environments. Robustness with respect to external
disturbances or uncertainties of the system or of the loading is the key issue, especially
for aerodynamically induced vibrations. A popular method, H

optimal control strategy,

can be applied for these purposes.
In the robust H

control strategy, the nominal model parameters of the structure M

(mass), C (damping) and K (stiffness), are determined by the material properties and
geometry configuration using classical finite element techniques. Since the physical
parameters of the real structure are not known exactly, the mean value for the
determination of the nominal value is taken and the deviations are included in the
uncertainty of the model. The implementation of H

control theory is motivated by

inability of other schemes to cater to plant uncertainties.
In the next chapter, review of the past work related to structural modeling, FE
modeling of structure with peizo components (sensors/actuators), modeling of
aerodynamic forces acting on structures, control strategies/algorithms, etc is discussed in
the context of proposed research.

12

CAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter summarises and reviews various aspects that are of importance in active
vibration control of common structures like beam, plates, shell when subjected to
aerodynamic loading. The research topic AVC of flexible structures under aerodynamic
excitation encompasses FE modeling, robust controller design and modeling of
aerodynamic forces on the structure. Therefore, the literature review has been carried out
in the relevant areas to understand the current trends as well as state of the art for
identifying specific objectives of the proposed research.
2.1 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OF ELECTROMECHANICAL
SYSTEMS :
Finite element modeling and analysis is a discipline crossing the boundaries of
mathematics, physics, engineering and computer science. The method has wide
application and enjoys extensive utilization in the structural, thermal and fluid analysis
areas.
Tzou (1993) presented a piezoelectric thin hexahedron solid finite element with
internal degrees of freedom was presented and applied to distributed sensing and control
of continua. The theory of laminated piezoelectric plates for the design of distributed
sensors /actuators was given by Lee (1990). He provided governing equations and
reciprocal relationships. Tzou and Tseng (1991) proposed thin hexahedron finite
element with three internal degrees of freedom. They studied the structural identification
and control of plate model with distributed piezoelectric sensor/actuator. Ha et al (1992)
developed an eight noded three dimensional composite brick element and studied the
response of laminated composites containing distributed piezoelectric ceramics subjected
to both mechanical and electrical loadings. Three dimensional incompatible modes were
introduced to take into account the global bending behavior resulting from the local
deformities of the piezoceramics. Four noded 12-degrees of freedom plate bending
element with one electrical degree of freedom has been proposed by Hwang and Park
(1993).A finite element analysis of laminated composite structures containing distributed
piezoelectric actuators and sensors has been proposed by Detwiler et al (1995). The
formulation is based on the shear flexible QUAD 4 isoparametric element. Static shape

13

control of intelligent structures with distributed piezoelectric sensor/actuator has been
proposed by Wang et al (1997). They formulated a piezoelectric four noded plate bending
element based on classical plate theory and included the electrical degree of freedom at
each node.
A finite element model based on classical lamination theory was developed by
Lam et al (1997) for the active vibration control of a composite plate containing
piezoelectric sensor/actuators. A generic theory for the intelligent shell system was
developed by Tzou and Gadre (1989). Tzou and Ye (1996) analysed piezoelectric
structures with triangular shell elements based on the shear angle theory. Lammering
(1991) extended classical lamination theory to account for piezoelectric materials. Their
finite element formulation is based on the shear elastic shell theory of Reissner-Mindlin
type.
Naveen (2007) ,developed finite element model using 8 noded isoparametric
element for analytical study on application of active and passive constrained layer
damping treatment to curved panels.
Once the elements of the structures are modeled, the governing equations of
motion are derived either through classical Newtonian or virtual work principle;
alternatively through energy approach. Most of the researchers have used Hamilton
principle to formulate the equations of motion. They have also used its extended form
which includes simultaneous sensing and actuation terms.
Cai et al (2006), Cento and Kawiecki (2002) and Lam et al (2000) derived
equations for beams using Lagranges approach. Chen and Huang (1999) used
Lagranges approach for derivation of equation of motion for shells. Balamurugan and
Naraynan(2002) and Baz(1997,1998) used Hamiltons principle to derive equation of
motion for beams.


14

2.2 MODELING OF WIND LOADING ON STRUCTURE
Wind is a randomly varying dynamic phenomenon. The wind velocity V can be
taken as mean plus fluctuating component responsible for creating gustiness. While
dealing with rigid structures, the consideration of equivalent static load is adequate but in
the case of flexible structures, the consideration of the wind energy spectrum as well as
frequency of the structure becomes important.
The wind load introduced by wind turbulence on vertical beam was numerically
generated as a random pressure field obtained by the multiplication of squared velocity
field by the pressure coefficient and the air density (Betti et al 2006).
P(x, y, t) =c
p
v
2
(x, y, t) (10)
The spectral function of the velocity has been by means of a von Karman auto-
spectral density with exponentially decaying coherence and phase angle by Simiu and
Scanlan (1996).
Another widely used method for estimation of aerodynamic forces on the
structure is Doublet Lattice method introduced by Giesing et al (1971). It is a panel
method for solving the integral equation relating to normal wash and aerodynamic
loading for lifting surfaces in subsonic flow. It models the effect of pressure difference
(across the structure) at one location on the induced up wash (component of velocity
which is normal to the plane of the structure).
In the field of wind engineering, wind loaded structures have been analysed using
various approaches on wind modeling, e.g., Phongkumsing et al. (2001) Chen et al.
(2001). Phongkumsing et al. (2001) work dealt with the modeling of bridge flutter
controls in high wind speeds. Chen et al. (2001) proposed a scheme for the coupled
flutter and buffeting analysis which is based on the complex mode analysis of a linear
time-invariant system. In its analysis the unsteady frequency dependent aerodynamic
wind forces are recast in terms of rational function approximation which results in
frequency independent force description. Three-dimensional plate analysis using pressure

15

coefficients was adopted by Zahlten and Borri (1998) to calculate closely the response of
structures under wind loads.
Devenport (1963) made pioneering contributions to model the complex randomly
varying phenomenon of wind loading . Other contributions to satisfactorily analyse the
along wind response of slender structures such as towers and chimneys are due to Harris
(1963); Isyumov (1982); Vickery (1978); Kareem (2001) and Solari (2001). Solari (2001)
proposed a unified model of atmospheric turbulence especially suited to determine the 3-
D gust-excited response of structures. Unlike classical models, all parameters are
assigned through first and second order statistical moments derived from a wide set of
selected experimental measurements.
As opposed to the analytical methods of analysis based on structural dynamics,
there is development of Computational Fluid Dynamics(CFD ). Efforts have been made
with a significant measure of success to make CFD as a part of Computational Wind
Engineering (CWE). Some of the salient efforts in this direction are by Murakami et al
(1999) by obtaining wind forces; Stathopolous (1997) by determining wind structure
interaction and Finarrdi et al (1998) by evaluation of spatial distribution of wind energy.
2.3 CONTROLLER DESIGN
A state-space model of the controlled plant, obtained using finite element model
of the structure can be used for controller design.
Among the more popular advanced optimization techniques for control/robust
control are:-
(i) Linear Quadratic regulator (ii) H

Controller
The application of discrete piezoelectric actuators has been demonstrated to be a
viable concept for vibration suppression. Crawley and Luis (1989) proposed an analytical
solution for a static case including various actuator geometries. They stated that discrete
piezoelectric actuators could be considered in vibration suppression of some modes of
vibration of flexible structures. Baz and Ro (1994) demonstrated active control of beam
by PD controller. Azvine et al (1995) used velocity feedback for a cantilevered beam.

16

The velocity was measured at the tip of the beam whereas actuation was applied at the
root of the beam. Rongong et al (1997); Varadan et al (1996) have used both velocity and
displacement feedback. Naveen (2007) used derivative control on ACLD beam and
curved panels.
Park et al (1999) have used proportional and derivative control for controlling first
two modes of an actively controlled plate.
The controller design for active vibration suppression using Linear Quadratic
Regulator (LQR) technique was investigated by Liao and Wang (1998a, 1998b)
establishing the efficacy in enhancing the damping. Balamurugan and Naraynan (2002a,
2002b) used LQR for vibration suppression of the beam. They also used LQR (2002c) to
investigate the vibration suppression of the plate.
Robust control deals explicitly with uncertainty in its approach to controller
design. Robust control methods are designed to function properly so long as uncertain
parameters or disturbances are within some (typically compact) set. Robust methods aim
to achieve robust performance and/or stability in the presence of bounded modeling
errors. For robust control, the principal issues to be addressed while designing control
law are as follows: accurate structural modeling, uncertainty modeling; controller order
reduction and robustness validation.
In literature, numerous research works on application of H

control for controller

design exist. One of the important applications of H

control for piezoelectric structures

was reported by Dosch et al. (1995) with the synthesis of a robust controller for a flexible
antenna.
Moreira et al (2001) used a robust H

control approach to control a satellite solar

panel model structure. Yaman et al (2001) designed a SISO (single input single output)
H

Controller for a cantilevered aluminum beam with a pair of actuators located close to
clamped end. H

Control was employed by Craddisis et al (2000) for a test beam using

ACLD (Active constrained layer damping) treatment and was compared with PD
(Proportional damping) controller. It was shown that H

Controller provides robustness

for significant plant variation and is superior to PD Controller. The synthesis of a robust

17

H

Controller for an all-clamped active panel was reported by Chang et al (2002). A

cantilevered cylindrical shell configuration was considered by Tani et al (1990). The
SISO control was provided by two piezoelectric film layers sandwiched on a plastic base,
while a gap sensor provided measurement of a point on the surface. A sixth order H

Controller was derived for a reduced two mode representation of the structural model
accounting for output (sensor) disturbances only. Multivariable H

Control was achieved

for a slender cantilever plate with two noncollocated sensors and actuators by Sadri et al
(1999). Stavroulakis et al (2006) have proposed H

Controller to directly accommodate

the plant uncertainties of a structure subjected to wind loads. Piezoelectric control of the
dynamic response of a complex Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) wing model was
considered by Iorga et al (2007). A robust 17-state H

Controller targeting the first

vibration mode was synthesized and subsequently reduced to 8 states using a
performance preserving frequency weighted controller reduction algorithm.

2.4 CONCLUSIONS FROM LITERATURE SURVEY
A lot of work has been reported in literature on the active control of structures, in
particular for beams and other simpler structures. In addition, application of piezo-
patches on the structures and its associated FE modeling is also extensively researched,
for investigating active vibration control. Various control laws and algorithms have been
tried on variety of structures and different research issues were addressed. However some
gaps exist in which work done is scanty.
(i) As discussed earlier, the flexible aerospace structures are constantly under
varying degree of aerodynamic excitation. Effective vibration control of such
structures is an important research area and not enough research work is reported
in the open literature.

(ii) Although some work is reported on wind excited building structure and its
control, development of robust vibration control strategy for beam and curved
panel under aerodynamic loading needs to be addressed adequately.

18


(iii) Most of the work on active vibration control tends to use SISO controller. But
the use of multiple patches on large scale curved panel, under random excitation
is yet to be seen.

(iv) Active control preferentially works and is amply demonstrated for single tone
low frequency excitation. However, its performance under broad band excitation
is always doubted. There is need to conduct theoretical as well as experimental
investigation for such elements.

(v) In the few works on aerodynamically loaded active structures, the aerodynamic
loads are treated as equivalent loads, with fluid-structure interactions not being
included. The use of new tool CFD is relatively much less in actively controlled
structures.


19

CHAPTER 3: PROPOSED RESEARCH PLAN

3.1 OBJECTIVES
In the design of structures for aerodynamic application, the knowledge of vibration
characteristics of the structure under the specified aerodynamic forces is essential for
safety and stability of the structure.
Two independent methods which adequately capture dynamic interaction between elastic,
inertial and aerodynamic forces have been identified from literature for implementation.
The work done in this direction is primarily used for passive structural response
prediction under aerodynamic excitation. These strategies would be extended to actively
controlled structures. Secondly, it is proposed to investigate the need for robust controller
and implement it in the modeling.
The primary aim of the research work is to implement effective active vibration control
on the beams and curved panels subjected to aerodynamic loading.
This will be achieved through the following objectives:-
(i) Development of effective active vibration control algorithm for Active vibration
control of aerodynamically excited structures accounting for dynamic interaction
between aerodynamic excitation and vibration of structure such as beams and
curved panel.
(ii) To implement the developed algorithm of active vibration control using multiple
piezoelectric patches on the smart structure using finite element model of the
structure, including the fluid structure interaction studies.
(iii) To compare the experimental results and analytical predictions made for beams
and curved panels in terms of the dynamic response of the controlled structure. To
improve/ modify the controller based on the findings.



20


3.2 METHODOLOGY
1. The first step will involve modelling and study of the vibration response of a beam under
aerodynamic loading. The aerodynamic loading in the proposed work takes into
consideration the dynamic interactions between elastic, inertial and aerodynamic forces
and hence can more closely simulate actual conditions. Two methods namely Doublet
lattice method and stochastic method account for structural dynamics and its impact on
aerodynamic loading and will be implemented in the model. Influence on the response of
various parameters of excitations such as wind velocity, spectral character, etc will be
investigated. Typical periodic excitation due to other excitation sources such as engine
excitation will be added to the aerodynamic excitation.
The above approach will be extended to more involved structure such as a curved panel.
It is proposed to include bending and torsional modes in the case of curved panel. The
approach would be to use multiple patches on the curved panels and design a MIMO
controller for producing a control which can effectively control tonal as well as
broadband excitations.
2. Robust control algorithm appropriate for the case of beam and curved panel will be
implemented to achieve vibration attenuation. Comparative study will be carried out to
bring out influence of various parameters of significance.
3. Experimental investigations to establish the numerically simulated results are an
important part of the proposed research work to validate the findings. The structure
would be tested in wind tunnel and the effectiveness of control performance would be
studied.



21

CHAPTER 4 :WORK DONE

4.1 COURSE WORK:
The following courses were taken.

Sr. No. Course Grade

1 MEL 733 VIBRATION ENGG. 4 A-
2 AML705 FINITE ELEMENT
METHOD
4 A-
3 MEL740 INSTRUMENTATION
& AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM
4 B
TOTAL CREDITS-12 CGPA-8.667


Literature review in the research topic Active vibration control of flexible structure under
aerodynamic excitation was carried out and has been presented in Chapter 2.
4.2 ACTIVE CONTROL OF A TWO DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEM
In order to illustrate the effectiveness of active control, a two dof system as shown in figure 4.1
was considered. A MATLAB code was to study the 2 degree of freedom system has been
developed.







X1- Step Force input
Mass m1=10Kg
Mass m2=20 Kg
X2
Piezo ; gd=100

K=2000N/m
K=10000N/m
Fig: 4.1: Two degree of freedom
System

22

mode shape Freq=5.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
x 10
-4
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-0.25
-0.2
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
0
Mass
D
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
First Mode Freq= 1.443 Hz
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-0.35
-0.3
-0.25
-0.2
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
Mass
D
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
Second Mode Freq=5.577 Hz
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
x 10
-4
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l i t
u
d
e










Figure 4.2 shows the natural frequencies and mode shapes for the system. The system
matrices obtained along with the control force were converted to state space form. From the state
matrices so derived, some of the important response studies are made. The two degree of
freedom system at Figure 4.1 is subjected to step force input at the first mass. For different gain
values the response, obtained is plotted in figures 4.4-4.9, while the uncontrolled response is
given in figure 4.3.






Fig 4.4- Response at m1 to step input g
d=
100 ;g
v
=5
Fig6: Uncontrolled Response at m1
Fig 4.3- Uncontrolled Response at m1 to step input
Fig:4.2-Mode Shapes of 2 dof system

23




2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
x 10
-4
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
x 10
-4
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
1.1
1.15
1.2
x 10
-4
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
10.5
11
11.5
x 10
-5
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Fig: 4.8 - Response at m1 to step input g
d=
100 ; g
v
=200

Fig: 4.7- Response at m1 to step input g
d=
100 ; g
v
=100

Fig: 4.6 -Response at m1 to step input g
d=
100;g
v
=50 Fig 4.5- Response at m1 to step input g
d=
100 ; g
v
=25

24









Fig: 4.9 Response at m1 to step input g
d=
100 ; g
v
=500

The damping is introduced in two degree of freedom system (shown in Figure 4.1) by the
velocity gain g
v
introduced damping in the system. For constant g
d
=100N/volt, the g
v
is varied
from 5 NSec/m to 500 NSec/m and at mass location M1 a unit step input is given. The effect of
g
v
variation on response of mass 1 for step input is plotted from Figure 4.4 -4.9.The following
points has emerged.
- For higher values of g
v
value, the higher natural frequency is not seen in the response
output.
- For higher g
v
value ,the initial amplitude of response is decreasing.
- The variation of (damping ratio) with g
v
is tabulated in Table 4.1

Table: 4.1 Variation of Damping with change in gain values
g
v
(Damping ratio)
25 1.917e-03
50 4.242 e-03
100 8.534 e -03
200 .01756
500 .03671
Fig:10- Response at m1 to step input g
d=
100 ; g
v
=

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
1.1
1.15
x 10
-4
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

25


The two degree of freedom system at Figure 4.1 was also subjected to typical random input.
As one can notice in figure 4.10, the random excitation has a tonal component along with a normal
white noise. The response values obtained is given in figures 4.11-4.13








0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-1
0
1
2
3
x 10
-4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
0
2
4
6
8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
0
2
4
6
x 10
-4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
0
2
4
6
Fig: 4.11-Response to the Random excitation gd=100; gv=25



Fig: 4.10-Typical Random excitation



Time(Sec)
Time(Sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e


26








It is noted that amplitude of vibration response to random input decreases with increase of
damping g
v
.
4.3 Active Control of a Cantilever Beam

The work done for a 2 degree of freedom system is then extended for a cantilever beam structure.

A Finite element based MATLAB program was written evaluate the natural frequency and mode
shapes of of a cantilevered beam. For a typical result the following dimensions of the beam are
used:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
0
2
4
6
x 10
-4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
0
2
4
6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
0
2
4
6
x 10
-4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
0
2
4
6
Fig: 4.12-Response to Typical Random excitation gd=100; gv=50
Fig: 4.13-Response to Typical Random excitation gd=100; gv=100

Time(Sec)
Time(Sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e


27


Width-2.0mm; Length-20.0mm; Thickness-0.2mm;
Modulus-1.90 e11 N/m
2
; Density-7830 Kg/m
3


The accuracy has been compared with theoretical calculations as follows:

Table 4.2 - Natural Frequencies of a Cantilever Beam

Mode No Freq(Hz)
FEM (10 Elements)

Freq(Hz)
FEM (20 Elements)
Freq(Hz)
Theoretical Result
1 397.87 397.87 397.8
2 2493.51 2493.44 2493.34
3 6983.47 6981.81 6982.12
4 13691.36 13682.19 13682.48
5 22673.24 22620.06 22615.69


The FE modelling (10 elements) of the beam is carried out and a piezo patch is fixed on 3
rd

element. The response of the beam to step input is plotted in figure 4.14. The damping of the beam is
assumed to be zero. The frequencies evaluated through eigen value analysis are found to occur in the
step response. However the first natural frequency is dominant in the response. On application of
piezo patch ( at element no 3) the first natural frequencies change slightly from 397.8 Hz to 394.7.
The program is further being extended for response analysis under the piezo-actuation of with
displacement and velocity gains.

28












0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.018
Step Response
Time (sec)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Fig: 4.14-Response of the cantilevered beam to step force
input at the tip


29

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