The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 1

What is a vector, and how can we use it in electrical design? According to the IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms, a vector quantity is any physical quantity whose specification involves both magnitude and direction and that obeys the parallelogram law of addition. This may sound confusing, so we're going to clarify this definition in Part 1 of this article. In Part 2, we'll show how you can use vectors and vector analysis in electrical design to determine the following:

Impedance in complex circuits containing inductance, Required kvar to attain a specific power factor, and

Fig. 2. The addition of Vectors A and B results in Vector C, whose length and direction are determined by adding the respective X and Y components of A and B. Vector C can also be found by drawing a parallelogram with sides (noted by dotted lines) equal in length and parallel to A and B, and then drawing the largest diagonal line.

Vectors
Phase and neutral currents on both balanced and unbalanced 3-phase circuits. Right now, let's start by clarifying that confusing definition.

Fig. 3. The subtraction of Vector B from Vector A results in Vector C, whose length and direction are determined by subtracting the respective X and Y components of A and B. A vector quantity is represented by a line having magnitude and direction. The relative length of the line represents the vector's magnitude, while the line's position (angle from the X-axis) and arrowhead represent the vector's

direction (Fig. 1). Common vector quantities include acceleration, force, velocity, and alternating currents and voltages. By comparison, quantities such as inches and feet are called scalar quantities and have magnitudes only.

Fig. 4. Multiplying Vectors A and B will result in Vector C, whose magnitude equals the magnitude of A times the magnitude of B, and whose angle () from the X-axis equals 1 plus 2. Vectors are usually indicated by boldface type (A) or by an arrow or bar over the symbol. In our discussion here, we'll use the boldface type designation.

Fig. 5. Dividing Vector A by Vector B will result in Vector C, whose magnitude equals the magnitude of A divided by the magnitude of B, and whose angle () from the X-axis equals 1 minus 2. To add two vectors, say A andB, you would placeB at the end of A. Note that both Aand B must maintain their respective magnitude and direction. The result of this addition will be C, as shown in Fig. 2. Note that it has a different magnitude (length) and direction (position). Also note that the magnitude and direction of C is governed by Point P (on the X/Y axis), whose X-axis coordinate is X1 plus X2 and whose Y-axis coordinate is Y1 plus Y2. Finally, note that if we draw a dotted line from the 0-point of the X/Y axis (parallel to and of the same length as B) and another dotted line from here (parallel to and of the same length as A), the magnitude and direction of C would be the largest diagonal. In fact, the figure comprised of A, B, and the two dotted lines is a parallelogram, which is a foursided figure in which opposite sides are of equal length and parallel. Now you understand the parallelogram law of addition reference in the IEEE definition of a vector. To subtract B from A, you would place B at the beginning of A. Again, both vectors must maintain their same magnitudes and directions. Now, the magnitude and direction of C is governed by Point Q, whose X-axis coordinate is X1 minus X2 and whose Y-axis coordinate is Y1 minus Y2. The result will be C, as shown in Fig. 3, again having a different magnitude and direction than A or B. Note that a parallelogram is formed by joining the end points of A, B, and C. Basic laws. There are certain basic laws you must know when working with vectors. Let's take a look at them.

Equality

A = B if and only if both vectors have the same magnitude and direction.

Addition and subtraction

The commutative law states that A + B = B + A. The associative law states thatA + B + C = (A + B) + C = A + (B + C). You can easily prove this by making the graphical additions and subtractions using the procedures previously noted.

Product of a scalar times a vector

A scalar (s) times a vector A equals sA, which is also equal to As.

Multiplication of two vectors

Let's look at Fig. 4. Multiplying A times B will result in C, whose magnitude equals the magnitude of A times the magnitude of B, and whose angle () from the X-axis equals 1 plus 2.

Division of two vectors

Let's look at Fig. 5. Dividing A by B results in C, whose magnitude is equal to the magnitude of A divided by the magnitude of B, and whose angle () from the X-axis equals 1 minus 2.

The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 2

Sep 1, 2008 12:00 PM

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The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 1 The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 3 The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 4 Last month, we clarified the definition of a vector and showed you how vectors are added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided. This month, we'll see how to use vectors in defining a complex circuit with resistance and inductive reactance to determine the total current of that circuit.

Fig. 1. This simple circuit is actually a complex circuit with resistance, in the form of the incandescent lamp, and inductive reactance, in the form of the motor. Some electrical devices, such as motors, present a combination of resistance and inductance to current flow through them. Other devices, such as resistance heaters, are almost all resistance. In many cases, it's common to find a pure resistance load in parallel with another load made up of resistance and inductance in series. Or, a capacitance might be connected in parallel with a load made up of resistance and inductance in series. Called complex circuits, these circuits are actually combinations of series and parallel circuits.

Fig. 2. Because the incandescent lamp is a pure resistance load, the current flowing through it is in phase with the voltage. So, the phase angle is equal to zero, and the current and voltage vectors (E and I1) will be somewhat superimposed. A basic complex circuit would be a 120V branch circuit supplying an incandescent lamp and a motor, with the loads connected in parallel. The lamp load is pure resistance while the motor load is actually a series connection of the resistance and inductance of the motor coil windings. Figure 1 shows a schematic of this circuit.

Current flow through resistance, inductance

In AC circuits, the waveform character of current, relative to voltage, is very important. Depending on the type of load, differing phase relationships will exist between current and load voltage. When AC voltage is applied to a circuit containing resistance only, the resulting current waveform is produced by the voltage waveform. In such a circuit, the current and voltage waves pass through their zero values and increase to their maximum values in the same direction and at the same time. They are said to be in phase. This is because the current encounters no opposing electromotive force (EMF).

Fig. 3. The series-combination load, as represented by the motor, includes resistance and inductance in series. The current IRthrough resistance R is in phase with the voltage. So, vector IR will be superimposed on vector E. Because the current IL flows through an inductance, it will be 90 out of phase with the voltage. Therefore, vector IL will be 90 from vector IR. By adding IL and IR, we get vector I2, which is the total current through the motor. However, in circuits that contain opposition to current flow other than resistance, such as magnetic coils and motors, the current and voltage waves do not go through their zero and maximum values at the same time. Instead, there is a fixed time interval between their respective zero and maximum values. In this case, the current is said to be out of phase with the voltage. This is also true for current flow through an inductance because a magnetic field is set up around the coil, inducing an opposite EMF in it and causing the circuit current to lag behind the circuit impressed voltage. Now, depending on the particular conditions of a circuit, a current may lead or lag the voltage by any value up to cycle, or 90. We commonly express this phase difference in electrical degrees and call it the phase angle of the circuit. We also commonly use the Greek letter theta () to designate it. Let's see how this angle enters into the vector analysis of a complex circuit later on in the article.

Vector analysis of lamp circuit

Referring back to our basic complex circuit, as shown in Fig. 1, let's begin the vector analysis by constructing a vector diagram for each load. Remember that we're using boldface type to designate vectors.

Fig. 4. The addition of the current vectors for the incandescent lamp and motor result in vector I, which represents the total current for the complex circuit. Looking at Fig. 1, we can see that the incandescent lamp portion of the circuit has currentI1 flowing through resistance R1. As previously stated, this current is in phase with the circuit voltage (E). In other words, phase angle is equal to zero. So, the current vectorI1 and voltage vector E are somewhat superimposed on each other, with the magnitude of E being larger than that of I1 (Fig. 2 on page C12).

Vector analysis of motor

In the motor portion of the complex circuit shown in Fig. 1, current IR flowing through resistance R2 is in phase with the circuit voltage. Therefore, vector IR will be superimposed on vector E. As is the case with current flowing through an inductance, the current IL will be 90 out of phase with the voltage. Therefore, vector IL will be 90 from IR. By adding IL and IR, we get vector I2, which is the total current flowing through the motor. Note that this current lags the circuit voltage by angle 1, so the angle between I2and IR is also 1 (Fig. 3).

Vector analysis of complex circuit

By referring back to Part 1 in the August 2008 issue and using the parallelogram method to add the resulting vectors of Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, the result, as shown in Fig. 4, is the vector diagram of our basic complex circuit. Here, vector I, which represents the total current of our complex circuit, is the resultant of vectors I2 and I1. This current will lag the voltage E by an angle 2, which is the angle between I and E.

The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 3

Oct 1, 2008 12:00 PM

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The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 1 The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 2 The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 4

Fig.1. Balanced loading on a 3-phase, 4-wire wye system. Last month, we saw how you can use vectors to define complex circuits and determine current. This month, we'll show you how to use vector diagrams and some simple math to calculate neutral currents in 3-phase, 4-wire circuits. You can graphically display phase currents in any 3-phase system with vectors originating from a common point and positioned 120 from each other. The terminology used to describe this condition is phase displacement. With the vector lengths (magnitudes) representing the respective phase currents, you can make a vector diagram. If you pay close attention to the scale used (say inch = 25A) and follow our previously discussed vector laws (see The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 1 in the August 2008 issue on page C14), you can get a complete graphical solution that shows the resulting neutral currents.

Problem No. 1 (three phases used; balanced loading)

Fig. 2. Vector diagram showing resulting neutral current Vector N. Unfortunately, this method is sometimes cumbersome. Also, the extent of accuracy is a function of your measuring and drafting abilities. As a result, we use vectors in this instance only to provide a graphical picture of phases, relative to their respective magnitudes and directions. Normally, we insert the actual current values and the angles between them into some basic trigonometric equations to get a quick and accurate solution. Nevertheless, creating a vector diagram is an important part of this procedure. Let's do some sample problems to see how this works. Looking at Fig. 1, you can see that Phases A, B, and C are each equally loaded with a 10A phase-to-neutral load. Now, let's begin the vector analysis process. First, we create a vector diagram, as shown in Fig. 2, with the phase current Vectors A, B, and Cpositioned 120 apart. Next, we create a parallelogram by drawing dotted lines parallel (and of equal lengths) to Vectors A and B. Using the parallelogram rule discussed in Part 1 of this series, we draw Vector N, which is the result of vectorally adding Vectors A and B. Because Vectors A and B have the same magnitude, Vector N creates two equilateral triangles within the parallelogram. And because the sides of an equilateral triangle are equal in length, the magnitude of Vector N must also be 10A.

Fig. 3. Vector diagram showing resulting neutral current vectors of varying magnitudes, based on the respective phase current vector magnitudes. Looking at Fig. 2 again, you can see that Vector N is in a direction 180 opposed to Vector C, which represents the current flowing on Phase C. From one of the other basic vector laws discussed in Part 1, the resultant magnitude of the diametrically opposed vectors is the difference between their values. In this case, 10A-10A = 0.

Problem No. 2 (two phases used; balanced loads)

If we create similar parallelograms at VectorsA and C, and B and C, and then draw similarN vectors, we'll get the same cancellation. This proves that in a 3-phase, 4-wire grounded wye system, the 60-Hz current flowing in the neutral conductor is 0 when all phase currents are equal. Now let's suppose Phases A and B are equally loaded with 10A phase-to-neutral loads, while Phase C current varies from 0 to 10A. The vector diagram for this condition (Fig. 3) shows that a portion of the neutral conductor current, as represented by Vector N, results from the vector addition of Vectors A and B. As we've previously seen, its magnitude is 10A. If the Phase Ccurrent is 10A, we know from Problem 1 that the total neutral current is 0. But what if the Phase C current varies? What would be the respective neutral currents? Again referring back to Problem 1, we see that the difference between varying PhaseC current vectors and the magnitude of Vector N (10A) will result in varying neutral currents. For example, if the magnitude of Vector C is 2A, then the neutral is 8A; if Vector C is 4A, then the neutral current is 6A, and so forth.

The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 4

Nov 1, 2008 12:00 PM

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The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 1 The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 2 The Basics of Vector Analysis Part 3

Fig. 1. A 3-phase, 4-wire circuit in which there are only two phase-to-neutral loads. Last month, we showed how you could use vector diagrams and simple math to calculate neutral currents in 3-phase, 4-wire circuits. In this last installment, we'll talk about using simple parallelogram relationships and trigonometry to determine neutral currents in balanced and unbalanced circuits.

Fig. 2. Because there is no Phase C-to-neutral load, the Phase C current is zero, and the resulting vector diagram shows only phase vectors A and B, 120 apart. Suppose you have a 3-phase, 4-wire circuit in which there are only two phase-to-neutral loads, as shown inFig. 1. In addition, one of these loads varies. How can you calculate the neutral current by using vectors? Because there is no Phase C-to-neutral load, the Phase C current is zero, and the resulting vector diagram will show only phase vectorsA and B, 120 apart, as shown in Fig. 2. And because the Phase A-to-neutral load is fixed, we know that the Phase A current is 10A.

Fig. 3. Typical parallelogram diagram. As the Phase B-to-neutral load varies, the neutral current also will vary. Let's start with a Phase B current of 10A. We know from Problem 1 of the Part 3 installment in the October 2008 issue that the neutral current also is 10A. This is because the phase vectors A and B are of equal magnitude. By drawing dotted lines parallel and of equal length to these vectors, we create a parallelogram having equal sides. When we draw the neutral vector N, we divide the parallelogram exactly in half and create an equilateral triangle one in which all sides are of equal length (magnitude here), and all interior angles are 60. Therefore, the resultant vector N also will have the same magnitude as phase vectors A and B. How about when the Phase B current equals zero? Well, in this instance, the system effectively becomes singlephase, and the neutral current is again 10A.

Fig. 4. Vector diagram showing varying phase vectors B (as per varying Phase B-to-neutral load) and resulting neutral current vectors N. For the Phase B currents between zero and 10A, we can use some trigonometry and equations applicable to parallelograms to calculate the respective neutral currents. First, let's draw a typical parallelogram, as shown in Fig. 3, with sides A and B. To find the length of the diagonal line P, we use the following equation: P = [ (A2 + B2) - (2AB cos ) ] (Equation1) Keeping the above equation in mind, let's draw a vector diagram, as shown in Fig. 4, and assume Phase B current is 7.5A. What will the neutral current be? Using Equation 1, you substitute 10A for A and 7.5A for B. We know the angle is 60, and we determine that cos 60 is .500 from a trigonometric table. The resulting calculation is as follows: N7.5 = (A2 + B2 -2AB cos ) = [ (102 + 7.52) - (2 10 7.5 .500) ] = [ (100 + 56.25) - 75 ] = 81.25 9A By substituting differing values for Phase B current in Equation 1, you can obtain the respective neutral currents. For example, if the Phase B current is 5A, the calculation results in a neutral current (N5) of 8.66A. For a Phase B current of 2.5A, the neutral current (N2.5) again will be approximately 9A.