Facts of Photovoltaics (PV) –

A Promising Alternative Energy Resource

Dr. Nowshad Amin

Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI)
National University of Malaysia (UKM)
Biography

z Born in Chittagong.
z Secondary to College from Chittagong Collegiate School (‘82-’83) &
Comilla Cadet College (SSC’87, HSC’89)
z Japanese Ministry of Education (Monbusho) Scholarship (Oct1990).
z Japanese Language Course to BS, MS & PhD (Tokyo Institute of
Technology) in Japan (Oct 1990-March 2001)
z Job at Motorola Japan (Apr. 2001 – Nov 2004)
z Post Doctoral Fellowship at University of South Florida (2002-2003), US.
z Assistant Professor at Multimedia University in Malaysia (Nov 2004-Oct
2006)
z Assistant Professor at National University of Malaysia (UKM) & Senior
Associate Research Fellow at Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI)
from Nov 2006 to date.
Contents

z Introduction
z Renewable Energy Resources
z PV Details
z Application of PV
z Some Facts: Japan and World
z Concluding Remarks
INTRODUCTION

ENERGY
USE RENEWABLE
ENERGY
FOSSIL
FUEL AGE HYBRID
FUEL AGE

PAST Present FUTURE

times
INTRODUCTION
Energy Demand and Production (Fluid Fossil Fuel)

Renewable Energy

2008
2015
INTRODUCTION
World fossil fuel reserves
INTRODUCTION
Environmental damage due to fossil fuels (1998)

Total Annual
Loss: $4.35
trillion
Recent Trend of Energy
Renewable Energy Sources

Wind Energy Solar Photovoltaic Energy Solar Thermal Energy

Focus on Solar Photovoltaic Energy

SOLAR CELLS

sunlight

solar cell electricity

heat
 ENERGY
RESOURCES
Wave and

Solar
DIRECT SOLARTidal
Radiation
Photovoltaic
Geothermal
ENERGY – Direct
Energy
Conversion of Sunlight
Photovoltaic
into ElectricityIndirect
Solar
Direct Stored
Thermal Energy
Solar Solar
Energy Energy Nuclear
Energy
AVAILABLE ENERGY: LATITUDE & CLIMATE

FUNDAMENTALS 07
SOLAR CELLS
 ENERGY
SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS
RESOURCES
Solar Drying, Solar Hot Water
Wave and
Heating Systems,
DIRECT SOLAR Solar
Tidal
Space
Solar Heating and Cooling,
Geothermal Solar
Energy
ENERGY
Radiation Detoxification, Solar Desalination,
Solar Refrigeration, Solar Heat
Photovoltaic Indirect
Pump, Solar Pumping
Solar
Direct Stored
Thermal Energy
Solar Solar
Energy Energy Nuclear
Energy
SOLAR THERMAL USAGE
Digging Deep Inside PV

z INTRODUCTION
z FUNDAMENTALS OF PV
z PV SYSTEMS
z BUILDING INTEGRATED
PHOTOVOLTAIC (BIPV)
z DESIGN AND INSTALLATION ISSUES
z EXAMPLE-SIZING OF PV SYSTEMS
FEATURES OF PV

z renewable /
sustainable
z direct conversion
z quiet
z reliable
z modular
z mW ~ multiMW
 Solar PV Energy

Advantages Limitations
z Majority manufactured z Intermittent power
from silicon - most abundant z Low-energy density
element in the earth’s crust
z High start-up cost
(28% by weight)
z Environmentally friendly
z Decentralized installation
z Long life (30 years)
z Low maintenance
z Noise-free
z Clean
z Light weight
z Overlap with IC technology
Solar Cell Fundamentals

1. What is a Solar Cell?

2. Solar Spectrum
3. Silicon
a) What is a Semiconductor?
b) How is Silicon Extracted?
4. Solar Cells
a) The Photovoltaic Effect
b) A Typical Solar Cell Design
c) Electrical Model of a Solar Cell
d) Limiting Losses in a Silicon Solar Cell
e) Performance of a Solar Cell
f) Basic Power Output of a Solar Cell
What is a Solar Cell?

¾ A solar cell is a semiconductor device

designed to convert sunlight into
electricity.

¾ The conversion of light into electricity in a

solar cell is called the photovoltaic (PV)
effect.

¾ Photovoltaics stands for photo, meaning

“light”, and voltaic, meaning “electricity”.
Solar Spectrum

¾The solar spectrum at Earth’s surface in ~ 0.3-2.5-µm range; the

visible part in ~ 0.4 to 0. 8-µm range,
¾ The peak sunlight intensity (AM 1.5) is ~1000 W/m2 or ~ 100 mW/cm2
Sunlight Utilization In
Semiconductors

¾ Convert all sunlight into

electricity

¾ Design materials to achieve

maximum energy conversion

¾ Most suitable materials are single

and multiple layer semiconductors

¾ Silicon is most desirable due to

low cost and optimal match with
solar spectrum
 Introduction

¾ Solar cells convert the incident solar radiation energy into electrical
energy.
¾ Sunlight is composed of photons, or "packets" of energy. When photons
strike a solar cell, they may be reflected or absorbed, or they may pass
right through. When a photon is absorbed, the energy of the photon is
transferred to an electron in an atom of the cell (which is actually a
semiconductor). With its new found energy, the electron is able to escape
from its normal position associated with that atom to become part of the
current in an electrical circuit. By leaving this position, the electron
causes a hole to form.

The effect of the electric field in a PV cell

How do solar cells work?
p-n Junction

Xd
p-type n-type

anode cathode

p≈ Na p≈Nd

-xp 0 xn

+
Va
Ideal solar cell material

¾ Bandgap between 1.1 and 1.7eV.

¾ Direct band structure

¾ Consisting of readily available, non toxic materials.

¾ Easy, reproducible deposition technique, suitable for large area

production.

¾ Good photovoltaics conversion efficiency.

¾ Long term stability.

PV EFFECT: BASIC PROCESS AND
LOSSES
light absorption recombination

transport of charge Egap hν

carriers

charge separation & generation

collection 1.6 solar spectrum

convertible by c-Si cell

power [W/(m2.nm)]
1.2
power generation
0.8
(energy dissipation)
0.4

final recombination 0.0

400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
wavelength [nm]
OPERATING PRINCIPLE SOLAR CELL

_ anti-reflection coating
front contact
n-type semiconductor

electron (-) p-type semiconductor

hole(+) generation

recombination
back contact
+
CURRENT – VOLTAGE
CHARACTERISTIC OF A SOLAR CELL

current→
dark Vmax
voltage → open
circuit
voltage
Imax
Pmax
illuminated
short circuit current
Solar Cells Parameters

qv

Ι = Io[e Akt
− 1] − IL
z Io is the reverse saturation current
z A is diode quality factor
z IL is the light generated current
z t is depth of the semiconductor material
from the surface of incident light
Solar Cell Parameters (cont.)

z Short circuit current densities

z Isc=-IL
I sc
J sc =
A
zA is area of the solar cells
z Isc is the short circuit current
Solar cells Parameters (cont.)

Open circuit voltage, Voc

⎡ kT ⎤ ⎛ I sc ⎞
V oc = A⎢ ⎥ ln ⎜ + 1⎟
⎣ q ⎦ ⎝ Io ⎠
Fill Factor, FF
V m Im
FF =
V oc I sc
Solar cell parameters

Efficiency, ŋ
FF × Voc × Isc
η= × 100%
Pin
As the total radiated power incident on the cell Pin is
100, the efficiency reduces

η = VocJscFF
PV Voltage, Current and Power

Imp × Vmp
FF =
Isc × Voc

ImpVmp IscVocFF
η= =
Ps Ps
P max = Imp × Vmp
 EFFICIENCY AND YIELD

maximum electric power

efficiency = at Standard Test
incident illumination power
Conditions (STC)

electric energy

energy yield = incident solar energy under practical

conditions

STC: 25 oC, air mass (AM) 1.5, 1000 W/m2, ⊥

 EFFICIENCY IDEAL AND PRACTICAL
CELLS

z ideal cells
loss factor remedy
- spectral mismatch η≤30% - multicolour (tandem) cells η≤85%
- recombination - concentration

z practical cells and modules: add

- excess recombination
- shadowing & reflection
- transmission example:
- resistance multicrystalline
- non-optimal band gap(s) silicon cell (15%)
Study Details: CdTe Thin Film Solar Cell
ｈν

Corning 1737

ITO (2500Å )
CdS MOCVD法 (600Å )
Ag
CdTe CSS 法
膜質改善
(4～ 7μ ｍ )
Carbon CdCl2 処 理
印刷法
p 型化
Ag (20μ ｍ )
(Cu-Doping)

＋
Schematic
SchematicView
Viewof
ofthe
theCdS/CdTe
CdS/CdTeSolar
SolarCell
Cell
 Objectives of this Study
Cd T e Th ickn ess Red uctio n to 1µm
Cd Te A bso r ptio n Co efficien t: 2x10 4 cm -1 hν
Rec ombi nat ion
φ2 - φ1 S tate s
CB Bac k Contac t
Over 90% o f In cid en t Co r nin g 1737 EF
Sp ectru m Ab sor b ed
in 1 µ m-Cd T e layer TCO VB
Cd S Cd T e
Cd S
Ag Cd Te
ZnTe Heter o S tru ctu re at Back S ur face
Ag
In sertio n of T extur ed TC O V acu u m Level

Light
TCO E lectr o n F lo w
2. 26e V
1. 44e V
Diffraction Diffraction
2 .4 1eV
Light Absorption Layer
Cd S Cd T e Zn T e
 Achievements
Achievementsof
ofthe
theStudy
Study
CdTe 光吸収係数は 2x104 cm-1 、 入射光の 90%を 1µm で吸収 1 µmまで薄膜化

1.2 µm-CdTe 太陽電池の場合、変換効率は 11.5%。

Textured SnO 2 の導入により、 0.6-µm CdTe 太陽電池の場合、変換効率は 11.2%。

NREL (15.8%)
16
Conversion Efficiency [%]

Matsushita
U. S. F
(16%) (15.8%) T. I. T.
(15.3%)
14 T. I. T.
(14.7%)
Present
Position 12
ITO

10 Textured TCO

ITO
T.I.T.
Others
8
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
CdTe Thickness [µm]
What is a Semiconductor?

¾ Semiconductors absorb sunlight to create electrical

current

¾ A semiconductor has an electrical conductivity in

between that of a metal and an insulator.

¾ Most common semiconductors for PV cells include:

™ Silicon (Si)
™ Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
™ Copper Indium Diselenide (CuInSe),
™ Cadmium Telluride (CdTe).

¾ Silicon is also the material of choice in the integrated

circuit manufacturing
How is Silicon Extracted?

¾ Raw silicon is first extracted from common sand. A

series of chemical steps refine it until the purity
level reaches 99.9999999 %. Thus, for every ten
billion atoms, only one non-silicon atom can be
permitted.

¾ Crystalline silicon is used in most solar cells.

¾ To create a crystal, two methods are used:

z Czochralski (CZ) process,
z Float-zone (FZ) process.
CZ dominates the market.
The Czochralski Process
¾ A seed of single crystal silicon contacts the top of a molten mass
(1421ºC) of purified silicon. The seed crystal is slowly raised (less than 10
cm per hour) and rotated. As the crystal rises imperceptibly from the
melt, silicon freezes on its surface, extending the size of the single crystal.

¾ Silicon ingots are "grown" from the

purified molten silicon. Slices of the
ingot - ranging from 100mm to 300mm
(4 to 12 inches) in diameter with a
thickness about 1/30th of an inch thick
(approximately that of a credit card )
are cut from this crystal. The slices are
called "wafers."
The Photovoltaic Effect

Described simply, the PV effect is as

follows:
¾ Light which enters a PV cell imparts
enough energy to some electrons covalent free electron
to free them from the silicon atoms. bond e-
created hole
+
¾ The missing electron in the bond is (missing
called a hole. In other words, Si atom
electron)
incident light has created a free
electron and a hole.
Photon
¾ The generation of electrons and holes by light is the central
process in the PV effect, but it does not itself produce a current.

¾ A built-in-potential barrier in the cell acts on these electrons to

produce a voltage, which can be used to derive a current
through a circuit.
A Typical Solar Cell Design
¾ Solar cells comprise 2 major regions:
™ A P-region conducting positive charges (holes),
™ And an N-region conducting negative charges (electrons).

¾ A typical solar cell has several layers:

™ A conducting grid on the top surface,
™ An antireflection coating to reduce reflections of the incident light on
the cell,
™ A semiconductor with the P and N regions
™ And a back metal contact electrode.
Electrical Model of a Solar Cell

¾ A PV device can be modeled

as an ideal diode in parallel
with a light-induced current
generator, ISC.
ID
¾ Rsh: shunt resistance, mainly
due to crystal imperfections.

¾ Rs: series resistance, arises

from the bulk conductivities of
the layers and from the
contacts.
 Limiting Losses in a
Silicon Solar Cell

Sunlight has not enough

energy to separate electrons
Optical Losses

Sunlight:100mW/cm2
Excess energy has heat
Cell Output: 16.6mW/cm2 losses

Why a solar cell Collection efficiency

is not 100% Material

Thermalization
Losses
efficient? Metallic Losses

→ Solar efficiency
Performance of a Solar Cell

The performance of a solar cell is function of:

¾ Sunlight and climate conditions,

¾ Angle of incidence,
¾ Wavelength of the light,
¾ Polarization,
¾ Surface area of the solar cell.
Basic Power Output of a Cell

¾ Voltage of the electric current: 0.5 Volts.

This results from the voltage across the P/N
barrier layer of the solar cell.

¾ Current of a solar cell: proportional to the amount

of radiation incident on the solar cells and the
number of electron-hole pair created
~ 30-40 mA/cm2.

¾ Efficiency (ratio of electric power produced by a

cell at any instant to the power of the sunlight
striking the cell):
ranges up to 28% (lab) but typical is ~ 15%
(manufacturing).
 Solar Cell System Configurations

1. PV Modules and
Arrays

2. PV Solar Electric
Systems
 Solar Cell System Configurations

¾ One solar cell produces only 0.5 V and

30mA/cm2, which isn't enough power for most
applications.

¾ To increase power output, cells are electrically

connected together.

¾ Solar cells are connected in series to increase

the voltage.

¾ Solar cells are connected in parallel to increase

the current.
PV Modules and Arrays

¾ Solar cells connected in series increases voltage. The positive lead from
one cell is joined to the negative lead of the next cell and so on.

¾ Solar cells connected in parallel increases current. A common lead

joined all the positive terminals and another lead joined all the negative
terminals.

Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3 + … Vtotal = V1 = V2 = V3 = …
Itotal = I1 = I2 = I3 = … Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3 + ...
PV Modules and Arrays

¾ A group of solar cells put together is called a photovoltaic module.

¾ Solar cells are combined to form a module to obtain the voltage and
current (and therefore power) desired.
For example, to form a 12-volt module, 24 solar cells have to be connected
in series.
¾ A photovoltaic array is a group of
photovoltaic modules put together to generate
electricity.

¾ A PV array may consist of one module to

thousands of modules. The output of the array
may vary from a few watts to tens of
Megawatts depending on the number and
output of the modules.
Typical Solar Module

¾ Cells are interconnected and packaged in a weatherproof module.

¾ The cells are encapsulated in a material like silicone or ethylene-vinyl

acetate (EVA) and covered by a tempered glass sheet.

¾ The module is sealed into a metal frame (typically Al) complete with
mounting holes so that the module can be attached to rack or building
assemblies.
PV Modules and Arrays

¾PV modules are very versatile. They can be

mounted in a variety of sizes and applications. For
example:
™ On the roof or awning of a building,
™ Building-integrated PV such as PV shingles,
which replace conventional roofing shingles (a),
™ Water pumping (b),
™ Communications (c),
™ Large-scale utility power (d),
™ And roadside emergency phones (e).
PV Solar Electric Systems

Photovoltaics converts light energy directly into an electric current that

can either be used immediately or stored for later use, such as in a battery.
¾ A solar cell produces direct
current (DC), but most of the
appliances at home require
alternating current (AC).

¾ A device called an inverter

converts a solar cell’s DC into
AC.

¾ DC: current always flows in

the same direction.

¾ AC: the direction of the

current alternates.
PV Solar Electric Systems

¾The solar electricity can also be integrated into an electric utility's grid
system.

¾During the day, you can complement the power grid with photovoltaic
energy.

¾Benefits:
™Reduced power bills
™Increased value of the
residence
™Positive environmental
contribution
Solar Cell Manufacturing
Solar Module Manufacturing
Types of Solar Cells
Types of Solar Cells in Market Share
World PV Research Growth
Multijunction Solar Cell

z Spectrum of sunlight
split and distributed
over a variety of
semiconductor
materials by a prism.
z Each semiconductor
material was
selected in which
would best match
each portion of the
spectrum
PV Cell to Module
Configuration of Solar PV System
PV TECHNOLOGIES

• commercial
- wafer-type crystalline silicon (c-Si; mono & multi)
- thin-film amorphous silicon (a-Si;
incl. silicon-germanium and microcrystalline silicon)
• pre-commercial / pilot production
- thin-film cadmium telluride (CdTe)
- thin-film copper-indium/gallium-diselenide (CIGS)
• laboratory
- sensitized oxides (a.o. dye cells)
- organic cells (o.a. polymer cells)
PV TECHNOLOGIES
example sensitized*) oxide cell (not to scale)
glass/plastic
transparant conducting oxide +
(counter electrode)

electrolyte
nanocrystalline, porous TiO2
transparant conducting oxide
(photoelectrode)

dye

TiO2

*) with dye, polymer or

inorganic absorbers
PV TECHNOLOGIES & EFFICIENCES

30 wafer-based c-Si cells

25 thin-film CIGS cells

thin-film CdTe cells

efficiency (%)

20

thin-film a-Si cells (stable)

15

wafer-based c-Si modules

10
thin-filmGIGS modules
5
thin-film a-Si modules
0 (stable)
1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005
year
PV TECHNOLOGIES & EFFICIENCES
CATEGORY GROUP MATERIAL TYPE RECORD TYPICAL
EFFICIENCY MODULE
LAB CELLS EFFICIENCY
(%) (%)
inorganic IV (Cz + FZ) sc-Si wafer 25 13-16
semiconductors
mc-Si + Si wafer 20 12-14
sheets

(poly)crystalline wafer+film 16 (8-10)

Si films
a-(Si,Ge):H thin film 14 (tandem) 5-9 (stable)
and µc-Si
III-V GaAs family, InP, wafer+film 25 (single) 20-22
GaSb, a.o. 30 (tandem) (space)
33 (conc.)
II-VI CdTe, CdS, a.o. thin film 16 6-9

ternary Cu(In,Ga)(Se,S)2 thin film 19 8-11

organic polymer thin film 3 ---

semiconductors
molecular thin film 5 ---

sensitized organic dye/TiO2 a.o. thin film 11 ---

oxides
inorganic CIS/TiO2 a.o. thin film ? ---

other hybrid various

THIN-FILM SOLAR CELL:
EXAMPLE a-Si
THIN-FILM SOLAR CELLS:
INTERCONNECTION IN A MODULE

monolithic interconnection in an a-Si module

SERIES CONNECTION IN A MODULE:
EFFECT OF PARTIAL SHADOWING

Demosite
MODULE BUILD-UP:
ENCAPSULATION OF SOLAR CELLS
MODULES BASED ON WAFER
TECHNOLOGY: CELL DENSITY
COMMERCIAL PV MODULES:
TYPE, SIZE, COLOUR AND FRAMING
COMMERCIAL PV MODULES:
FRAMELESS MODULES (LAMINATES)
COMMERCIAL PV MODULES:
PARTLY TRANSPARENT MODULES
INSULATED (PV) GLASS
PRECOMMERCIAL PV MODULES:
TRANSLUCENT MODULES

window
element with a-
Si cells
COMMERCIAL PV MODULES:
FLEXIBLE MODULES
roofing element with
flexible a-Si module
 MODULES BASED ON WAFER
TECHNOLOGY: SPECIALS
BP SOLAR

coloured PV cells
note: (15-30% reduced output)
CUSTOM-MADE PV-MODULES

PV glass brick

triangular module
CUSTOM-MADE PV-MODULES

“solar path”
CUSTOM-MADE PV-MODULES

solar chess
BIFACIAL PV MODULES
MODULES BASED ON WAFER
TECHNOLOGY: NEW DEVELOPMENTS

conventional

PUM

Pin-Up Module (PUM):

all interconnections at the back of the cells
THIN-FILM MODULES:
NEW DEVELOPMENTS

dye-sensitised solar cells

(laboratory/pre-pilot phase)

price label
 PV MODULES & SYSTEMS:
RATING
• module and system rating in watt-peak (Wp)

• e.g. a 50 Wp module generates 50 watt of electrical power at

Standard Test Conditions (STC)

• in addition, or alternatively, the power under realistic

conditions may be given (which is usually somewhat lower)

• in some cases also the actual energy production under

practical conditions (over a certain period of time) will be given
or guaranteed
note: Standard Test Conditions are 25oC, 1 sun = 1000 W/m2,
AM 1.5, normal incidence)
EFFECT OF OPERATING CONDITIONS

• temperature
- module efficiency decreases with temperature:
typically 0.2-0.5%/K (relative), depending on module
technology

• light intensity
- module efficiency decreases with light intensity:
generally weak dependence from 1 to 0.1/0.2 sun,
below 0.1/0.2 sun strongly dependent on module
technology and type
note: nameplate rating generally at Standard Test Conditions
(STC; 25oC, 1 sun = 1000 W/m2, AM 1.5, normal incidence)
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS – Standalone System

PV Panel

Lamps

Charger TV

Battery Radio
Storage
PV SYSTEMS

stand-alone
systems

¾ consumer products
¾ telecom
¾ leisure
¾ water pumping
¾ lighting & signalling
¾ rural electrification
¾ etc.
PV SYSTEMS

energy yield dependent on:

- solar insolation (location)

- system power rating (in watt-peak, Wp)
- “system efficiency” (performance ratio):
z module efficiency under practical conditions
z inverter, regulator, battery (if applicable) & cable
losses, etc.
z system availablitity
 STAND-ALONE PV SYSTEMS

charge regulator
- protect battery from over- and underloading
- prevent reverse current from battery to module when dark

battery
- simple lead-acid (“car battery”) to advanced solar battery or NiCd, etc.
- provide short- (day), mid- (week-month) or long-term (season) storage
- operate for long period (>4 years) if properly maintained
- requires replacement within module lifetime
STAND-ALONE PV SYSTEMS:
EXAMPLE SOLAR HOME SYSTEM

typical energy yield 50 Wp solar home system:

(assume 2000 kWh.yr insolation)
- net module production: 70 kWh/year = 200 Wh/day
- including storage losses = 150 Wh/day

energy services provided:

- 3 x 8 W TL lamp x 3 hrs = 72 Wh/day
- 1 x 40 W B/W TV set x 2 hrs = 80 Wh/day
- TOTAL = 152 Wh/day
STAND-ALONE PV SYSTEMS

Brazil
STAND-ALONE PV SYSTEMS

PV water pumping in India

STAND-ALONE PV SYSTEMS

lndia
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS – Grid
connected

DC/AC
PV Panel
Lamps Utility Grid

TV

Load
GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS

Japan
¾ ground-based
¾ integrated
• roof-top & façade
• sound barriers
• etc.

(typical yield: 750-1500 kWhe/kWp·year,

depending on location)
GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS

key components in a
grid-connected PV system
GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS

CIGS rooftop PV system (NL)

GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS

2.3 MWp PV at the “Floriade” in NL

(horticultural exhibition)
GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS

A residential area in the Netherlands

 GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS

inverter
- efficient DC/AC conversion
(typical average efficiency ≥90%)
- maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
- high-quality output
(low harmonic distortion, etc.)
- safe and robust operation
(no island operation, protection against
indirect lightning strikes, etc.)
- long lifetime
GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS

building integrated PV at ECN

COOLING
THERMAL EFFECT ON EFFICIENCY

ECN
COOLING
THERMAL EFFECT ON PV

Mind local shading and possible hot spots!

COOLING - THERMAL EFFECT ON
SURROUNDING MATERIALS

z The temperature difference between PV and

ambient up to 40°C (in summer up to 70°C)
z insulated PV at the rear side - higher
temperatures
z air gap at the rear side preferable
z too high temperature: roofing material can melt
(bituminous materials!)
z tear, leaking or breaking of the PV laminate
can appear
z expansion space usually available
POWER & HEAT
PRINCIPLES OF PV-THERMAL

combined generation of heat and electricity

POWER & HEAT
AIR and FLUID FLOW TRANSFER
FLAT ROOFS: INTEGRATION OPTIONS

support
structure on
the roof

PV parasol

shed or
saw-tooth
roof
M.ART
SLOPED ROOFS: INTEGRATION
OPTIONS

mounted over tiles (stand-

off) or integrated

fully covered roof

PV as roof tiles
PV- ventilated (air gap
at the rear)
M.ART
FAÇADES: INTEGRATION OPTIONS

fully or partly
façade
integrated

PV / glass conservatory

balcony breast wall

AWNINGS: INTEGRATION OPTIONS

independent of building
envelope
fixed or movable

incorporated in building envelope as

a curtain wall

canopy
 SUN PORCH, VERANDA, ATRIUM
INTEGRATION OPTIONS

in flat or sloped roof

limited roof load

special case: membrane

or network construction
FLAT ROOFS
mounting options
z Support structure on the roof
z Gravity mounted or fixed mounted
z Optimal orientation & tilt
z Limited covered area due to mutual shading
FLAT ROOFS
support structure
z metal support structure
z alternatives: concrete, plastics

GROUND-BASED PV ARRAYS
• similar concept as for roofs
• metal support structure on
concrete foundations
• good accessibility
• possibility of sun tracking
• high land consumption
• theft problem
FLAT & SLOPED ROOFS: PV
PARASOL
z PV covered roof construction as a parasol reduces
heat load
z with or without water-retaining function
 SLOPED ROOFS
mounting options
STAND-OFF
z support structure
z suitable for retrofits
z cooled from the rear
z easily mounted and
replaced
INTEGRATED
z good integration
possible
z no mutual shading
z mind water tightness
and ventilation
FAÇADES
mounting options

•might be cost-effective
(replaces traditional cladding material)
•risk for damage on the ground floor
•not the optimal tilt
•aesthetically challenging
COMBINED FUNCTIONS
SHADING DEVICES

z ideal for PV
modules integration
z suitable both for
new and existing
buildings
z excellent
combination of
passive cooling,
daylighting control
and energy
production
OTHER OBJECTS

z sound barriers
z bus stops
z roofs of railway platforms or bus
stations
z along the railways
z information boards, etc.
COMBINED FUNCTIONS
PV-THERMAL

Hybrid collectors with medium:

AIR or WATER

•cooling PV improves efficiency

•heat can be used
−in summer (hot water)
−in winter (space heating)
•attractive in case the
available roof surface is limited
COMBINED FUNCTIONS
NATURAL LIGHTING
SKY LIGHTS
z PV at the South side
z light from the North
ideal for workshops

TRANSPARENT or
TRANSLUCENT PV
• opaque solar cells laminated in
double glass
• space between cells 1-3 cm
• diffuse or tempered light
• interesting shadow patterns
 ORIENTATION & TILT
location, building & planning
constraints
orientation &
tilt
z influences the yield
considerably
z southern orientation
preferable (northern
hemisphere)
z count with the right
orientation while
planning a
residential area
z mind possible
mutual shading

M.ART
ORIENTATION & TILT
sun tracking

Sun tracking system

•movable along one axis (horizontal)

•movable along two axes
•sun tracking sensor
•lamellas with integrated PV modules
•integrated in a façade
•cost-benefit ratio questionable

DESIGN PARAMETERS 02
RESIDENTIAL & COMMERCIAL
BUILDINGS
PV INDUSTRY

400 average market growth 1981-2001: 24%

other
module production

350 1996-2001: 38%

Europe
300
250 Japan
(MWp)

200 USA
150 total
100
50
0
1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000
year

source: P.D. Maycock / NCPV Hotline

BUILDING INTEGRATION 18, 22, 24

PV INDUSTRY

The Top Ten Solar Cell Producers in 2001

(Source: PHOTON International)

Sharp 74,0
BP Solar 54,4
Kyocera 54,0
Siemens & Shell Solar 48,3

AstroPower 26,0

RWE Solar 22,7

Isofoton 18,7
16,0
Sanyo
14,0
Mitsubishi
13,5
Photowatt

0,0 10,0 20,0 30,0 40,0 50,0 60,0 70,0 80,0

MW

BUILDING INTEGRATION 22
PV SYSTEMS:
PRICE REDUCTION
price reduction of PV systems requires:
• economy-of-volume
• improved & new technology

price level in 2007:

(turn-key grid-connected rooftop systems):
• 4~5 US$/Wp

long-term perspective:
• turn-key system price <1 US$/Wp
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

z energy pay-back time systems

(grid-connected systems)
z now 4-8 years (EU)
z future (<10 years) 1-2 years
z materials consumption
z avoid hazardous or scarce materials
z some alternatives required (for Ag, e.g.)
z recycling to be developed further
SOCIAL ISSUES

z rural access:
- 2 billion people without access to electricity grid
- PV provides electricity (energy services) in any
affordable amount
- need for financing options
- need for infrastructure (after sales, etc.)
- PV may be used as tool in development programmes
- PV is only sustainable energy technology for general use

BUILDING INTEGRATION 25
SOCIAL ISSUES

z job creation:
- high value jobs
- quantified by European PV Industry Association
EPIA and Greenpeace
- possibilities for substantial added value in
developing countries

BUILDING INTEGRATION 25
PV ADDED VALUE

PV is more than just a kWh-

generator:
- is also building element
- provides green power
- enables self-sufficiency in power generation
- can be used everywhere (all countries, all
locations)
- can be designed in any size
- etc.
EXAMPLE - SIZING OF STANDALONE
SYSTEM

z Step 1 – Determine the Load Available

Sunlight, PV Array Size and Battery
Bank Size
z Step 2 – Calculate PV System Costs
EXAMPLE - SIZING OF STANDALONE
SYSTEM
EXAMPLE - SIZING OF STANDALONE
SYSTEM
EXAMPLE - SIZING OF STANDALONE
SYSTEM
Recent Trend of Energy Industry
 World Shipment of Solar Cells

Japan U.S.A. EU Others

3000

2500

2000
SHIPMENT(MW)

1500

1000

500

0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
YEAR
World Shipment of Solar Cells
(by Manufacturers)

Isofoton (Spain)

SunPower (Philippines)

Schott Solar (Germany)

MOTEC (Taiwan)

Mitsubishi Electric( Japan)

Sanyo (Japan)

Suntech (China)

Kyocera (Japan)

Q-Cell (Germany)

Sharp (Japan)
Annual
Production
0 100 200 300 400 500
(MW/Year)
World Shipment of Solar Cells

single c-Si cast Si Si ribbon Si thin film CIS CdTe

3000

2500
Production(MW)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Year
Production of Si thin-film solar cells: 98MW for 2006
World Shipment of Thin-Film Solar Cells
S i T h in F ilm C u (In G a )S e 2 C dT e

180
CdTe: 68MW
160
P R O D U C T IO N (M W / Y E A R )

140
120 CIS: 4.9MW

100
80
60
40
Si: 98MW
20
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
YEA R
 Cumulative PV System

Japan Germany USA

1600

1400
Cumulative PV System (MW)

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
97 98 99 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
YEAR
Applications
ECO HOUSE (UKM)
Mankind will need additional 20TW by the mid-21st century.
Only Photovoltaics will meet this challenging target.
Thoughts to share

Let’s create public concern with various

PV activities in Bangladesh.

No Luxury before ensuring Power for All.

Our PV-Chain could assist Energy Demand

of Bangladesh from now on.
 Cont…..
Let’s think about our
coming generation
with Solar…..

Solar Energy Research Institute

National University Malaysia
Website: www.eng.ukm.my
Email: nowshad@eng.ukm.my