Chipping... Bamboo or Wood as such cannot be used for pulping.

For economical operation of pulping plant as well as for better penetration of cooking liquor, wood logs/bamboo are to be chipped into small pieces (some wood species cannot be chipped directly and needs debarking). The process is called chipping and the equipment used for chipping are called chippers. There are various designs of chippers. During chipping, chips are generated in various sizes. For better operation of the process, only chips of size 5-35 mm are taken. Chips of size less than 5 mm (dust and pin chips are taken to Boiler House for burning as fuel for generating steam). Chips of size more than 35 mm are taken into rechippers and again chipped to an acceptable size. Pulping... Pulp is obtained by removing lignin and other impurities from the wood & other raw materials through a cooking process (Lignin is the glue that holds the fibres of the wood in their form). The cooking process requires wood, bamboo or other raw material chips. The chips are loaded into a digester and a cooking liquor is added. Then by pressure cooking, the wood, bamboo or other raw material fibres are separated from unwanted ingredients. Either batch digester or continuous digesters are used in cooking. The chips and liquor are mixed as the chips are pumped to the top of the digester. The top section of the digester is pressurized to 160 psi and more. As the chip mass passes downward, the cooking liquor penetrates the chip. After about 45 minutes or more as per raw material the chips have to be passed through the impregnation zone where hot liquor (340 degree F) is circulated through the chips for heating. The actual pulping occurs at 355 degree F in about 90 minutes, a period known as the cooking period. After passing through the cooking zone, the chips (which have not become pulp) are washed with weak liquor through washing stages that follow. Within the chemical process there are two types Sulphate Process "(Alkaline process)" Sulphite Process "(Acid process)" Some hard woods may be dissolved with difficulty by the sulphite process. On the other hand, by the sulphate process most of the chemicals are recovered and reused. Bleaching... Although cellulose fibre is white in colour, due to residual lignin traces remaining on the fibres, the pulp appears creamish. Therefore, to manufacture white paper we need to remove yellowness without physically or chemically damaging the fibre, with improvement in various properties. So the main objectives of bleaching the pulp, can be set out as follows. To increase brightness of the pulp by removal or modification of some of the unwanted elements in the unbleached pulp. These deleterious elements are lignin traces, resins, metal ions, non-cellulosic carbohydrates etc. Bleaching for brightness improvement should also help to keep the pulp stable without turning yellow or lose strength or reduce brilliance - due to aging. To lower viscosity of the pulp for optimum flow, during subsequent operations. Bleaching also should help to reduce the fibre bundles, shives and bark fragments. Bleaching should be done with minimum mechanical action of fibres, while dissolving lignin and other unwanted residuals. Bleaching Pulp is normally done in a step-wise sequence using different chemicals and process conditions at each stage, with washing in between stages. Additives... Additives are added to paper pulp. Addition of fillers like talcum & calcium carbonate is very common & besides acting as fillers they add brightness to the paper. These additives must be finely ground. Additives like dyes & starch are also added. Other fillers are Titanium Dioxide, Barium Sulphate & Zinc SulphideRemoving Water...

Removing water is the next important stage. For this the pulp is passed through a rapidly moving wire mesh called fourdriner. The objective is to remove 93% to 95% of the water in the finished paper. As the paper flows along the wire mesh and water is drained along the way, a dandy roller near the end helps to smooth out the paper. The dandy roller improves the formation of the paper web by application of pressure. When the paper reaches the end of the wire mesh it is transferred to a felt blanket which conveys it through many steam heated driers to remove the excess moisture. In the process the paper gets some glaze like coating also. Then it is made to pass through a series of calender stacks. The calenders are series of polished iron rollers stacked one on top of the other, through which the finished paper will pass to smoothen down. The next step is rewinding on a metal or fibre core. The last stages after this are sheeting, packing & testing. Properties of Paper Basis Weight (GSM) Brightness, Whiteness and Colour Bulk Dimensional Stability Folding Endurance (Double Folds) Formation Gloss Machine and Cross Direction Moisture Opacity Porosity Sizing / Cobb Smoothness Stiffness Stretch (Elongation) Tearing Resistance Temperature and Humidity: Conditioning of Paper Thickness Wax Pick No. (Surface Strength) Wire side and Felt side Basis Weight (GSM) The weight or substance per unit area is obviously fundamental in paper and paper board products. The Basis weight of paper is the weight per unit area. This can be expressed as the weight in grams per square metre (GSM or g/M2), pounds per 1000 sq. ft. or weight in kgs or pounds per ream (500 sheets) of a specific size. REAM WEIGHT is a common term to signify the weight of a lot or batch of paper. Control of basis weight is important as all other properties are affected. Variations in moisture content in paper affects the grammage.

Brightness, Whiteness and Colour Brightness is defined as the percentage reflectance of blue light only at a wavelength of 457 nm. Whiteness refers to the extent that paper diffusely reflects light of all wave lengths throughout the visible spectrum. Whiteness is an appearance term. Colour is an aesthetic value. Colour may appear different when viewed under a different light source. Brightness is an arbitrarily defined, but carefully standardised, blue reflectance that is used throughout the pulp and paper industry for the control of mill processes and in certain types of research and development programs. Brightness is not whiteness. However, the brightness values of the pulps and pigments going into the paper provide an excellent measure of the maximum whiteness that can be achieved with proper tinting. The colour of paper, like of other materials, depends in a complicated way on the characteristics of the observer and a number of physical factors such as the

spectral energy distribution of the illuminant, the geometry of illuminating and viewing, the nature and extent of the surround and the optical characteristics of the paper itself.

Bulk Bulk is a term used to indicate volume or thickness in relation to weight. It is the reciprocal of density (weight per unit volume). It is calculated from caliper and basis weight. Sheet bulk relates to all other sheet properties. Decrease the bulk or in other words increase the density, and the sheet gets smoother, glossier, less opaque, darker, lower in strength etc.

Dimensional Stability An important consequence of the absorption and de-absorption of moisture by paper is the change in dimension that usually accompanies changes in moisture content. Such changes in dimension may seriously affect register in printing processes and interfere with the use of such items as tabulating cards. Uneven dimensional changes cause undesirable cockling and curling. Dimensional changes in paper originate in the swelling and contraction of the individual fibres. It has been observed that cellulosic fibres swell in diameter from 15 to 20% in passing from the dry condition to the fibre saturation point. It is impossible to be precise about the degree of this swelling because paper-making fibres differ considerably in this property, and because the irregular cross-section of fibres creates difficulty in defining diameter. Change that occurs in the dimensions of paper with variation in the moisture content is an important consideration in the use of paper. All papers expand with increased moisture content and contract with decreased moisture content, but the rate and extent of changes vary with different papers.

Folding Endurance (Double Folds) Folding endurance is the paper's capability of withstanding multiple folds before it breaks. It is defined as the number of double folds that a strip of 15 mm wide and 100 mm length can withstand under a specified load before it breaks. It is important for printing grades where the paper is subjected to multiple folds like in books, maps, or pamphlets. Fold test is also important for carton, box boards, ammonia print paper, and cover paper etc. Folding endurance is a requirement in Bond, Ledger, Currency, Map, Blue Print and Record Papers. Formation Formation is an indicator of how the fibres and fillers are distributed in the sheet. Formation plays an important role as most of the paper properties depend on it. Paper that is poorly formed will have weak, thin spots and thick spots. These will affect properties like caliper, opacity, strength etc. Paper formation also affects the coating capabilities and printing characteristics of the paper.

Gloss It is the specularly and diffusely reflected light component measurement against a known standard. Gloss is important for printing such things as magazine advertisements. The level of gloss desired is very dependent on the end use of the paper. Gloss and smoothness are different properties and are not dependent on each other. Machine and Cross Direction Paper has a definite grain direction due to greater orientation of fibres in the direction of travel of the paper machine. This grain direction is known as machine direction. The cross direction is the direction of paper at right angles to the machine direction. Some of the properties vary with the MD and CD and hence the values are reported in both the directions. While sheeting the paper, machine and cross direction are to be kept in mind and the sheet cutting to be done to suit the end use requirements. Examples: 1. All printing papers are to be cut in long grain (The biggest dimension in the grain direction). 2. Book papers fold better and the book stays open better if the sheets are out so that the machine direction runs up and down the pages. 3. Wrap around labels for metal cans and bottles are to be cut with the machine direction vertical to obtain greater flexibility about the can. Long grain and Short grain : The sheet is in long grain if the larger dimension is parallel to grain (MD) direction. The sheet is said to be in short grain if the larger dimension is parallel to cross direction (CD). Moisture Most physical properties of paper undergo change as a result of variations in moisture content. Water has the effect of plasticising the cellulose fibre and of relaxing and weakening the interfibre bonding. The electrical resistance and the dielectric constant of paper both vary with moisture content. The absorption and reflectance of certain bands of infrared and microwave

radiation by paper are affected by its moisture content. The amount of water present in a sheet of paper is usually expressed as a percent. The amount of water plays an important role in calendaring, printing and converting process. Moisture control is also significant to the economic aspect of paper making. Poor moisture control can adversely affect many paper properties. Opacity Opacity is the measure of how much light is kept away from passing through a sheet. A perfectly opaque paper is the one that is absolutely impervious to the passage of all visible light. It is the ratio of diffused reflectance and the reflectance of single sheet backed by a black body. Opacity is important in Printing Papers, Book Papers, etc. Porosity Because paper is composed of a randomly felted layer of fibre, it follows that the structure has a varying degree of porosity. Thus, the ability of fluids, both liquid and gaseous, to penetrate the structure of paper becomes a property that is both highly significant to the use of paper. Paper is a highly porous material and contains as such as 70% air. Porosity is a highly critical factor in Printing Papers Laminating Paper, Filter Paper, Cigarette Paper. Bag Paper, Antitarnish Paper and Label Paper. Porosity is the measurement of the total connecting air voids, both vertical and horizontal, that exists in a sheet. Porosity of sheet is an indication of absorptivity or the ability of the sheets to accept ink or water. Porosity can also be a factor in a vacuum feeding operation on a printing press. Sizing / Cobb Because paper is composed of a randomly felted layer of fibre, it's structure has a varying degree of porosity. Thus, the ability of fluids, both liquid and gaseous, to penetrate the structure of paper becomes a property that is both highly significant to the use of paper. The need to limit the spreading of ink resulted in "sizing" the paper with gelatinous vegetable materials which had the effect of sealing or filling the surface pores. Later, the term "sizing" was applied to the treatment of paper stock prior to the formation of the sheet, with water-repellent materials such as rosin or wax. Resistance towards the penetration of aqueous solution / water is measured by Sizing or Cobb values. Smoothness Smoothness is concerned with the surface contour of paper. It is the flatness of the surface under testing conditions which considers roughness, liveliness, and compressibility. In most of the uses of paper, the character of the surface is of great importance. It is common to say that paper has a "smooth" or a "rough" texture. The terms "finish" and "pattern" are frequently used in describing the contour or appearance of paper surfaces. Smoothness in important for writing, where it affects the ease of travel of the pen over the paper surface. Finish is important in bag paper as it is related to the tendency of the bag to slide when stacked. Smoothness of the paper will often determine whether or not it can be successfully printed. Smoothness also gives eye appeal as a rough paper is unattractive. Stiffness Stiffness is the measure of force required to bend a paper through a specified angle. Stiffness is an important property for box boards, corrugating medium and to certain extent for printing papers also. A limpy and flimsy paper can cause feeding and delivery problems in larger sheet presses. A sheet that is too stiff will cause problems in copier machines where it must traverse over, under, and around feed rollers. Bond papers also require certain stiffness to be flat in typewriters etc. Stretch (Elongation) Stretch is the amount of distortion which paper undergoes under tensile stress. Stretchlelongation is usually expressed, as percent stretch to rupture. Stretch can be related to the paper's ability to conform and maintain conformance to a particular contour, e.g. Copier paper, multicolor offset printing papers, liquids packing cartons base papers etc. It is an important property in sack kraft papers which are used for cement bags etc. Stretch is higher in cross direction than machine direction. Tearing Resistance Tearing resistance indicates the behaviour of paper in various end use situations; such as evaluating web runnability, controlling the quality of newsprint and characterising the toughness of packaging papers where the ability to absorb shocks is essential. fibre length and interfibre bonding are both important factors in tearing strength. The fact that longer fibres improve tear strength is well recognised. The explanation is straight forward; longer fibres tend to distribute the stress over a greater area, over more fibres and more bonds, while short fibres allow the stress to be concentrated in a smaller area.

Temperature and Humidity: Conditioning of Paper Conditioning of paper is also of importance in many printing and converting operations. In addition to the effect of moisture content on physical properties, it also determines the build up of static of the paper sheet subjected to pressure and to friction. The tendency for paper to develop static becomes greater with increasing dryness. Cellulosic fibres are hygroscopic i.e. they are capable of absorbing water from the surrounding atmosphere. The amount of absorbed water depends on the humidity and the temperature of the air in contact with the paper. Hence, changes in temperature and humidity, even slight changes, can often affect the test results. So, it is necessary to maintain standard conditions of humidity and temperature for conditioning. Thickness Thickness or Caliper of paper is measured with a micrometre as the perpendicular distance between two circular, plane, parallel surfaces under a pressure of 1 kg./ CM2. Caliper is a critical measurement of uniformity. Variations in caliper, can affect several basic properties including strength, optical and roll quality. Thickness is important in filling cards, printing papers, condenser paper, saturating papers etc. Wax Pick No. (Surface Strength) This indicates the surface strength of the paper. This test is important for all uncoated printing papers. Wire side and Felt side Also referred as wire side and top side. The side which is in contact with the paper machine wire during paper manufacture is called the wire side. The other side is top side. Certain properties differ between wire and felt side and it is customary to measure these properties on both the sides. In case of paper to be printed on one side only, best results are obtained by printing on felt side. Postage stamps are printed on wire side and then gummed on felt side, where the smoothness is helpful for attaining an even application. Paper Tests Important Parameters for Paper & Paperboard Physical Properties Grammage Moisture Content Surface Strength (Wax Pick) Thickness (Calliper) Water Absorption (COBB) Water Absorption (WICK) Strength Properties Bending Resistance (L&W) Bursting Strength Compressibility Elongation Hardness Ply Bond/ Scott Bond Resiliency Stiffness (Taber) Tearing Resistance Tensile Strength Optical Properties

Brightness Colour Gloss Opacity Whiteness Printing Properties Printability Print Quality

Important Parameters for Paper & Paperboard All tests are carried out at 23C + 1C and 50 + 2% relative humidity which is a TAPPI standard. Grammage Weight per unit area expressed in g/m2. The standard procedure is laid out in ISO 536, Tappi T 410. Moisture Content The absolute moisture content, expressed as a % of the paper/paperboard weight. The sample is generally not conditioned while doing this test. The standard procedures are laid out in Tappi T 412 and ISO 287. Surface Strength (Wax Pick) A measure of the surface strength of the sample or surface resistance to picking. Pick occurs due to poor internal bonding strength, making it susceptible to adherance to grade wax sticks (Dennison). This test is valid only for uncoated board or paper. For Coated stock IGT pick test is applicable. Thickness (Calliper) The perpendicular distance between the two surface of the board / paper, expressed in mm or m, measured with a micrometer. The standard procedures are explained in Tappi T 411.

Water Absorption (COBB) The surface water absorption over 60 seconds, expressed in g/m2, measured by Cobb Test. The procedural Standards are explained in Tappi T 441. Water Absorption (WICK) Water absorption at the edge, expressed in kg/m2, using Wick Test. Board surface is sealed with waterproof tape on both sides, weighed, placed in water @ 80F for 20 minutes and weighed again to measure the water absorbed by wicking. It is an important test for measuring the water absorption capacity of cupstock grade, which is used for the manufacture of soft drink cups. Bending Resistance/ Stiffness It is a measure of the resistance offered to a bending force by a rectangular sample, expressed in mN (milli newtons).

The instruments used are: (i) Taber Stiffness tester (ii) L & W tester The standards are as per Tappi T 556. Bursting Strength The maximum hydrostatic pressure required to rupture the sample by constantly increasing the pressure applied through a rubber diaphragm on 1.20 - inch diameter sample. The standards are as per Tappi T 403 Compressibility The reduction in thickness under compressive forces or pressure. It influences the ability of paper to change its surface contour and to conform to and make contact with the printing plate or blanket during printing impression. This is highly relevant in gravure and letterpress printing. Compressibility is measured as a ratio of roughness under to different standard pressures in a Parker Print Surf tester Elongation The tensile strain developed in a test sample at maximum tensile strength before rupture, measure as the % increase in the length of the sample to the original length. Hardness The degree to which paper will resist indentation by some other material such as a stylus, pen or printing plate. Hardness is measured with the help of bendtsen smoothness tester with load on the measuring head. Ply Bond/ Scott Bond The interlayer strength of the paperboard, measured on Scott Bond Tester, expressed in J/m2. The standard procedures are explained in Tappi T 403. In paper, it is a measure of the internal strength of the sheet. Resiliency The ability of paper to recover its original thickness and surface contour after release of the compressive forces of printing nips. Stiffness (Taber) A measure of flexural rigidity, Stiffness is the bending moment (g-cm or mNm) required to deflect the free and of a 1.5 in wide vertically clamped sample 15 from its center line when load is applied 50 mm away from the clamp; measured in MD & CD. The procedural standards are explained in Tappi T 489 and ISO 2491. Tearing Resistance Tearing resistance/ strengths is the ability of the paper to withstand any tearing force when it is subjected to. It is measure in both MD & CD, expressed in mN (millinewtons). The procedural standards are explained in Tappi T 414. Tensile Strength The tensile force required to produce a rupture in a strip of paperboard, measured in MD & CD, expressed in kN/m. The procedural standards are explained in Tappi T 404.

Brightness It is the percentage of blue light reflected of a sample measured at an effective wavelength of 457nm. Measured with to different standards - Tappi/GE and ISO. Though there is no direct correlation, ISO brightness of a sample is usually lower by 1-1.5 units over GE brightness. The standards are as per Tappi T 452. colour Related to perception and therefore measured or specified in terms of colour space. A commonly used system is the CIE L,a,b system. This is based on the idea of colour opposites. L - measure of illuminance and varies from 100 for perfect white to 0 for perfect black. a - redness to greenness. b - yellowness to blueness.

Gloss It is the specular reflection of light, which is reflected at an equal and opposite angle. Normally measured at 75 or 20. Generally, gloss of unprinted sheet/ board is measured at 75 (except for cast coated papers). Printed and varnished surfaces are measured at 60 angle. The standard procedures are laid out in Tappi T 480. Opacity The property of a substrate to resist passage of light. It is measured as the percentage of light absorbed by a sheet of paper. Important in book printing where both sides of paper are printed. The procedural standards are explained in ISO 2471. Whiteness The extent that paper diffusely reflects light of all wavelengths throughout the visible spectrum i.e the magnitude & uniformity of spectral reflectance measured as the percent light reflectance for the whole wavelength range. The procedural standards are explained in ISO 11475. Printability The extent to which properties of paper lends them to the true reproduction of the original artwork. This is influenced by the printing process and can be evaluated in terms of - dot reproduction, dot gain, print gloss, hue shift and print uniformity. Print Quality The degree to which the appearance and other properties of a print approach a desired result. Lot of parameters in paper surface like roughness, gloss, ink absorption, whiteness, brightness affect this. The Paper Making Process All of us use paper every day. Yet, few realize all of the steps necessary to change plant material to this common, every day product. The fact that mankind ever stumbled upon this process is shear genius as the paper making process follows three steps: preparation of the fibers, sheet formation, and drying.

Preparation of the Fibers During the first step of the paper making process, the material used to make the paper is converted to pulp, which is a concentrated mixture of fibers that are suspended in liquid. Generally, the fibers are those found naturally in softwood trees, hardwood trees, or other plants. The fibers can also come from recycled paper, such as from newsprint, old corrugated boxes, and mixed paper. When plants are used to make paper, it is usually necessary to use a special chemical process to break down the lignin found inside the cell walls of the plant. Generally, this is done with the Kraft process. If the fibers used to make the paper are recycled, it is not necessary to undergo this process because the lignin has already been removed. If the lignin is not removed from the pulp, the resulting paper will turn yellow when it is exposed to light and air. There are two ways to break down the pulp used to make paper: mechanically and chemically. When it is broken down mechanically, the resulting pulp is known as "groundwood pulp". This process does not require chemicals, but the lignin is not removed. This results in a relatively high yield of pulp, but the paper does turn yellow as it ages. Therefore, this type of paper is generally used for newspapers and other non-permanent types of paper. Chemically broken down pulp is called "chemical pulp." The primary reason to break the pulp down in this manner is to remove the lignin by breaking it down and making it soluble. Removing the lignin also helps break down the wood chips to prepare them for the next step in the paper making process. It is not necessary to pulp recycled fibers in either of these two ways because they have already been treated before. Therefore, a gentler process is utilized. After the extraction of the fibers, they are dyed or bleached if necessary and any additional ingredients are added to change the appearance of the paper. Products such as Kaolin, for example, are sometimes added to make the paper look glossy for use in items such as magazines. Sheet Formation The next step is sheet formation. At this stage in the process, the pulp mixture is diluted some more with water. This is then strained through a moving screen made of fine mesh in order to create a fibrous web. At this time, a watermark may be impressed into the paper if desired. Then, the moving web of pulp is pressed and allowed to dry. Pressure may be applied to help squeeze out the water. The resulting paper sheet can be removed from the mesh screen mould while it is still wet or it may be removed after it is completely dry in order to undergo additional processing. With most paper, it undergoes the Fourdrinier process in order to form a web of fibers or a reel in a thin sheet. Once try, the sheet can be cut to size. Drying The final stage of the paper making process is drying, which is accomplished with time and pressing of the paper. The exact method for drying depends on the overall process used to make the paper. When pressing is used, the excess water is removed by force. Once forced out, an absorbent material is used to collect the water. Felt, which is not the same as the typical felt used in crafts and other projects, is usually used on paper machines to accomplish this task. When paper is made by hand, a blotter sheet is used to absorb excess water. Air and heat are also used to remove the water. In the early years, this was accomplished by hanging the paper sheets out like laundry. Today, heated drying mechanisms are usually used, with the most common being the steam-heated can dryer. These dryers are capable of reaching over 200 degree Fahrenheit and can dry paper to less than 6% moisture.

_________________________________________________________________________________ Typically, trees used for papermaking are specifically grown and harvested like a crop for that purpose. To meet tomorrow's demand, forest products companies and private landowners in Wisconsin plant millions of new seedlings every year. Step 2: Debarking, Chipping and/or Recycling To begin the process, logs are passed through a debarker, where the bark is removed, and through chippers, where spinning blades cut the wood into 1" pieces. Those wood chips are then pressure-cooked with a mixture of water and chemicals in a digester. Used paper is another important source of paper fiber. Thanks to curbside recycling programs in many communities, we recover 40% of all paper used in America for recycling and reuse. The paper is shredded and mixed with water. Step 3: Pulp Preparation The pulp is washed, refined, cleaned and sometimes bleached, then turned to slush in the beater. Color dyes, coatings and other additives are mixed in, and the pulp slush is pumped onto a moving wire screen. Computerized sensors and state-of-the-art control equipment monitor each stage of the process.

Step 4: Paper Formation As the pulp travels down the screen, water is drained away and recycled. The resulting crude paper sheet, or web, is squeezed between large rollers to remove most of the remaining water and ensure smoothness and uniform thickness. The semidry web is then run through heated dryer rollers to remove the remain Waste water is carefully cleaned and purified before its release or reuse. Fiber particles and chemicals are filtered out and burned to provide additional power for the mill.ing water. Papermakers carefully test for such things as uniformity of color and surface, water resistance, and ink holding ability. Step 5: Paper Finishing The finished paper is then wound into large rolls, which can be 30 feet wide and weigh close to 25 tons. A slitter cuts the paper into smaller, more manageable rolls, and the paper is ready for use. Papermaking is one of the most capital intensive industries in the nation, investing over $100,000 in equipment for each employee. The largest papermaking machines are over 32 feet wide, 550 feet long and can produce over 1,000 miles of paper a day.