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1.0

INTRODUCTION

Fig 1. Cape Town

Fig 2. Swazilands Maiden

Over the years the relationship between tourism and sustainability has been the subject of most books and journals. Up until the late 90s a vast majority of tourism researchers and well- educated intellectuals focused more of their attention on sustaining the environmental resources of tourist destinations. Cohen (1977), Farrell and McLellan (1987) and WTO (1998) identified that sustainable tourism development depended on protecting the environmental resources for tourism. However, in recent years this perception has evolved as tourism thrives in developed and developing countries. As a result of the resource available, developed countries are more likely to manage and control the influx of tourists than developing countries. This is the reason why this essay discusses on how developing countries such as South Africa might be able to absorb the capacity of tourism. Judging by the current relationship between hosts and tourists, the economy and environment, issues concerning the development of a sustainable tourism have risen in tourist destinations such as Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban. The specific objective of the essay is to identify key problems in which tourist destination faces and offer recommendations concerning a sustainable tourism. According to Manson (2008) Tourism, as a significant form of human activity, can have major impacts. These impacts are very visible in the destination region, where tourists interact with the local environment, economy, culture and society (Manson, 2008 p.36). Hence this is the case, the positive and negative impacts of tourism on South Africas Economic, Socio-cultural and Environmental status will be analysed.

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2.0

THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF TOURISM IN SOUTH AFRICA

(Economical, Socio-cultural and Environmental)

The impact of tourism can either be positive or negative, depending on an observers point of view. For example, the increase in revenue through the building of hotels in Khoi Village, South Africa, might be viewed as a positive impact by an observer. While another observer might view this as a negative impact because locals will be diverted from their traditional forms of employment and moreover temporary jobs will be created, which will cause people to be poorly paid. The manner in which a destination is managed will determine the level of positive or negative impacts. There are three groups of individuals that participate in the development of tourism. They are; Preservationists: These are individuals that respects and appreciate the heritage of a destination. The aim of this group of individuals is solely to improve the economy, culture and environment of that destination by not going contrary to its values and believes (e.g. voluntary workers, pilgrims and non-governmental organisations). The conservers and users: These are individuals that view tourism as an opportunity to conserve and gain from the industry. Tourists, political powers and local residents that enhance the sustainability of a destinations economy, culture and environment, but however, profit and derive pleasure from its tourism are known as conserves and users. An example of conservers and users are; local residents that adhere to their local environment, history and cultural heritage, but nevertheless, encourage tourism development in order to enjoy its benefits. Exploiters: These are individuals that seek to use tourism for their own personal gain, be it pleasure or profit. They care less about the impacts made on the destination. In developing countries with bad leadership, political officials might be involved in exploiting the destination and expatriates investing great deal of profits in another country are also viewed as exploiters. In some cases residents also exploit tourists by taking advantage of them through stealing, sexual harassment, fraud etc.

The above groups of individuals mentioned, are either conscious or unconscious of their contribution to the tourism environment. Major benefits and problems of tourism that have transformed South Africas economy, socio-culture and environment have been outlined below. Beneficial and Problematic impacts of tourism Economic Impacts: Large-scale mass tourism in South Africa has created a dependence on export markets, increased the degree of foreign dominance and controlled the tourism sector (Khan, 1997, p.988). An observation has been made that most developing countries are

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promoting tourism for their own economic benefits but, how true is this perception. There is no doubt that the development of tourism has led to the building of tourism enterprises and infrastructures which has generated local jobs and income in large cities such as Durban, Cape Town, Johannesburg, Soweto etc. Above all tourism has enhanced South Africas export market and also generated revenue and jobs in the supplying sectors. Alongside creating a sense of entrepreneurship in local communities where it never existed. Research shows that the tourists flow in South Africa are mostly from developed countries. Therefore they arrive using their own international airlines, and obviously for tourism to take place in any developing country the goods and services have to be imported from developed countries. This means that a major proportion of tourism expenditure is leaking out from the local economy (Khan 1997; Archer and Sadler 1975). In a country like South Africa this leakage can be as high as 70%. Jobs have been generated through tourism, but key findings shows that at managerial level most of those jobs are held by expatriates and all semi-skilled or unskilled jobs are recruited to locals. Tourism enterprises such as brand hotel and restaurant chains with foreign ownership have been built but the profits made are transferred abroad causing an economic leakage in South Africa. Therefore, are the economic tourism impacts in South Africa beneficial or detrimental? If these impacts are beneficial as most modern theorists would say, then how come South Africa is still suffering from lack of effective management of funds, poverty, cultural devastation and economic inequality all in the name of tourism development? The occurrence of these impacts can be summed up in two words; ignorance and exploitation. Socio-cultural Impacts: This aspect refers to people in groups, be it the tourists, the local residents or people in high authorities (government and foreign companies). This aspect is concerned with the interaction between the three groups of individuals stated above. Factors that control the impact on socio-cultural behaviour are; the people involved and the activities they are engaged in. Beneficial impacts of tourism on the socio-culture of South Africa includes the creation of jobs; an opportunity for residents and tourist to learn more about each other; the promotion of local arts and crafts and cultural identity; renovation of regions and conservation of areas with outstanding beauty and cultural value; development of adequate infrastructure and facilities which can also be used by local residents (e.g. the construction of cinemas, hotels and local and international transport subsystems). This development has resulted to the revival of social and cultural life of urban and rural population. However, tourism has the reputation of long-term detrimental effects on the society and culture of host areas (Mason, 2008). As a result of tourist demands controlling the tourism industry, the government and foreign company owners have constantly exploited local indigenes by displacing them from their lands in order to build tourism enterprises and over-commercializing their cultural tradition which have resulted into degradation of cultural heritage (Holden, 2003). The introduction of enclave tourism in Swaziland has created disparity between tourists and local residents, because the goods and services available are beyond the financial means of the local communities and any foreign currency created have only a minimal effect on their economy (Saarinen et al, 2009). If the destination does not meet the tourists requirements, tourists are likely not to return. But, If attractions, services, and facilities are of high quality, they will naturally increase the quality of the trip, which will automatically enhance the perceived value of the destination, hence leading to high tourist satisfaction (Okello and Yerian 2005, p.620). However, Perdue et al (1990) and Saarinen et al (2009) suggested that the perception of the local residents should be taken into consideration before commencing any development. In some villages and cities local residents have lost their sense of place as their

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environment has been transformed in order to meet tourist demands. Causing a demonstration effect on particularly young residents, the effect can either be positive or negative. For example they might aspire to be as intellectual as the tourists or go into prostitution and robbery in order to have the luxurious lifestyle demonstrated by visitors. When this occurs it destroys the reputation of the destination and ends up attracting tourists with intents to exploit the indigenous population. However, Wall (1997) as cited by Manson (2008) identified that large numbers of residents of destination areas have continued to want tourists to come and often want them very much. It is arguable that all these impacts occurred because local residents were probably not informed about the impacts of tourism development, due to the government favouring the enhancement of tourism at their opportunity cost. Environmental Impacts: This aspect is concerned with the impacts of tourism on the environment. It focuses on the impacts of humans on the natural and manmade environment. South Africa is a country with beautiful historic attractions from architectural building to unique landscapes and wildlife. This has attracted tourists that seek for a more sophisticated type of holiday containing unique personal experiences, as well as exclusivity and differentiation. Producers and consumers are thus turning their attention towards heritage tourism (Saarinen et al, 2009). Most of these visitors are those with a genuine interest in history and understands the significance of the heritage attraction (Poria et al, 2006).Therefore; this has benefited different natural and manmade tourist heritage sites. Manson (2008) stated that there are four factors that influence tourism impacts on the environment. These factors are; the location where the tourism activity takes place, the type of activity, the nature of any tourist infrastructure and the seasonality. Impacts that have been considered to be beneficial on the environment. A clean and healthy environment is essential for the furthering of tourism (Holden, 2003), thus revenue generated from tourism is used in paying for the conservation of local nature areas, archaeological and historic sites (e.g. wildlife reserves and museums). The introduction of ecotourism and heritage tourism has led to new uses for marginal or unproductive lands and buildings. Therefore, encouraging a grater environmental awareness and sense of cultural identity by residents when they see tourists enjoying the local environmental, historical and cultural heritage (WTO, 1998). There has been a transformation in South Africas infrastructure since the arrival of tourism. Adequate and improved infrastructures have been made available to serve various local communities, alongside the reuse of disused buildings and regeneration and/or modernization of built environment (Manson, 2008). Tourism has created an awareness about South Africas natural and cultural riches, which has led to a year round influx of tourists. These has enhanced the local economy and developed a renewed sense of pride in the life of South Africans as they realise that tourists appreciate their heritage.

However, South Africas natural and built environment faces a large number of critical ethical dilemmas, which needs to be addressed in order to minimise environmental risks posed by tourist activities and operations. The following issues outlined below have been regarded as the negative environmental impacts of tourism;

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Overcrowding in South Africas main cities such as Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban has resulted to traffic congestion, noise pollution and littering. Due to tourists demands there has been land transfers to tourism(e.g. from agricultural lands to enclave resorts areas) The creation of unnecessary infrastructures has resulted to the destruction of natural resources and tranquillity that once existed in some rural communities. The uncontrolled use by visitors of some national parks and archaeological and historic sites has led to their deterioration. These includes, disruption of the breeding and feeding patterns of biodiversity, destruction of vegetation, graffiti, vandalism, and removal of items as souvenirs from archaeological and historic sites.

Be it positive or negative, the extent of the impact depends on the environmental, perceptual and ecological carrying capacity.

3.0

RECOMMENDATIONS ON SUSTAINING TOURISM IN SOUTH AFRICA

Fig.3 Important Public Notice

Tourism has resulted into numerous positive and negative economic, environmental and social impacts. But even though the negative effects are far greater than the positive effects, it does not mean that the negative effects are more important, as quantity of impacts does not necessarily equate with quality of impacts (Manson, 2008). In order for South Africa to progress towards sustainability, comprehensive planning must be carried out. Followed by an evaluation regarding new strategies, when the evaluation results into a win-win situation between sustainability and tourism development, the implementation of a certified environmental management system can commence. In order to improve the countrys economic wellbeing, environmental conditions, socio-cultural ethics and tourist satisfaction, recommendations regarding residents' perception and tourism marketing strategies needs to be considered.

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Resident perception: For tourism in a destination area to thrive, its adverse impacts should be minimized and it must be viewed favourably by the host population (Ap, 1992 p.665). Figure 3 illustrates an effective tourism sustainability management strategy by Londons East Walworth Councillors. Posters and letters were distributed around East Walworth, soliciting local residents to express their views concerning the development of sex establishments in the community. As shown in Figure 4, Perdue, Long and Allen (1990) model examines the relationships between residents' perceptions of tourism impacts and their support for it. Key findings showed that, when personal benefits obtained from tourism development were controlled, residents with positive perceptions of tourism impacts supported an additional tourism development and specific tourism development policies (Ap, 1992 p.666). Thus, there has to be a balance of benefits for both residents and tourism actors in order for South Africa to proceed towards sustainability.
Fig 4. Resident perception and attitude model

This model focuses on testing the relationships between resident characteristics and perceptions of tourisms impacts (R1, R3). Although very little research has directly examined the influence of personal benefits from tourism on perceptions of impact (R2), numerous authors have interpreted the observed relationship between resident characteristics and perceptions of impact by postulating a relationship between resident characteristics and personal benefits from tourism (R2) which, in turn, affects resident perceptions of tourism impacts (R4, R5) (Perdue et al, 1990).

Outlined below are recommendations concerning ways to achieve long-term sustainability in these three dimensions. Economic sustainability The South African government should encourage business relationship between foreign and local entrepreneurs. Tourism stakeholders should not be over-dependant on tourism. Avoid mass tourism development in areas that might not have the capacity to absorb tourism. This development may lead to inflation, loss of resources and deterioration to sustainable livelihoods.

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Instead of buying lands from local residents, lands should be rented. This therefore will reduce the level of industrialisation and the local residents will be able to economically benefit more from tourism development. A financial feasibility assessment should be carried out before raising the expectation and exposing local entrepreneurs to risk. Tourists and local residents should be encouraged to buy locally made goods and services from locally owned businesses. Advantages should be given to enterprises that help to enhance the sustainability of local communities. The government should consider guaranteeing loans for community projects that involves training poor local residents on how to work at managerial levels.

Socio-cultural sustainability Tourist should be educated through internet and print materials, concerning the local culture of different regions; if necessary they should be advised on how to behave in order to respect the cultural heritage and traditional values of the destination. The public should be educated regarding the prospective positive and negative impacts of tourism. Community development goals should be made known to enterprise owners so that they do not contradict the sustainability mission and objectives. Adverse social impacts of tourism should be monitored in order to minimise any longterm damages. Tourism should be developed with dignity; this will not only enrich the tourism experience but also create a sense of confidence and pride within local communities. Tourism authorises should protect local communities from over-commercialisation and exploitation.

Environmental Sustainability The planning and management of new tourism developments should be done in a manner in which it has the lowest adverse impact on the environment. The purchase of products that exploit or contribute to the destruction of wildlife should be discouraged. Visitors should be informed regarding the impacts that they may have on the ecology of natural heritage sites. They should also be aware on how to behave in such environments. Issues concerning littering can be reduced by posting warning signs against littering. If the capacity of the environment to absorb tourists is exceeded, there should be a temporary denial of access to the tourist destination.

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Improving the countries marketing strategies (The Situational and SWOT analysis) For tourism to be sustainable in a destination it requires good marketing strategies. A major influence on tourism development is the media. It is both the best-friend and worst enemy of the development of tourism in a country. The media can pick up on issues concerning a tourist destination and if the negative issues outweighs the positive, this may have a long-term damaging effect. Therefore it is important for South Africa to carry out an effective Situational and SWOT marketing analysis. The situational analysis should include questions such as; What are the global tourism trends? What is the vision of the tourism board? What is the countrys economic situation? How can the government influence the tourism industry in South Africa? According to tourist experiences and media reports, what are the perceptions of tourist about the destination? How can the use on technology improve the countrys tourism market (Virtual tourism, websites and gadgets)? The SWOT analysis is regarding the Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats of South Africas tourism industry. This consists of questions such as; What are the strengths and weakness of South Africa? If new tourism developments emerges what opportunities and threats will the country face? Using these forms of analysis has been very effective in marketing Scotlands biggest city Glasgow. If these strategies could be implemented in the marketing of cities such as Johannesburg and Durban, there will be a great improvement in South Africas tourism industry.

4.0

CAN THE TOURISM INDUSTRY EVER BE SUSTAINABLE?

Judging by the above evidence of tourism impacts, it is arguable that tourism will never become completely sustainable; this is as a result of tourism stakeholders contradicting the ethics of tourism development. Nevertheless, the tourism industry can work towards becoming more sustainable. The development of tourism requires effective sustainable planning and management strategies for the industry to survive. But, sustainability can only occur when there is a balance between conservation and usage. When stakeholders of tourist destinations begin to behave in a sustainable manner, it will encourage others to adapt to sustainability.

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5.0

CONCLUSION
Year after year South Africas tourism industry continues to increase. The positive and negative impacts of tourism continue to affect the countrys economic, socio-cultural and environmental standards in various ways. An evaluation on the countrys planning and management of tourism development revealed that, the exclusion of local residents contribution on tourism development has lead to resentment towards tourists and increase in crime rate. Ap (1992) commented that residents perception and attitude are predictors of their behaviour towards tourism. Thus, residents that benefit from tourism will be positive and motivated to tourism development, and those that do not will strongly oppose it. Other key problems limiting the improvement of South Africas tourism industry included economic leakage and insufficient tourism marketing strategy. The way in which South Africa is represented in tourist images has an important effect on how it will be valued. Though, recommendations have been given concerning achieving a more sustainable tourism, it can only occur when the meaning of sustainability is wholeheartedly acknowledged by all stakeholders. To date there has, perhaps, been too much emphasis placed on strategy generation rather than strategy implementation. Yet unless it can be implemented, there is no point in having a strategy (Swarbrooke, 1999 p.355). Therefore action has to be taken concerning ideal strategy implementation. In conclusion, the tourists and hosts are important tourism actors who can influence the success or failure of the local tourism industry (Stabler 1997; Hall and Lew 1998; Mowforth and Munt 2003). In order words the tourist may have his vacation spoiled or enhanced by the resident and the resident may have his daily life enriched or degraded by the unending flow of tourists" (Knox, 1982 p.77)

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REFERENCE LIST
Ap, J. (1992) Residents Perceptions on tourism impacts, Annals of Tourism Research 19 (4) pp. 665-690. Archer, B. H. And Sadler, P. G (1975) The economic impact of tourism in developing countries, Annals of Tourism Research 3 (1), pp. 15-32. Cohen, E. (1977) The Impact of Tourism on the Physical Environment, Annals of Tourism Research 2 (5), pp. 215-237. Cape Town (2008) [Online image] Available from:http://www.allcapeaccommodation.com/drakensberg-accommodation.htm [Accessed 20 February 2011]. Farrell, B.H. and McLellan (1987) Tourism and physical environment research, Annals of Tourism Research 14 (1), pp. 1-16. Holden, A. (2003) In need of new environmental ethics for tourism?, Annals of Tourism Research 30 (1), pp. 94-108. Hall, C. M. And Lew, A. A. (1998) Sustainable Tourism: a geographical perspective. 1st ed. New York: Longman Limited. Hall, C. M. (2000) Tourism Planning: policies, processes and relationships. 1st ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. East Walworth Labour Party (2011) Important Public Notice [Flyer]. London: Ali Craft Khan, M. M. (1997) Tourism development and dependency theory: mass tourism vs. ecotourism, Annals of Tourism Research 24 (4), pp. 988-991. Knox, J. M. (1982) Resident-Visitor Interaction: A review of the literature and general policy alternatives. Ontario: Trent University. Manson, P. (2003) Tourism impacts, planning and management. 1st ed. Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann. Manson, P. (2008) Tourism impacts, planning and management. 2nd ed. Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann. Mowforth, M. and Munt, I. (2003) Tourism and Sustainability : development and new tourism in the third world. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge.

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Okello, M.M and Yerian, S. (2009) Tourist Satisfaction in Relation to Attractions and Implication for Conservation in the Protected Areas of the Northern Circuit, Tanzania, Journal of Sustainable Tourism 17 (5), pp. 620-625. Perdue, R., Long, P. and Allen, L. (1990) Resident support for tourism development, Annals of Tourism Research 17 (1), pp. 586-599. Poria, Y., Reichel, A. and Biran, A. (2006) Heritage site perceptions and motivations to visit, Journal of Travel Research 44 (3), pp. 318-326. Resident perception and attitude model [Diagram]. In: Ap, J. (1992) Residents Perceptions on tourism impacts, Annals of Tourism Research 19 (4) pp. 665-690. Saarinen, J., Becker, F., Haretsebe, M. and Wilson, D. (2009) Sustainable Tourism in Southern Africa: local communities and natural resources in transition. 1st ed. Bristol: Channel View Publications. Stabler, M.J. (1997) Tourism and Sustainability: Principles to Practice. 1st ed. Oxon: International. Swarbrooke, J. (1999) Sustainable Tourism Management. 1st ed. Oxon: CAB International. Swazilands Maiden (2009) [Online image] Available from: http://www.allcapeaccommodation.com/drakensberg-accommodation.htm [Accessed 20 February 2011]. WTO (1998) Guide for Local Authorities on Developing Sustainable Tourism. 1 st ed. Madrid: Egraf S.A. CAB

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