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Culture Documents
Organised by European Commission: DG Enterprise and Industry, Joint Research Centre with the support of CEN/TC250, CEN Management Centre and Member States
9:45-10:30
EN 1991-1-1
INTRODUCTION TO EN 1991 N. Malakatas Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning & Public Works of Greece
EN 1990
EN 1991
EN 1993 EN 1996
EN 1994 EN 1999
CEN/TC250 Chairman
CEN/TC250/SC1 Chairman
Title (Subject) General actions Densities, selfweight, imposed loads for buildings General actions Actions on structures exposed to fire General actions Snow loads General actions Wind actions General actions Thermal actions General actions Actions during execution General actions Accidental actions Traffic loads on bridges Actions induced by cranes and machinery Silos and tanks
Issued April 2002 November 2002 July 2003 April 2005 November 2003 June 2005 July 2006 September 2003 July 2006 May 2006
1980 s
Prof. Gulvanessian
2008 - ?
Prof. Calgaro
Dr Malakatas
EN 1991-3 EN 1991-4
50 1
500
400
400
300
247
200
16 3 10 4
10 0
18
0 Type 1 Type 2 Ty pe 3 Type 4
1
Ty pe 5
15
Type 6
23
29
Ty pe 7
Type 8
T y pe 9
T y p e 10
Forward Section 1 General Section 2 Classification of actions Section 3 Design situations Section 4 Snow load on the ground Section 5 Snow load on roofs Section 6 Local effects
EN 1991-1-3: Snow loads (cont.) Annex A (normative) Design situations and load arrangements to be used for different locations Annex B (normative) Snow load shape coefficients for exceptional snow drifts Annex C (informative) European Ground Snow Load Maps Annex D (informative) Adjustment of the ground snow load according to the return period Annex E (informative) Bulk weight density of snow
Forward Section 1 General Section 2 Design situations Section 3 Modelling of wind actions Section 4 Wind velocity and velocity pressure Section 5 Wind actions Section 6 Structural factor cs cd Section 7 Pressure and force coefficients Section 8 Wind actions on bridges
EN 1991-1-4: Wind actions (cont.) Annex A (informative) Terrain effects Annex B (informative) Procedure 1 for determining the structural factor cs cd Annex C (informative) Procedure 2 for determining the structural factor cs cd Annex D (informative) cs cd values for different types of structures Annex E (informative) Vortex shedding and aeroelastic instabilities Annex F (informative) Dynamic characteristics of structures
EN 1991-1-5: Thermal actions Forward Section 1 General Section 2 Classification of actions Section 3 Design situations Section 4 Representation of actions Section 5 Temperature changes in buildings Section 6 Temperature changes in bridges Section 7 Temperature changes in industrial chimneys, pipelines, silos, tanks and cooling towers
Annex A (normative) Isotherms of national minimum and maximum shade air temperatures. Annex B (normative) Temperature differences for various surfacing depths Annex C (informative) Coefficients of linear expansion Annex D (informative) Temperature profiles in buildings and other construction works
EN 1991-1-6: Actions during execution Forward Section 1 General Section 2 Classification of actions Section 3 Design situations and limit states Section 4 Representation of actions Annex A1 (normative) Supplementary rules for buildings Annex A2 (normative) Supplementary rules for bridges Annex B (informative) Actions on structures during alteration, reconstruction or demolition
Forward Section 1 General Section 2 Classification of actions Section 3 Design situations Section 4 Road traffic actions and other actions specifically for road bridges Section 5 Actions on footways, cycle tracks and footbridges Section 6 Traffic actions and other actions specifically for railway bridges
EN 1991-3: Actions induced by cranes and machinery Forward Section 1 General Section 2 Actions induced by hoists and cranes on runway beams Section 3 Actions induced by machinery Annex A (normative) Basis of design - Supplementary clauses to EN 1990 for runway beams loaded by cranes Annex B (informative) Guidance for crane classification for fatigue
EN 1991-4: Silos and tanks Forward Section 1 General Section 2 Representation an classification of actions Section 3 Design situations Section 4 Properties of particulate solids Section 5 Loads on the vertical walls of silos Section 6 Loads on silo hoppers and silo bottoms Section 7 Loads on tanks from liquids
Background Documents and other supporting material (cont.) The uploading of the Background Documents (BD) for EN 1991 is under way by the Secretary of EN/TC250/SC1. Until recently BD have been uploaded for the following Parts of EN 1991 : - EN 1991-1-1 - EN 1991-1-2 - EN 1991-1-3 - EN 1991-1-6 - EN 1991-1-7 and Handbooks 1 to 5 Additional information can also be found in the relevant websites, e.g. http://eurocodes.jrc.ec.europa.eu, and other links (e.g. NSO et al.)
Present and Future of the EN 1991 Finalising the preparation of some Corrigenda (target date June 2008) Detecting the eventual need for some Amendments (target date June 2009) On national level : Full implementation. Several countries have already issued their national standard EN 1991, but uploading of the NDPs in the ad-hoc data base of JRC Ispra goes on at a slow pace Prospects for the future : - Extending the snow map and other climatic data to cover the new EU Member States - Including eventually the ISO Standards on Waves and Currents and on Atmospheric Icing - Extending the Eurocodes to include glass and FRPs
EN 1991-1-1 N. Malakatas Ministry of Environment, Physical Planning & Public Works of Greece
Use of EN 1991-1-1
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1-1: General actions - Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings
Gives design guidance and actions for the structural design of buildings and civil engineering works, including the following aspects : - densities of construction materials and stored materials - self-weight of construction elements, and - imposed loads for buildings Is intended for Clients, Designers, Contractors and Public Authorities Is intended to be used with EN 1990 (Basis of Structural Design), other parts of EN 1991 (Actions) and EN 1992 to EN 1999 (Materials Eurocodes) for the design of structures.
EN 1990
EN 1991
EN 1992 EN 1995
EN 1993 EN 1996
EN 1994 EN 1999
Published by CEN in July 2002 Confirmed in 2007 for a further period of 5 years Implementation on a national level in the Member
EN 1997
EN 1998
States (National Standard EN 1991-1-1 and National Annex) still in process Withdrawal of conflicting standards probably by 2009/2010
Contents of EN 1991-1-1
Scope of EN 1991-1-1
Foreword Section 1 General Section 2 Classification of Actions Section 3 Design Situations Section 4 Densities of Construction and Stored Materials Section 5 Self-weight of Construction Works Section 6 Imposed Loads on Buildings Annex A (Informative) Tables for Nominal Density of Construction Materials, and Nominal Density and Angles of Repose for Stored Materials Annex B (Informative) Vehicle Barriers and Parapets for Car Parks
Actions on silos and tanks caused by water or other Snow load on roofs is dealt in EN 1991-1-3
materials are dealt in EN 1991-4
Classification of actions
Variation in time: Permanent, Variable or Accidental Origin: Direct or Indirect Spatial Variation: Fixed or Free Nature and/or structural response: Static or Dynamic
Self-weight of construction works: generally a Permanent Fixed action, however If Variable with time then represented by upper and lower characteristic values, and If Free (e.g. moveable partitions) then treated as an additional imposed load. Ballast and earth loads on roofs/terraces: Permanent with variations in properties (moisture content, depth) during the design life being taken into account.
Imposed loads (on buildings) : generally Variable Free actions, however loads resulting from impacts on buildings due to vehicles or accidental loads should be determined from EN 19911-7. Imposed loads for bridges are given in EN 1991-2. Also : Imposed loads generally Quasi-static actions and allow for limited dynamic effects in static structures, if there is no risk of resonance. Actions causing significant acceleration of structural members are classified as Dynamic and need to be considered via a dynamic analysis However for fork-lift trucks and helicopters additional inertial loads from hoisting and take-off/landing are accounted for through a dynamic magnification factor applied to appropriate static load values
The total self-weight of structural and non-structural members is taken as a single action when combinations of actions are being considered Where it is intended to add or remove structural or nonstructural members after construction critical load cases need to be identified and taken into account. Water level is taken into account for relevant design situations, as is the source and moisture content of materials in buildings used for storage purposes.
Probabilistic aspects
Where areas are likely to be subjected to different categories of loadings, the critical load case needs to be identified and considered When imposed loads act simultaneously with other variable actions (e.g. wind, snow, cranes or machinery) the total of those imposed loads may be considered as a single action. However, for roofs of buildings, imposed loads should not be considered to act simultaneously with snow loads or wind actions.
Self-weight may be usually determined as a product of the volume and the density, which both as random variables that may be described by normal distributions, with a mean value very close to their nominal value. Imposed loads are usually described by a Gumbel distribution, although Gamma distributions may also be used for the sustained (long-term) loads and exponential distributions for the intermittent (short-term) loads.
Characteristic values of densities of construction and stored materials should generally be used. (If there is a significant scatter - e.g. due to their source, water content etc. an upper and a lower value should be used). Where only mean values are available, they should be taken as characteristic values in the design. Mean values for a large number of different materials are given in EN 1991-1-1 Annex A. For materials not in Annex A either: - the characteristic value of density needs to be determined in the National Annex, - a reliable direct assessment is carried out (eventually according to EN 1990 Annex D).
Generally represented by a single characteristic value calculated from nominal dimensions, characteristic values of densities and including, where appropriate, ancillary elements, e.g. non-structural elements and fixed services, weight of earth and ballast. Non-structural elements include : - roofing; - surfacing and coverings; - partitions and linings; - hand rails, safety barriers, parapets and curbs; - wall cladding; - suspended ceilings; - thermal insulation; - fixed services
Fixed services include : - equipments for lifts and moving stairways; - heating, ventilating and air conditioning equipment; - electrical equipment; - pipes without their contents; - cable trunking and conduits Loads due to movable partitions are treated as imposed loads, but an equivalent uniformly distributed load may be used.
Additional provisions specific for bridges : For ballast on railway bridges or fill above buried structures the upper and lower characteristic values of densities should be taken into account. The upper and lower characteristic values of the ballast depth should be considered as deviating from the nominal depth by 30% . The upper and lower characteristic values of the thickness due to waterproofing, surfacing and other coatings should be considered as deviating from the nominal value by 20% (if a post-execution coating is included in the nominal value) otherwise +40% and 20%, respectively. The upper and lower characteristic values of the self-weight of cables, pipes and service ducts should be considered as deviating from the mean value by 20% .
Representation of actions
Characteristic values of imposed loads for floors and roofs for the following types of occupancy and use: - residential, social, commercial and administration areas - garage and vehicle traffic - areas for storage and industrial activities - roofs - helicopter landing areas - barriers and walls having the function of barriers.
Imposed loads on buildings are those arising from occupancy and the values given include : - normal use by persons; - furniture and moveable objects; - vehicles; - rare events such as concentrations of people and furniture, or the moving or stacking of objects during times of re-organisation and refurbishment Floor and roof areas in buildings are sub-divided into 11 categories according to use; loads specified are represented by uniformly distributed loads (UDL), concentrated loads, line loads or combinations thereof. Heavy equipment (e.g. in communal kitchens, radiology or boiler rooms) are not included in EN 19911-1. (To be agreed with the Client and/or the relevant Authority).
E xam ple R oo m s in residential bu ildings and hou ses; be droo m s and w ards in hospitals; be droo m s in hote ls and hoste ls kitchens and toilets.
Residential, social, commercial and administration areas - 4 categories (A, B, C and D) Areas for storage and industrial activities - 2 categories (E1 and E2) Garages and vehicle traffic (excluding bridges) - 2 categories (F and G) Roofs - 3 categories (H, I and K)
B C
Provided that a floor allows a lateral distribution of loads, the self-weight of movable partitions may be taken into account by a uniformly distributed load qk which should be added to the imposed loads of floors obtained from Table 6.2 (Cat. A to D). This load depends on the self-weight of the movable partitions, as follows :
- self-weight < 1 kN/m, qk = 0,5 kN/m2 - 1 kN/m < self-weight < 2 kN/m, qk = 0,8 kN/m2 - 2 kN/m < self-weight < 3 kN/m, qk = 1,2 kN/m2
NOTE: Where a range is given in this table, the value may be set by the National annex. The recommended values, intended for separate application, are underlined. qk is intended for the determination of general effects and Qk for local effects. The National annex may define different conditions of use of this Table.
Load arrangements
Floors, beams and roofs Mid span bending moment of a floor structure
Simplification in EN 1991-1-1
For the design of a floor structure within one storey or a roof, the imposed load shall be applied as a free action at the most unfavourable part of the influence area. Effect of actions that cannot exist simultaneously should not be considered together (EN 1990). For the design of a column loaded from several storeys, load assumed to be distributed uniformly. For local verification concentrated load Qk acting alone should be considered. Reduction factors A (for floors, beams and roofs) and n (for columns and walls) may be applied, but factors and n should not be considered together. .
Factors i (Reminder from EN 1990) Actions Imposed Cat. A, B Imposed Cat. C, D Imposed Cat. E Snow Wind Temperature
n =
n
n) ( n) 2 ( n0,8 ) 0.8 1
2 + (n 2)0 A 5 , A = 0 + 0 n 7 A
A
CEN, DE FR (C, D)
A) 1
0
0,7 0,7 1,0 0,5-0,7 0,6 0,6
1
0,5 0,7 0,9 0,2-0,5 0,2 0,5
2
0,3 0,6 0,8 0,0-0,2 0,0 0,0
UK FI
0,90.9
N( A)
0,90.9
N1( A) )
FR
A) A)
1( A) 2( A0,6 ) 0.6
DE (C, D) A [m2]
0,50.5
n
66
8 8 10 10
44
0,50.5
20
20
30
30
40
50
50
60
60
Reduction factor A for floors A (m2) A (EN 1991-1-1 with o = 0,7) A (EN 1991-1-1 with o = 1,0)
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
[kN/m ]
Qk [kN]
increased by a dynamic (multiplication) factor dependent on whether the forklift has solid ( = 2,00)or pneumatic ( = 1,40) tyres. That factor is intended to account for the inertial effects caused by acceleration and deceleration of the hoisted load. by rails, the actions need to be determined from the pattern of the vehicles wheel loads. The static value of those wheel loads is determined from permanent weights and pay loads and the spectra of loads should be used to define appropriate combination factors and fatigue loads.
Category E1 7,5 7,0 NOTE The values may be changed if necessary according to the usage (see Table 6.3 and Annex A) for the particular project or by the National annex. qk is intended for the determination of general effects and Qk for local effects. The National annex may define different conditions of use of Table 6.4.
NOTE 1 For category F qk may be selected within the range 1,5 to 2,5 kN/m2 and Qk may be selected within the range 10 to 20 kN. NOTE 2 For category G, Qk may be selected within the range 40 to 90 kN NOTE 3 Where a range of values are given in Notes 1 & 2, the value may be set by the National annex. The recommended values are underlined.
Category F (e.g. garages, parking areas, parking halls) Category G (e.g. access routes, delivery zones, zones
Categorization of roofs
Roof Category H
Category H Accessible for normal maintenance and repair only Category I Accessible with occupancy according to categories A to G Category K Accessible for special services e.g. helicopter landing areas
qk [kN/m2] qk
Qk [kN] Qk
NOTE 1 For category H qk may be selected within the range 0,0 to 1,0 kN/m2 and Qk may be selected within the range 0,9 to 1,5 kN. Where a range is given the values may be set by the National Annex. The recommended values are: qk = 0,4 kN/m2, Qk = 1,0kN NOTE 2 qk may be varied by the National Annex dependent upon the roof slope NOTE 3 qk may be assumed to act on an area A which may be set by the National Annex. The recommended value for A is 10m2, within the range of zero to the whole area of the roof. NOTE 4 See also 3.3.2 (1)
account uncontrolled accumulations of construction materials that may occur during maintenance Separate verifications to be performed for Qk and qk , acting independently
HC1 HC2
Q 20 kN 20 kN < Q 60 kN
Qk = 20 kN Qk = 60 kN
Category F
Category G See Annex B NOTE 1 For categories A,B and C1, qk may be selected within the range 0,2 to 1,0 (0,5) NOTE 2 For categories C2 to C4 and D qk may be selected within the range 0,8 kN/m to -1,0 kN/m
The
NOTE 3 For category C5, qk may be selected within the range 3,0 kN/m to 5,0 kN/m NOTE 4 For category E qk may be selected within the range 0,8 kN/m to 2,0 kN/m. For areas of category E the horizontal loads depend on the occupancy. Therefore the value of qk is defined as a minimum value and should be checked for the specific occupancy. NOTE 5 Where a range of values is given in Notes 1, 2, 3 and 4, the value may be set by the National Annex. The recommended value is underlined. NOTE 6 The National Annex may prescribe additional point loads Qk and/or hard or soft body impact specification for analytical or experimental verification.
dynamic factor to be applied to the take-off load Qk to take account of impact effects may be taken as = 1,40
Annex B (informative) : Vehicle barriers and parapets for car parks The force in kN acting on 1,5 m of a barrier : F = 0,5 m v2 / (c + b) [kN]
c b
m v
200 the deformation of the vehicle (mm) F [kN] c=50 mm the deformation of the barrier (mm) 100 c=100 mm the gross mass of the c=200 mm vehicle (kg)
Table A.1 - Construction materials-concrete and mortar Table A.2 - Construction materials-masonry Table A.3 - Construction materials-wood Table A.4 - Construction materials-metals Table A.5 - Construction materials- other materials Table A.6 - Bridge materials Table A.7 - Stored materials - building and construction Table A.8 - Stored products agricultural Table A.9 - Stored products - foodstuffs Table A.10 - Stored products - liquids Table A.11 - Stored products - solid fuels Table A.12 - Stored products - industrial and general
100
200
For vehicles < 2500 kg: m = 1500 kg, v = 4,5 m/s, c = 100 mm
A more general reference to Background Documents (BD) and related supporting material has been included and presented in the Introduction to EN 1991. The BD on the imposed loads on floors and roofs is already uploaded on the relevant website. Handbook 3 (Action Effects for Buildings) and Handbook 4 (Design of Bridges) of the Leonardo Da Vinci Pilot Project for the Development of Skills Facilitating the Implementation of Structural Eurocodes are considerd to be an appropriate first approach for the deeper understanding of EN 1991. Since a few years various books are being available (e.g. the Thomas Telford collection of Guides)
Please try on a national level to finalise and issue the National Annex and upload the NDPs in the ad-hoc data base of JRC Ispra (if not already done so)
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Background and Applications
EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1-3 General actions Snow Loads
Description of EN 1991-1-3 Eurocode 1: Part 1-3: Snow Loads Background research for snow maps for Europe,
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Background research
3
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Background research
4
The research results are contained in two final reports. Many clauses of EN 1991-1-3 are based on the results of a research work, carried out between 1996 and 1999, under a contract specific to this Eurocode, to DGIII/D3 of the European Commission. They were identified four main research items: study of the European ground snow loads map investigation and treatment of exceptional snow loads study of conversion factors from ground to roof loads definition of ULS and SLS combination factors for snow loads.
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
http://www2.ing.unipi.it/dis/snowloads/
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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EN 1991-1-3 provides guidance for the determination of the snow load to be used for the structural design of buildings and civil engineering works for sites at altitudes under 1500m. In the case of altitudes above 1500m advice may be found in the appropriate National Annex.
EN 1991-1-3 does not give guidance on the following specialist aspects of snow loading: impact loads due to snow sliding off or falling from a higher roof; additional wind loads resulting from changes in shape or size of the roof profile due to presence of snow or to the accretion of ice; loads in areas where snow is present all the year; loads due to ice; lateral loading due to snow (e.g. lateral loads due to dirfts); snow loads on bridges
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Contents of EN 1991-1-3
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Classification of actions
8
Foreword Section 1: General Section 2: Classification of actions Section 3: Design situations Section 4: Snow load on the ground Section 5: Snow load on roofs Section 6: Local effects ANNEX A: Design situations and load arrangements to be used for different locations ANNEX B: Snow load shape coefficients for exceptional snow drifts ANNEX C: European Ground Snow Load Maps ANNEX D: Adjustment of the ground snow load according to return period ANNEX E: Bulk weight density of snow
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
Actions due to snow are classified, in accordance with EN 1990, as: Variable: action for which the variation in magnitude with time is neither negligible nor monotonic Fixed: action that has a fixed distribution and position over the structure. Static: action that does not cause significant acceleration of the structure or structural members
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Classification of actions
9
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For particular conditions may be treated as accidental actions: action, usually of short duration but of significant magnitude, that is unlikely to occur on a given structure during the design working life
Exceptional snow load on the ground load of the snow layer on the ground resulting from a snow fall which has an exceptionally infrequent likelihood of occurring
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In some regions, particularly southern Europe, isolated very heavy snow falls have been observed resulting in snow loads which are significantly larger than those that normally occur. Including these snowfalls with the more regular snow events for the lengths of records available may significantly disturb the statistical processing of more regular snowfalls.
The National Annex should specify the geographical locations where exceptional ground snow loads are likely to occur.
?
When the maximum ground snow load is to be considered as exceptional?
sm = Max. snow Load = 1.30 kN/m2 50yrs load incl. Max Load = 1.00 kN/m2 sk = 50yrs load excluded Max Load = 0.79 kN/m2 k = sm/sk = 1,65
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
If the ratio of the largest load value to the characteristic load determined without the inclusion of that value is greater than 1.5 then the largest value should be treated as an exceptional value
According to this definition over 2600 weather stations from 18 CEN countries (1997), in 159 they were registered exceptional ground snow loads.
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Design Situations
14
Exceptional snow drift load arrangement which describes the load of the snow layer on the roof resulting from a snow deposition pattern which has an exceptionally infrequent likelihood of occurring These load arrangements (treated in Annex B of EN 1991-1-3) may result from wind redistribution of snow deposited during single snow events. Localised snow concentrations may develop at obstructions and abrupt changes in height, leaving other areas of the roof virtually clear of snow.
Different climatic conditions will give rise to different design situations. The four following possibilities are identified:
- Case A: normal case (non exceptional falls and drifts) - Case B1: exceptional falls and non exceptional drifts - Case B2: non exceptional falls and exceptional drifts - Case B3: exceptional falls and drifts.
The national competent Authority may choose in the National Annex the case applicable to particular locations for their own territory.
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Design Situations
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Accidental: refers only to exceptional conditions Persistent: Conditions of normal use Transient: temporary conditions (e.g. execution or repair)
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The snow load on the roof is derived from the snow load on the ground, multiplying by appropriate conversion factors (shape, thermal and exposure coefficients).
sk is intended as the upper value of a random variable, for which a given statistical distribution function applies, with the annual probability of exceedence set to 0,02 (i.e. a probability of not being exceeded on the unfavourable side during a reference period of 50 years). For locations where exceptional ground snow loads are recorded, these value must be excluded from the data sample of the random variable. The exceptional values may be considered outside the statistical methods. The characteristic ground snow loads (sk) are given by the National Annex for each CEN country.
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Needs for harmonization Development of European ground snow load map Inconsistencies at borders between existing national maps; Different procedures for measuring snow load (mainly ground snow data): snow depths + density conversion, water equivalent measures, direct load measures; Different approaches for statistical data analysis (Gumbel, Weibull, Log-normal distributions).
For maps in Annex C of EN 1991-1-3 the following common approach has been followed: Statistical analysis of yearly maxima, using the Gumbel Type I CDF (best fitting in the majority of data points); LSM for the calculation of the best fitting regression curve; Both zero and non zero values have been analysed according to the mixed distribution approach ; Approximately 2600 weather stations consistently analysed; Regionalization of CEN area (18 countries 1997) into 10 climatic regions; Smoothing of maps across borderlines between neighbouring climatic regions (buffer zones 100 km).
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
!
The research developed a consistent approach Produced regional maps (Annex C of EN 1991-1-3)
Snow load with Altitude relationship Zone numbers & altitude functions Geographical boundaries
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Alpine Region Snow load at sea level (France, Italy, Austria, Germany and Switzerland)
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Zone 2
Zone 1
z = Zone number given on the map A = site altitude above Sea Level [m]
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Italian ground Snow load Map: - 4 different zones (3 Med. + 1 Alpine) - Administrative boundaries (110 provinces) - 4 Altitude correlation functions
Zone 2
12.00
10.00 Ground Snow Load kN/m2 Zone 1 alp Zone 1 med Zone 2 Zone 3
Example of calculation of ground snow load at a given location: Inputs: - zone n. 3 - altitude = 600m a.s.l.
8.00
6.00
4.00
Zone 3
2.00
0.00 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Altitude [m]
sk = 1,30 kN/m2
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Combination value 0 sk
Frequent value 1 sk The frequent value 1sk is chosen so that the time it is exceeded is 0,10 of the reference period.
Eq. 6.10 EN 1990
j 1
G, j
G
j 1
k, j
The combination factor 0 is applied to the snow load effect when the dominating load effect is due to some other external load, such as wind. Based upon the available data 0 values were calculated through the Borges-Castanheta method.
Quasi-permanent value 2 sk The quasi-permanent value 2sk (used for the calculation of long-term effects) is usually chosen so that the proportion of the time it is exceeded is 0,50 of the reference period.
G
j 1
k, j
1 and 2 values were calculated from daily data series available at 59 weather stations
representative of all 10 different climatic regions.
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Maps given in National Annexes are determined without taking into account exceptional falls
?
How to determine design values for accidental ground snow loads? For locations where exceptional loads may occur (National Annex), the ground snow load may be treated as accidental action with the value: sAd = Cesl sk Where: Cesl (set by the National Annex) - recommended value = 2,0 sk = characteristic ground snow load at the site considered
G
j 1
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
k, j
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The snow the snow layers on a roof can have many different shapes depending on roofs characteristics: its shape; its thermal properties; the roughness of its surface; the amount of heat generated under the roof; the proximity of nearby buildings; the surrounding terrain; the local meteorological climate, in particular its windiness, temperature variations, and likelihood of precipitation (either as rain or as snow).
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In absence of wind, or with very low wind velocities (<2 m/s) snow deposits on the roof in a balanced way and generally a uniform cover is formed
With wind speeds in the range of 4 to 5 m/s, much of the snow is deposited in areas of aerodynamic shade
wind
wind
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For situations where the wind velocity increases above 4 5 m/s snow particles can be picked up from the snow cover and redeposited on the lee sides, or on lower roofs in the lee side, or behind obstructions on the roof.
EXCEPTIONAL DRIFTS In maritime climates (e.g. UK and Eire), where snow usually melts and clears between the individual weather systems and where moderate to high wind speeds occur during the individual weather system, the amount of the drifted load is considered to be of a high magnitude compared to the ground snow load, and the drifted snow is considered an exceptional load and treated as an accidental load using the accidental design situation (Annex B of EN 1991-13).
wind
wind
Model in wind tunnel for multi - pitched roof wind velocity > 5 m/s
Model in wind tunnel for multi - pitched roof wind velocity > 5 m/s
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Snow load on the roof (s) is determined converting the characteristic ground snow load into an undrifted or drifted roof load for persistent/transient and, where required by the National Annex, accidental design situations by the use of: an appropriate shape coefficient which depends on the shape of the roof; considering the influence of thermal effects from inside the building and the terrain around the building.
For the persistent / transient design situations i.e. no exceptional snow falls or drifts:
s = i Ce Ct sk
(5.1 EN 1991-1-3)
For the accidental design situations, where exceptional ground snow load is the accidental action:
s = i Ce Ct sAd
(5.2 EN 1991-1-3)
For the accidental design situations where exceptional snow drift is the accidental action and where Annex B applies:
s = i sk
(5.3 EN 1991-1-3)
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Background and Applications
EN 1991-1-3 gives shape coefficients for the following types of roofs (non exceptional drifted cases):
Annex B of EN 1991-1-3 gives shape coefficients for the following types of roofs (exceptional drifted cases):
Multi-span
Monopitch
Pitched
Cylindrical
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Background and Applications
Values for shape coefficients i given in EN 1991-1-3 are calibrated on a wide experimental campaign, both in situ and in wind tunnel.
1,49
1,92
Average = 1,67
30
7,00
wind
6,00
5,00 4,00 3,00 2,00 1,00 0,00 0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 h [m]
5,0
6,0
7,0
8,0
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A coefficient (Ce) defining the reduction or increase of snow load on a roof of an unheated building, as a fraction of the characteristic snow load on the ground. The choice for Ce should consider the future development around the site. Ce should be taken as 1,0 unless otherwise specified for different topographies. The National Annex may give the values of Ce for different topographies, recommended values are given.
Windswept topography, where (Ce = 0,8 ) are flat unobstructed areas exposed on all sides without, or little shelter afforded by terrain, higher construction works or trees. Normal topography, where (Ce = 1,0 ) areas where there is no significant removal of snow by wind on construction work, because of terrain, other construction works or trees. Sheltered topography, where (Ce = 1,2 ) areas in which the construction work being considered is considerably lower than the surrounding terrain or surrounded by high trees and/or surrounded by higher construction works.
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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The thermal coefficient Ct is used to account for the reduction of snow loads on roofs with high thermal transmittance (> 1 W/m2K), in particular for some glass covered roofs, because of melting caused by heat loss. For all other cases: Ct = 1,0 Further guidance may be obtained from ISO 4355
40
30
Properties of the building: Location: Sweden - Snow load zone 2, alt. 300 m a.s.l. Normal conditions: no exceptional falls, no exceptional drifts Building surroundings: normal Ce = 1,0 Effective heat insulation applied to roof: Ct = 1,0
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Determination of shape coefficients: Undrifted load arrangement: Case (i) 1 Drifted load arrangement: Case (ii) 1, 2
2.0 1.6
Zone 2 A = 300 m
2 1
0 15 30 45 60
1.0 0.8
Characteristic ground snow load at the site: sk = 0,790 x 2 + 0,375 + 300/336 = 2,85 kN/m2
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
()
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Background and Applications
Local Effects
50
sk = 2,85 kN/m2 s = Ct Ce i sk
1 = 40 1 (1 ) = 0,53 2 = 30 1 ( 2 ) = 0,80 + 2 = 1 = 35 2 = 1,60
2
Case (i)
2,28 kN/m2 1,51 kN/m2 2,28 kN/m2
In addition to snow deposition patterns adopted for the global verification of the building, local verifications have to be performed for specific structural elements of the roof or roofs parts. Section 6 of EN 1991-1-3 gives the forces to be considered for the verification of: drifting at projections and obstructions; the edge of the roof; snow fences.
()
Case (ii)
2,28 kN/m2 1,51 kN/m2
40
30
The National Annex may be specify condition of use of this part or different procedures to calculate the forces.
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Local Effects
51
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Background and Applications
Annexes
52
Normative Annexes
Annex A Design situations and load arrangements to be used for different locations
se=k s2 / where
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Annexes
53
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Background and Applications
Further developments
54
Informative Annexes
Annex C European Ground snow load maps
Majority produced during European Research project
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55
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Your
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EN 1991-1-4:2005 Contents
2
3. Modelling of wind actions 4. Wind velocity and velocity pressure 5. Wind actions 6. Structural factor 7. Pressure and force coefficients 8. Wind actions on bridges
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Background and Applications
EN 1991-1-4:2005 Contents
3
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Background and Applications
Annex
A. Terrain effects B. Procedure 1 for determining the structural factor C. Procedure 2 for determining the structural factor D. Structural factors for different types of structures E. Vortex shedding and aeroelastic instabilities F. Dynamic characteristics of structures (3) This part is intended to predict characteristic wind actions on land-based structures, their components and appendages (2) This Part is applicable to: - Buildings and civil engineering works with heights up to 200 m - Bridges having no span greater than 200 m, provided that they satisfy the criteria for dynamic response
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(1)P The relevant wind actions shall be determined for each design situation identified in accordance with EN 1990, 3.2.
(3) Execution
(4) Where in design windows and doors are assumed to be shut under storm conditions, the effect of these being open should be treated as an accidental design situation
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3.1 Nature 3.2 Representations of wind actions 3.3 Classification of wind actions (1) Unless otherwise specified, wind actions should be classified as variable fixed actions 3.4 Characteristic values (1) Note: All coefficients or models, to derive wind actions from basic values, are chosen so that the probability of the calculated wind actions does not exceed the probability of these basic values 3.5 Models
vb
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ENV 1991-2-4:1995
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29
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37
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Italy - Messina
17
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Climatological changes?
20
ENV 1991-2-4:1995
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Background and Applications
v m ( z ) c r ( z ) co ( z ) vb
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Background and Applications
cr ( z ) k r ln( z / z0 )
0 , 07
kr
0,19
z0 z0, II
z0, II
0,05 m
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Procedure 1 If the structure is situated near a change of terrain roughness at a distance: - less than 2 km from the smoother category 0 - less than 1 km from the smoother categories I to III the smoother terrain category in the upwind direction should be used. Small areas (less than 10% of the area under consideration) with deviating roughness may be ignored.
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I v ( z)
1 kI co ln( z / z0 )
q p ( z ) (1 7 I v ( z ))
1 2
2 vm ( z )
v p ( z)
1 7 I v ( z ) vm ( z )
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we
wi
q p ( ze ) c pe
q p ( zi ) c pi
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Fw
cs cd c f q p ( ze ) Aref
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6.2 Determination of structural factor The structural factor may be taken as 1 for a) buildings with a height less than 15 m b) facade and roof elements having a natural frequency greater than 5 Hz c) framed buildings which have structural walls and which are less than 100 m high and whose height is less than 4 times the in-wind depth d) chimneys with circular cross-sections whose height is less than 60 m and 6,5 times the diameter
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c s cd
1 2 k p I v ( zs )
B2
R2
1 7 I v ( zs ) 1 7 I v ( zs ) B 2 1 7 I v ( zs ) 1 2 k p I v ( zs ) 1 7 I v ( zs ) B2 B2 R2
cs
cd
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Procedure 2 has a more accurate representation of the theoretical background compared to procedure 1
Chimneys
Bridges
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vcrit ,i
b ni , y St b ni ,o 2 St
vcrit ,i
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Approach 1: Vortex-resonance model Approach 2: Spectral model Turbulence is an active parameter only in approach 2 E1.5.1 General (3) Approach 2 allows for the consideration of different turbulence intensities, which may differ due to meteorological conditions. For regions where it is likely that it may become very cold and stratified flow condition may occur (e.g. in coastal areas in Northern Europe), approach 2 may be used.
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Approach 2 has a more accurate representation of the physical phenomenon compared to approach 1
Background documents
- Background Document of New European Code for Thermal Actions, Report No. 6, Pisa, Italy, 1999. - Luca Sanpaolesi, Stefano Colombini, Thermal Actions on Buildings, Department of Structural Engineering, University of Pisa, Italy, Chapter 4 of Handbook 3, Leonardo da Vinci project CZ/02/B/F/PP-134007, 2004. - EN ISO 6946, Building components and building elements Thermal resistance and thermal transmittance Calculation methods, 1996. - EN ISO 13370, Thermal performance of buildings Heat transfer via the ground Calculation methods, 1998. - ISO Technical Report 9492, Bases for Design of Structures Temperature Climatic Actions, 1987. - Emerson, M., TRRL Report 696, Bridge temperatures estimated from shade temperatures, UK, 1976. - JCSS, Probabilistic Model Code, http://www.jcss.ethz.ch/, Zurich.
19.2.2008 Eurocodes: Background and Applications 2
19.2.2008
Progressive weakening partly due to cracking during cycles of differential 19.2.2008 Eurocodes: Background and 4 thermal movements between concrete shell and curved steel member. Applications
19.2.2008
19.2.2008
winter Recommended inner temperatures in the Czech National Annex - summer 25 C - winter 20 C N, E, N-E 0 C 2 C 4 C
Recommended values: T3 T4 T5
S, W, S-W and H 18 C 30 C 42 C
TNd = 60 1,2 = 72 C
SN P ENV 1991-2-5: TN = 61 C Te,min = -24 C Te,max = 37 C Material Concrete Steel
19.2.2008
TNd = 61 1,4 = 85 C
SN EN 1991-1-5: in Prague for dark surface and North-East
Strain Young Linear modulus expansion T10-6C-1 T 10-3 E MPa 10 12 0,51 0,61 30 000 200 000
Stress
T MPa
15 122
12
T (x ) = Tin
30 C 20 10 0 10 20
Tin
inner surface
outer surface
T(x) Tout
Thermal resistance
Rtot = Rin +
i
i
hi
+ Rout
R( x ) = Rin +
i
Eurocodes: Background and Applications
hi
where [W/(mK)] is thermal conductivity A frame under a uniform component and different support conditions
19.2.2008 14
Input temperatures
0 1 2 3 4
Ti= 20 To= -20 Heat flow Q= Transfer coef. Thermal conduct. Thickness Resistance Temperatures 2 W/m /C W/m/C m C Material Inside 20 Surface 9 0,111 18,075 Gypsum 0,16 0,013 0,081 16,668 Insulation 0,025 0,05 2,000 -17,979 Brick 1,5 0,1 0,067 -19,134 Outside 20 0,050 -20,000 The total resistance of wall Rtot = 2,309
25 20 15 10 5 0 -0,05 -5 0 -10 -15 -20 -25
17,323
Graph x
temp -0,02 20,000 0 18,075 0,013 16,668 0,063 -17,979 0,163 -19,134 0,183 Eurocodes: Background and -20,000
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
19.2.2008
15
19.2.2008
16
Applications
Type 1 Te, max = Tmax + 16 C Te, min = Tmin 3 C 30 Type 2 Te, max = Tmax + 4,5C for 30 C Tmax 50 C Te, min = Tmin + 4,5 C for 50 C Tmin 0 C 20 Type 3 Type 3 Te, max = Tmax + 1,5 C T min Typee,2 = Tmin + 8 C
10 0
Type 1
Tmax Tmin
Type 1, steel Type 2, composite Type 3, concrete box girder beam slab
18 15
13 18
10 15 15
5 8 8
(b) cooling
T1 h1 h
h1
h2
h2
T1
T1
T1 = 10 C
T1 = 10 C
Concluding remarks
Temperature effects may be in some cases significant and shall be considered in structural design. The outer temperatures of a structure depend on absorptivity and orientation of the surface. A uniform temperature component may be derived using national maps of isotherms.
TN 90 15C
For bridges the relationship is given for specification of uniform (effective) temperature component. Two approaches for vertical temperature profile in bridges are given: either linear or non-linear profile should be used.
TM
For industrial structures uniform, linear and stepped components are considered; technological temperatures in accordance of design specifications.
T ( 10-6 C-1)
24 16 12 10 7 6-10 5 30-70
26
Aluminium, aluminium alloys Stainless Steel Structural steel Concrete (except as specified below) Concrete with light aggregates Masonry Timber, along grain
19.2.2008
Tmax,p = Tmax {k1 k2 ln [ ln (1 p)]} Tmin,p = Tmin {k3 + k4 ln [ ln (1 p)]} The coefficients k1 to k4 are given in EN 1991-1-5.
19.2.2008 Eurocodes: Background and Applications 28
Reduction coefficient k for vb,R Tmax,R Tmin,R sn,R snow wind 0,8 0,45 0,64 0,77 0,86 0,63 0,75 0,85 0,91 1 0,74 1 0,83 1 0,90 1
29
Composite bridge
SN 73 6203: TN = 65 C SN P ENV 1991-2-5: TN = 62 C SN EN 1991-1-5: TN = 73 C
Te,min = -25 C Te,min = -20 C Te,min = -28 C Te,max = 40 C Te,max = 42 C Te,max = 45 C
Support section M [MNm] -36,26 -32,67 -27,88 -28,92 -25,32 Support section [MPa] Q T Q T 1,23 0,85 0,34 0,45 0,069
hor
dol
hor
dol [MPa]
3,54 3,48 2,27 2,78 2,73
SN
M [MNm] -32,85
Mid-span section
[MPa] 0,32
hor
dol
M [MNm]
hor [MPa]
-5,83
dol [MPa]
2,99
Bending moments at mid-span sections T2 and K2 for linear (E) and non-linear (N) temperatures.
M TM, heat (or TM, cool) +TN, exp (or TN, con)
Coefficients: Concrete: T = 10 10-6 C-1 Linear expansion for T = 10 10-6 C-1 Temperature strain T = 10 10-6 114 = 1,14 10-3 Young modulus for concrete member, E 30 000 MPa Stress T = E T = 1,14 10-3 30 000 = 34 MPa Structural steel: T = 12 10-6 C-1, E 200 000 MPa T = 12 10-6 114 = 1,37 10-3 T = E T = 1,40 10-3 200 000 = 274 MPa
19.2.2008 Eurocodes: Background and Applications 36
M = 0,75
N = 0,35
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EN 1991-1-6: Contents
2
Foreword
EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1-6 General actions Actions during execution
Paolo Formichi Department of Structural Engineering University of Pisa - Italy
Section 1 General
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Scope Normative references Assumptions Distinction between principles and application rules Terms and definitions Symbols
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EN 1991-1-6: Contents
3
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Background and Applications
EN 1991-1-6: Annexes
4
Annex A1
Annexe A2 (Normative) Supplementary rules for bridges Annexe B (Informative) Actions on structures during alteration, reconstruction or demolition
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EN 1991-1-6: Scope
5
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EN 1991-1-6 gives principles and general rules for the determination of actions to be taken into account during the execution of buildings and civil engineering works. It may also be used as guidance for the determination of actions to be taken into account during: - structural alterations - reconstruction - partial or full demolition. It also gives rules for the determination of actions to be used for the design of auxiliary construction works (falsework, scaffolding, propping systems, cofferdam, bracing), needed for the execution phases.
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
During execution the following design situations will be taken into account as appropriate: Transient Accidental Seismic
Any selected design situation will be in accordance with the execution process anticipated in the design, and with any revision occurred.
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Any selected transient design situation be associated with a nominal duration equal to, or greater than the anticipated duration of the stage of execution under consideration. The design situations should take into account the likelihood for any corresponding return periods of variable actions (e.g. climatic actions). The return periods for the assessment of characteristic values of variable actions during execution may be defined in the National Annex or for the individual project. Recommended return periods of climatic actions are given, depending on the nominal duration of the relevant design situation.
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
A minimum wind velocity during execution may be defined in the National Annex or for the individual project. The recommended basic value for durations of up to 3 months is 20m/s in accordance with EN 1991-1-4: Wind Actions. Relationships between characteristic values and return period for climatic actions are given in the appropriate Parts of EN 1991.
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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V = 0.2 V = 0.6
sn/sk
0.60 0.60 0.50 0.50 0.40 0.40 0.30 0.30 0.20 0.20 0
sk Pn V
is the characteristic snow load on the ground (with a return period of 50 years) is the annual probability of exceedence (approx. = 1/n) is the coefficient of variation of annual max. snow loads
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
10 10
15 15
20 20
25 25
30 30
35 35
40 40
45 45
50 50
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Ultimate limit states need to be verified for all selected transient, accidental and seismic design situations as appropriate during execution in accordance with EN 1990. The combinations of actions for accidental design situations can either include the accidental action explicitly or refer to a situation after an accidental event. Generally, accidental design situations refer to exceptional conditions applicable to the structure or its exposure, such as: impact, local failure and subsequent progressive collapse, fall of structural or non-structural parts, and, in the case of buildings, abnormal concentrations of building equipment and/or building materials, water accumulation on steel roofs, fire, etc.
The verifications of the structure should take into account the appropriate geometry and resistance of the partially completed structure corresponding to the selected design situations.
Resistance of the lower floor, which has not necessarily attained its full strength.
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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geometry
resistance
Ultimate limit states of STR/GEO - Fundamental combination for transient design situations.
Expression (6.10) EN 1990
j 1
G, j
(*) K. Carper Beware of vulnerabilities during construction Construction and equipment, 3/2004
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G
j 1
k, j
The SLS for the selected design situations during execution needs to be verified, as appropriate, in accordance with EN 1990. The criteria associated with the SLS during execution should take into account the requirements for the completed structure. Operations which can cause excessive cracking and/or early deflection during execution and which may adversely affect the durability, fitness for use and/or aesthetic appearance in the final stage has to be avoided.
G
j 1
k, j
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SLS: combinations of actions. SLS: actions The combinations of actions should be established in accordance with EN 1990. In general, the relevant combinations of actions for transient design situations during execution are: the characteristic combination the quasi-permanent combination Characteristic combination (irreversible SLS)
G
j 1
k, j
G
j 1
k, j
"+" P"+" 2 ,i Qk ,i
i 1
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Actions during execution are classified in accordance with EN 1990, and may include: those actions that are not construction loads; and construction loads Both types of actions are classified (tables 2.1 and 2.2) depending on: Variation in time (permanent, variable, accidental) Origin (direct, indirect) Spatial variation (fixed, free) Nature (static, dynamic)
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Construction Loads
21
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Construction loads Qc may be represented in the appropriate design situations (see EN 1990), either, as one single variable action, or where appropriate different types of construction loads may be grouped and applied as a single variable action. Single and/or a grouping of construction loads should be considered to act simultaneously with non construction loads as appropriate.
Qce Qcf
6 different sources
Where Construction Loads are classified as fixed, they should be defined tolerances for possible deviation from the theoretical position. Where Construction Loads are classified as free, they should be defined limits of the area where they should be moved or positioned.
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Construction loads Qca Personnel and hand tools Working personnel, staff and visitors, possibly with hand tools or other small site equipment.
Construction loads Qca Personnel and hand tools The recommended value has been derived from investigations on construction sites(*), with regard to the following stages of construction: 1. before pouring of concrete slab; 2. after pouring of concrete slab, during the preparation of the next floor.
Measurement grid size [m2] 2,32 5,95 9,25 20,90 37,16 Mean Load [kN/m2] 0,31 0,30 0,29 0,30 0,28 10% fractile Load [kN/m2] 1,08 0,92 0,80 0,73 0,72 1% fractile Load [kN/m2] 2,93 2,00 2,18 1,58 1,43 0,5% fractile Load [kN/m2] 3,34 2,39 2,68 1,94 1,46
Modelled as a uniformly distributed load qca and applied as to obtain the most unfavourable effects. The recommended value is : qca,k = 1,0 kN/m2
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
As an example: the 5% fractile value for the 9,25 m2, is 1,23 kN/m2 (Gumbel distribution of the random variable is assumed).
(*) Cast-in-place Concrete in Tall Building Design and Construction Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat Committee 21 D. Mc Graw-Hill Inc. 1991 Chapter 2: Construction loads.
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Construction loads Qcb Storage of movable items e.g.: 1. Building and construction materials, precast elements; 2. Equipment.
Construction loads Qcc Non-permanent equipment in position for use: Static (e.g. formwork panels, scaffolding, falsework, machinery, containers) During movement (e.g. travelling forms launching griders and nose, counterweights)
Modelled as a free action and represented by a UDL qcb and a concentrated load Fcb For bridges, the following values are recommended minimum values: qcb,k = 0,2 kN/m2 Fcb,k = 100 kN Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
Unless more accurate information is available, they may be modelled by a uniformly distributed load with a recommended minimum characteristic value of qcc,k = 0,5 kN/m2
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Construction loads Qcd Movable heavy machinery and equipment usually wheeled or tracked e.g.:
Cranes, lifts, vehicles, lift trucks, power installations, jacks, heavy lifting devices.
When not defined in the project specification, information for the determination of actions may be found in: - EN 1991-2 for actions due to vehicles - EN 1991-3 for actions due to cranes. Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
These loads are taken into account by considering possible mass effects on horizontal, inclined and vertical elements (such as walls). These loads may vary significantly, and over short time periods, depending on types of materials, climatic conditions, build-up and clearance rates.
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Construction loads Qcf Loads from part of structure in a temporary state before the final design actions take effect e.g. loads
from lifting operations.
Construction loads during the casting of concrete (4.11.2) Actions to be taken into account simultaneously during the casting of concrete may include: - working personnel with small site equipment (Qca); - formwork and loadbearing members (Qcc);
Taken into account and modelled according to the planned execution sequences, including the consequences of those sequences (e.g. loads and reverse load effects due to particular processes of construction, such as assemblage).
Paolo Formichi, University of Pisa Italy
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Qca, Qcc and Qcf may be given in the National Annex. Recommended values for fresh concrete (Qcf) may be taken from Table 4.2 and EN 1991-1-1, Table A.1. Other values may have to be defined, for example, when using self-levelling concrete or pre-cast products.
Accidental actions such as impact from construction vehicles, cranes, building equipment or materials in transit (e.g. skip of fresh concrete), and/or local failure of final or temporary supports, including dynamic effects, that may result in collapse of load-bearing structural members, shall be taken into account, where relevant. Abnormal concentrations of building equipment and/or building materials on load-bearing structural members should also be taken into account Dynamic effects may be defined in the National Annex or for the individual project. The recommended value of the dynamic amplification factor is 2. In specific cases a dynamic analysis is needed.
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Supplementary rules for buildings Representative values of the variable action due to construction loads may be set by the National Annex, within a recommended range of 0 = 0,6 to 1,0. The recommended value of 0 is 1,0. The minimum recommended value of 2 is 0,2 and it is further recommended that values below 0,2 are not selected For the verification of serviceability limit states, the combinations of actions to be taken into account should be the characteristic and the quasi-permanent combinations.
Seismic actions should be determined according to EN 1998, taking into account the reference period of the considered transient situation. The design values of ground acceleration and the importance factor I may be defined in the National Annex or for the individual project.
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38
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EN 1990 Section 2.1 Basic Requirements (4)P A structure shall be designed and executed in such a way that it will not be damaged by events like - explosion - impact and - consequences of human errors to an extent disproportionate to the original cause Note: Further information is given in EN 1991-1-7
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EN 1990 guidance:
reducing hazards low sensitive structural form survival of local damage sufficient warning at collapse tying members
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Eurocode EN 1991-1-7
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. General Classification Design situations Impact Explosions
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4. Impact
8
Type of road
3 Design strategies
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2500
F[kN]
2000
1500
1000
500
E [kNm]
3000
force [kN]
variable n T b v a m k
designation number of lorries/day reference time accident rate width of a vehicle angle of collision course vehicle velocity deceleration vehicle mass vehicle stiffness
type deterministic deterministic deterministic deterministic rayleigh lognormal lognormal normal deterministic
mean 5000 100 years 10-10 m -1 2.50 m 10o 80 km/hr 4 m 2/s 20 ton 300 kN/m
stand dev 10o 10 km/hr 1.3 m/s2 12 ton 0 1000 500 1500 2000
eq 4.3.7
distance [m] 10 20 30 40 50
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14
Bending moment:
x H Fdy a b h y
Mdx =
a( H a ) Fdx H
Resistance:
b h H fy fc width thickness column height yield stress steel concrete strength reinforcement ratio 0.50 m 1.00 m 5m 300 MPa 50 MPa 0.01
MRdx = 0.8 h2 b fy = 0.8 0.01 1.002 0.50 300 000 = 1200 kNm > 940 kNm
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15
16
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18
explosion pressure: pEd = 3 + pv/2 + 0,04/(Av/V)2 = 3 + 1.5 + 0.04 / 0.1442 = 6.5 kN/m2 self weight = 3.0 kN/m2 live load
B=8m
H = 3m
pd
= 2.0 kN/m2
Design load combination (bottom floor): Compartment: 3 x 8 x 14 m Two glass walls (pv =3 kN/m2) and two concrete walls pda = pSW + pE + 1LL pLL = 3.00 + 6.50 + 0.5*2.00 = 10.50 kN/m2
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20
d = 1 +
t
p SW p Rd
2 u max g ( t )2
= 0.2 s = load duration g = 10 m/s2 umax = 0.20 m = midspan deflection at collapse psw = 3,0 kN/m2 and pRd =7.7 kN/m2
P sw
d = [1 +
3 7 .7
2 * 0 . 20 10 ( 0 . 2 ) 2
pE
] = 1.6
pREd = d pRd = 1.6 * 7.7 = 12.5 kN/m2 > 10.5 kN/m2 Conclusion: bottom floor system okay
edge column B
centre column
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21
22
Y Z X
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23
24
class 2, lower group most buildings up to 4 stories class 2, upper group most buildings up to 15 stories
.1E-1 .9E-2 .8E-2 .7E-2 .6E-2 .5E-2 .4E-2 .3E-2 .2E-2 .1E-2 0
class 3
Y Z X
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25
26
Annex A: What to do
s=4m
Class 1 Class 2, Lower Group Frames Class 2, Lower group Wall structures Class 2, Upper Group
No special considerations
L=5m
Horizontal ties in floors Full cellular shapes Floor to wall anchoring. Horizontal ties and effective vertical ties OR limited damage on notional removal OR special design of key elements Risk analysis and/or advanced mechanical analysis recommended
interne trekband Ti
Class 3
randkolom
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s=4m
L=5m
s
interne trekband 212
Ti = 0,8 s L p
Ti
Ti
randkolom
Ti
Ti= 0.8 (gk+ qk)sL = 0.8{3+0.5*3}x4x5=88 kN>75 kN FeB 500: A = 202 mm2 or 2 12mm
middenkolom
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30
verplaatsing
X R
X Ti
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31
32
Example structure, Class 2, Upper Group, Framed L =7.2 m, s =6 m, qk=gk=4 kN/m2, =1.0
Example structure Internal horizontal tie force Ti = 0.8 (gk + qk) s L = 0.8 {4+4} (6 x 7.2) = 276 kN FeB 500: A = 550 mm2 or 2 18 mm.
internal ties
perimeter tie L
Vertical tying force: Ti = (gk + qk) s L = {4+4} (6 x 7.2) = 350 kN FeB 500: A = 700 mm2 or 3 18 mm.
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33
Tyings Horizontal: Ti = Ft (gk + qk) /7,5 z/5 kN/m > Ft Periphery: Tp = Ft Vertical: T = 34 A / 8000 (H/t) in N > 100 kN/m
Ft ns z A H t
= 20 + 4ns kN/m < 60 kN/m = number of storeys = span = horizontal cross section of wall [mm] = free storey height = wall thickness
dragende wand
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36
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37
Qualitative Risk analysis hazard identification hazard scenarios description of consequences definition of measures
Quantitative Risk Analyisis inventory of uncertainties modelling of uncertatinties probabilistic calculations quantification of consequences calculation of risks
Presentation
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hazards
42
41
Earthquake
Vandalism Demonstrations Terrorist attack Internal explosion External explosion Internal fire External fire Impact by vehicle etc Mining subsidence Environmental attack Design error Material error Construction error User error Lack of maintenance
Landslide Tornado Avalanche Rock fall High groundwater Flood Volcano eruption
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43
44
Step 1
Identifical and modelling of relevant accidental hazards
Step 2
Assessment of damage states to structure from different hazards
Step 3
Assessment of the performance of the damaged structure
Risk calculation:
Step 1: identification of hazard Hi Step 2: damage Dj at given hazard Step 3: structural behavour Sk and cpmsequences C(Sk)
Risk = p ( H i ) p ( D j H i ) p ( S k D j )C ( S k )
Assessment of the probability of occurence of different hazards with different intensities Assessment of the probability of different states of damage and corresponding consequences for given hazards Assessment of the probability of inadequate performance(s) of the damaged structure together with the corresponding consequence(s)
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Conclusions
45
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46
Reasons: large prior differences member state autonomy in safety matters legal status different in every country
COST actions C28 and TU0601 Background document for the ENV-version of EC1 Part 2-7 (TNO, The Netherlands, 1999) Leonardo da Vinci Project CZ/02/B/F/PP-134007 Handbooks Implementtion of Eurocodes (2005)
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FOREWORD SECTION 1 SECTION 2 SECTION 3 SECTION 4 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIONS DESIGN SITUATIONS ROAD TRAFFIC ACTIONS AND OTHER ACTIONS SPECIFICALLY FOR ROAD BRIDGES ACTIONS ON FOOTWAYS, CYCLE TRACKS AND FOOTBRIDGES RAIL TRAFFIC ACTIONS AND OTHER ACTIONS SPECIFICALLY FOR RAILWAY BRIDGES MODELS OF SPECIAL VEHICLES FOR ROAD BRIDGES FATIGUE LIFE ASSESSMENT FOR ROAD BRIDGES ASSESSMENT METHOD BASED ON RECORDED TRAFFIC
SECTION 5 SECTION 6
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GENERAL ORGANISATION FOR ROAD BRIDGES Traffic load models - Vertical forces : LM1, LM2, LM3, LM4 - Horizontal forces : braking and acceleration, centrifugal, transverse acceleration, centrifugal, Groups of loads - gr1a, gr1b, gr2, gr3, gr4, gr5 - characteristic, frequent and characteristic, quasi-permanent values quasiCombination with actions other than traffic actions
LOAD MODELS FOR LIMIT STATES OTHER THAN FATIGUE LIMIT STATES Field of application : loaded lengths less than 200 m (maximum length taken into account for the calibration of the Eurocode For very long loaded lengths, see National Annex) lengths, Annex) Load Model Nr. 1 Nr. Concentrated and distributed loads (main model general and local verifications) verifications) Load Model Nr. 2 Nr. Single axle load (semi-local and local verifications) (semiverifications) Load Model Nr. 3 Nr. Set of special vehicles (general and local verifications) verifications) Load Model Nr. 4 Nr. Crowd loading : 5 kN/m2 (general verifications) verifications) kN/m
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Characteristic values
Frequent values
Quasi-permanent values
Carriageway width w
width measured between kerbs (height more than 100 mm recommended value) or between the inner limits of vehicle restraint systems
LM2 (4.3.3)
LM3 (4.3.4)
LM4 (4.3.5)
1000 year return period (or probability of exceedance of 5% in 50 years) for traffic on the main roads in Europe ( factors equal to 1, see 4.3.2). 1000 year return period (or probability of exceedance of 5% in 50 years) for traffic on the main roads in Europe ( factor equal to 1, see 4.3.3). Set of nominal values. Basic values defined in annex A are derived from a synthesis based on various national regulations. Nominal value deemed to represent the effects of a crowd. Defined with reference to existing national standards.
1 week return period for traffic on the main roads in Europe ( factors equal to 1, see 4.3.2).
1 week return period for traffic on the main roads in Europe ( factor equal to 1, see 4.3.3).
Not relevant
Not relevant
Not relevant
Not relevant
Not relevant
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5, 4 m w < 6 m 6m w
0
w 3 nl
3m
w NOTE For example, for a carriageway width equal to 11m, nl = Int = 3 , and the 3
width of the remaining area is 11 - 33 = 2m.
1 Lane Nr. 1 (3m) Nr. 2 Lane Nr. 2 (3m) Nr. 3 Lane Nr. 3 (3m) Nr. 4 Remaining area
q3k = 2,5 kN/m2 kN/m qrk = 2,5 kN/m2 kN/m
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The main load model for road bridges (LM1) : diagrammatic representation For the determination of general effects, the effects, tandems travel centrally along the axes of notional lanes
For local verifications, a tandem verifications, system should be applied at the most unfavourable location.
Where two tandems on adjacent notional lanes are taken into account, account, they may be brought closer, the distance closer, between axles being not less than 0,50 m
Q1
1 0,9
Qi
i2
1 0,8
q1
1 0,7
qi
i2
1 1
qr
1 1
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a) Pavement and concrete slab 1 Wheel contact pressure 2 Pavement 3 Concrete slab
b) Pavement and orthotropic deck 1 Wheel contact pressure 2 Pavement 3 Bridge floor 4 Middle surface of the bridge floor 5 Transverse member
Recommended value : Q = Q 1
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Q1 = q1 = 1 Qlk = 180 + 2,7L For 0 L 1,2 m Qlk = 360 + 2,7L For L > 1,2 m r : horizontal radius of curvature of the carriageway centreline [m] Qv : total maximum weight of vertical concentrated loads of the tandem systems of LM1
Qi
( 2Qik )
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Groups of loads
Group of loads gr1a : LM1 + reduced value of pedestrian load on footways or cycle tracks (3 kN/m2) kN/m
Group of loads gr1b : LM2 (single axle load) load) Group of loads gr5 : special vehicles (+ special conditions for normal traffic) traffic)
Group of loads gr2 : characteristic values of horizontal forces, frequent values of LM1
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Table 4.4b Assessment of groups of traffic loads (frequent values of the multi-component action) multiCARRIAGEWAY Load type Reference EN 1991-2 Load system gr1a Groups of loads
a)
Vertical forces 4.3.2 LM1 (TS and UDL systems) Frequent values Frequent values Frequent value a) 4.3.3 LM2 (single axle) 5.3.2(1) Uniformly distributed load
gr1b gr3
See 5.3.2.1(3). One footway only should be considered to be loaded if the effect is more unfavourable than the effect of two loaded footways.
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Table 4.5 - Indicative number of heavy vehicles expected per year and per slow lane (FLM3 and FLM4 Models)
1 LORRY SILHOUETTE
Traffic categories 1 Roads and motorways with 2 or more lanes per direction with high flow rates of lorries Roads and motorways with medium flow rates of lorries M ain roads with low flow rates of lorries Local roads with low flow rates of lorries
4,20 1,30
80 140 140 90 180 120 120 120 90 190 140 140 90 180 120 110 110
A B B A B C C C A B B B A B C C C
2 3 4
3,20 5,20 1,30 1,30 3,40 6,00 1,80 4,80 3,60 4,40 1,30
0,05 10 6
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A second vehicle may be taken into account : Recommended axle load value Q = 36 kN Minimum distance between vehicles : 40 m
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Verification procedure with Load Model FLM 3 Determination of the maximum and minimum stresses resulting from the transit of the model along the bridge
LM = Max LM Min LM
The stress variation is multiplied by a local dynamic amplification factor in the vicinity of expansion joints
fat
The model is normally centered in every slow lane defined in the project specification. But where the transverse position specification. is important, a statistical distribution of this position should be taken into account. account. Finally : fat = fat LM Frequency distribution of transverse location of a vehicle (Models 3 to 5)
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Fatigue Load Models for road bridges Representation of the additional amplification factor
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VEHICLE TYPE
1
2 3
TRAFFIC TYPE
4 Long distance Lorry persentage 5 Medium distance Lorry percentage 6 Local traffic Lorry percentage Wheel type 7
LORRY
4,5
70 130
20,0
40,0
80,0
A B
4,20 1,30
5,0
10,0
5,0
A B B A B C C C A B B B A B C C C
3,20 5,20 1,30 1,30 3,40 6,00 1,80 4,80 3,60 4,40 1,30
50,0
30,0
5,0
15,0
15,0
5,0
10,0
5,0
5,0
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ACTIONS FROM VEHICLES ON THE BRIDGE Vehicles on footways and cycle tracks Impact forces on kerbs Impact forces on safety barriers
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LOAD MODELS FOR FOOTWAYS AND FOOTBRIDGES (Section 5) LOAD MODEL Nr.1 Nr.1 Uniformly distributed load qfk
LOAD MODEL Nr.2 Nr.2 Concentrated load Qfwk (10 kN recommended) recommended)
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Recommended characteristic value for : - footways and cycle tracks on road bridges, - short or medium span length footbridges :
q fk = 5,0 kN/m 2
Recommended expression for long span length footbridges :
For footbridges only, a horizontal force should be taken into account, to be applied along the deck axis at the surfacing level level Qflk. Its characteristic value, which may be altered in the National Annex, is equal to the higher of the two following values : 10% of the total uniformly distributed load as defined in 5.3.2.1, 5.3.2.1, 60% of the total service vehicle load where relevant (5.3.2.3(5.3.2.3(1)P). The horizontal force is applied simultaneously with the vertical load, but not with the concentrated load.
q fk = 2,0 +
120 L + 30
kN/m 2
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RAILWAY ACTIONS
M.T.
1
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Actions on structures Traffic loads on bridges RAILWAY ACTIONS. SELECTED CHAPTERS FROM EN 1991-2 AND ANNEX A2 OF EN 1990 Foreword Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4 Section 5 Dr. h. c. Marcel Tschumi Section 6 General Classification of actions Design situations Road traffic actions and other actions specifically for road bridges Actions on footways, cycle footways, tracks and footbridges Rail traffic actions and other actions specifically for railway bridges
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Basis of structural design Application for bridges Section A2.1 Field of application Section A2.2 Combinations of actions A2.2.1 General A2.2.2 for road bridges A2.2.3 for footbridges A2.2.4for railway bridges A2.2.5 Section A2.3 Ultimate limit states Section A2.4 Serviceability limit states A2.4.1 General A2.4.2 serviceability criteria for road bridges A2.4.3 serviceability criteria for footbridges A2.4.4 serviceability criteria for railway bridges
Models of special vehicles for road bridges Fatigue life assessment for road bridges. Assessment method based on recorded traffic Dynamic factors 1+ for real trains Basis for the fatigue assessment of railway structures Limits of validity of load model HSLM and the selection of the critical universal train from HSLM-A HSLMCriteria to be satisfied if a dynamic analysis is not required Method for determining the combined response of a structure and track to variable actions Load models for rail traffic loads in transient situations
Annex C (N) Annex D (N) Annex E (I) Annex F (I) Annex G (I) Annex H (I)
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Load Model 71
6
(1) Running surface (2) Longitudinal forces acting along the centreline of the track
The characteristic values given in this figure shall be multiplied by a factor multiplied on lines carrying rail traffic which is heavier or lighter than normal rail traffic. When multiplied by the factor , the loads are called "classified vertical loads". This factor shall be one of the following: 0,75 - 0,83 - 0,91 loads". following: 1,00 - 1,10 - 1,21 - 1,33 1,46. The value 1,33 is normally recommended on lines for freight traffic and international lines (UIC CODE 702, 2003). The actions listed below shall be multiplied by the same factor : centrifugal forces nosing force traction and braking forces load model SW/0 for continuous span bridges
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Relation between LM 71 and the 6 real service trains in UIC Code 776-1
7
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x LM71 (and SW/2 where required), without dynamic factor, uniformly distributed over a width of 3,00 m at a level 0,70 m below the running surface of the rail.
Wagon DB with 32 axles, selfweight 246 t, cantilevers included, pay load 457 t, mass per axle 22 t , ltot = 63,3 m
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the speed of traffic across the bridge, the span L of the element, the mass of the structure, the natural frequencies of the whole structure and relevant elements of the structure, the number of axles, axle loads and the spacing of axles, the damping of the structure, vertical irregularities in the track, the unsprung/sprung mass and suspension characteristics of the vehicle, the presence of regularly spaced supports of the deck slab (cross girders), vehicle imperfections (wheel flats, out of round wheels, etc.), the dynamic characteristics of the track (ballast, sleepers, track components etc.).
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The four existing different dynamic factors and enhancements written for carefully maintained track
13
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Dynamic enhancement for real trains 1 + = 1 + ' + () '' Dynamic enhancement for fatigue calculations = 1 + (' + ()'') Dynamic factor 2(3) for static calculations (determinant lengths L due to table 6.2) Dynamic enhancement for dynamic studies
The freedom for the choice of the factor could provoke a non homogeneous railway network in Europe! Therefore in UIC Leaflet 702 (2003) = 1,33 is generally recommended for all new bridges constructed for the international freight network, unfortunately not obligatory! Year 2002 Year 2100
=1,33
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ULS: For new bridges it should absolutely be adopted = 1,33. Fatigue: All calculations are done with the Load Model 71 and the factor = 1,00.
Existing bridges The question of updated rail traffic actions is currently studied within the European Research Project Sustainable Bridges - Assessment for Future Traffic Demands and longer Lives. See: www.sustainablebridges.net
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Serviceability Limit States (SLS) Interaction track bridge: Theoretically this is a Seviceability Limit State (SLS) for the bridge and an Ultimate Limit State (ULS ) for the rail. But as the given permissible rail stresses and deformations were obtained by deterministic design methods, calibrated on the existing practice, the calculations for interaction have to be done in contradiction to EN1991-2, where there is a mistake - always with = 1,00!!
= 1,00
shall be adopted, even if = 1,33 is taken into consideration for ULS.
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Increase of costs in % due to = 1,33, related to those calculated with = 1,0 / bridges built with traffic interference (ERRI D 192/RP 4, 1996):
4
A 16t A
B 18t B1 B2
C 20t
D 22,5t
E 25t
3.5 3 2.5
1 2 3 4 5
2.19
C2 C3 C4
D2 D3 D4 E4 E5
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Increase of costs in % due to = 1,33, related to those calculated with = 1,0 / bridges built without traffic interference, (ERRI D 192/RP 4, 1996):
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 3.91
Relative displacements of the track and of the bridge, caused by the combination of the effects of thermal variations, train braking and traction forces, as well as deflection of the deck under vertical traffic loads (LM 71), lead to the track/bridge phenomenon that 71), results in additional stresses to the bridge and the track. Take LM 71 with = 1.00 (even if > 1.00 for ULS)! (even ULS)!
Mollebakken
Kambobekken
La Sormonne
Sallaumines
RN2/TGVNord
Holendalen
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Verberie
Scarpe
Vlake
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Practice with rail UIC 60, steel grade giving at least 900 N/mm2 strength, minimum curve radius r 1500 m, laid on ballasted track with concrete sleepers and consolidated, > 30 cm deep ballast, the permissible additional stresses in continuous welded rail on the bridge due to interaction is: compression: traction: 72 N/mm2 92 N/mm2
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Remark:The decks corresponding to L1 or to L2 may have additional supports. L1max. or L2 max. without expansion joints: 90 m (concrete, composite) 60 m (steel), but: L1 + L2 = 180 m/ 120 m with fixed bearing in the middle !!!!!!
For new bridges even if taking = 1,33 for ULS design note: a slightly overdesigned bridge for ULS has less fatigue problems if the loadings do not increase!) - fatigue assessments are done with the load model LM 71 and = 1,00. In supplement, the calculation of the damage equivalent factors for fatigue should be done with the heavy traffic mix, that means waggons with 25t (250kN) axles, in accordance with Annex D of EN 1991-2
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Ff 2 71
Ff
Mf
is the partial safety factor for fatigue loading is the damage equivalence factor for fatigue which takes account of the service traffic on the bridge and the span of the member. Values of are given in the design codes. is the dynamic factor (see 6.4.5 of EN 1991-2)
71 is the stress range due to the Load Model 71 (and where required SW/0) but with = 1, the loads being placed in the most unfavourable position for the element under consideration. C is the reference value of the fatigue strength (see EN 1993) is the partial safety factor for fatigue strength in the design codes
Mf
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is the damage equivalence factor for fatigue which takes account of the span, the service traffic, the annual traffic volume, the intended design life of the structural element and the number of tracks. = 1 2 3 4 where: 1 is a factor accounting for the structural member type (e.g. a continuous beam) and takes into account the damaging effect of the chosen service traffic (e.g. heavy traffic mix), depending on the length of the influence line or area. 2 is a factor that takes into account the annual traffic volume. 3 is a factor that takes into account the intended design life of the structural member. 4 is a factor which denotes the effect of loading from more than one track. Values of are given in the design codes.
General:
It cannot be stressed often enough that railway bridges must be designed and constructed in a fatigue-resistant way. For having optimal Life Cycle Costs (LCC) and for reaching the intended design life of minimum 100 years, all important structural members shall be designed for fatigue!
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Rules for presteressed bridges: Fully prestressed bridges under service loads have
no fatigue problems. For not fully prestressed bridges under servic loads the permissible stress s must be observed as well for the prestressing steel as for the reinforcing bars.
strength categories s must of course be observed. avoided in principle in regions with high stress variation.
Welded joints of reinforcing bars should be The bending radii of reinforcing bars must
be big enough to avoid too much loss of fatigue strength.
prestressing steel and electrically isolated tendons permit to assure the quality with long term monitoring. have to be placed such that they are in a region of low stress variation.
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Permissible deflections
34
Personal advice: Bridge competitions should be carried out in two phases. The first phase should be anonymous with only few calculations and plans called for. The second phase should however not be anonymous. In this phase it is essential, from the owners point of view, that recommendations for the importent aspects of the design are provided. These include avoiding, where ever possible, expansion joints in the rails near the bridge and, very important, excluding poor constructional details which will lead to fatigue problems.
In EN 1990, Annex A2 [2] only minimum conditions for bridge deformations are given. The rule does not take into account track maintenance. A simplified rule for permissible deflections is given below for trains and speeds up to 200km/h, to avoid the need for excessive track maintenance. In addition, this simplified rule has the advantage, that no dynamic analysis is necessary for speeds less than 200km/h. For all classified lines with >1,0, that means also if = 1.33 is adopted for ULS, the following permissible values for deflections are recommended, always calculated under LM71 + SW/O, multiplied by , and with = 1.0: V<80 km/h
stat l / 800*
*Note: Due to what is said in see A.2.4.4.2.3 [2], namely that the maximum total deflection measured along any track due to rail traffic actions should not exceed L/600, please note that 600 multiplied with 1,33 gives approximately 800. 80 V 200 km/h
** Note: The upper limit l/2600 for 200 km/h is the permissible deflection which DB has taken during many years for designing bridges for high speed lines in Germany, with satisfactory results. It is also the formula which you can find in the Swiss Codes (SIA 260). V > 200 km/h The value determined by the dynamic study, but min. stat l / 2600
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no
yes
no
no
yes yes L 40 m
no
(9) X
yes
no
yes
no nT > 1,2 n0
For the dynamic analysis use the eigenforms for torsion and for bending
no
yes
(9) If the permissible deformations given just before are respected taking into account track maintenance no dynamic study is necessary for speeds 200 km/h.
You can forget the following conditions with the recommended permissible deflections given above:
.
Dynamic analysis not required. At resonance acceleration check and fatigue check not required. Use with static analysis in accordance
Dynamic analysis required Calculate bridge deck acceleration and dyn etc. in accordance with 6.4.6 (note 4)
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Collapse of railway bridge over the river Birs in Mnchenstein, Switzerland, the 14th June 1891, by buckling of the upper flange under an overloaded train, 73 persons were killed, 131 persons more or less injured. => Tetmajers law.