BIOLOGICAL

CONSERVATION

Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571

www.elsevier.com/locate/biocon

Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia: an example of the

co-existence of significant marine mammal populations and
large-scale coastal development
a,*,1 a,b
B.L. Chilvers , I.R. Lawler , F. Macknight c, H. Marsh a,b
, M. Noad c, R. Paterson d

a
School of Tropical Environment Studies and Geography, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia
b
CRC Reef Research Centre, P.O. Box 772, Townsville 4810, Australia
c
Department of Life Sciences, School of Zoology and Entomology, University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Australia
d
Formerly Queensland Museum, P.O. Box 3300, South Bank 4101, Australia

Received 30 September 2003; received in revised form 26 August 2004; accepted 26 August 2004

Abstract

Recent analyses assert that large marine vertebrates such as marine mammals are now Ôfunctionally or entirely extinct in most
coastal ecosystemsÕ. Moreton Bay is a large diverse marine ecosystem bordering the fastest growing area in Australia. The human
population is over 1.6 million and increasing yearly by between 10% and 13% with resultant impacts upon the adjoining marine
environment. Nonetheless, significant populations of three species of marine mammals are resident within Moreton Bay and a fur-
ther 14 species are seasonal or occasional visitors. This paper reviews the current and historical distributions and abundance of these
species in the context of the current management regime and suggests initiatives to increase the resilience of marine mammal pop-
ulations to the changes wrought by the burgeoning human population in coastal environments.
Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cetaceans; Dugong; Coastal development; South-East Queensland; Management

1. Introduction (2001) assert that large marine vertebrates such as mar-

Throughout the world, coastal ecosystems are being
degraded by development as an increasing proportion
of the human population moves to the coast (Center
for International Earth Science Information Network,
2000). It is estimated that some 40% of the worldÕs pop-
ulation live close to the coast and mass migration to the
coast is expected to continue. The resultant increases in
siltation, pollution, habitat destruction, over-fishing and
by-catch are accelerating the loss of the diversity and
abundance of near-shore marine species. Jackson et al.
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lchilvers@doc.govt.nz (B.L. Chilvers).
1
Present address: Department of Conservation, P.O. Box 10-420,
Wellington, New Zealand.
ine mammals are now Ôfunctionally or entirely extinct in
most coastal ecosystemsÕ. In addition, Jackson and Sala
(2001) claim that Ôwe cannot observe natural popula-
tions of marine megafuana today and will have to wait
several decades to do so even in well-managed, very
large marine protected areasÕ.
Moreton Bay (Fig. 1) is a large embayment in South-
East Queensland, Australia. The Moreton Bay Marine
Park was established in 1993 as a large-scale (>3000
km2) multiple-use marine protected area. The Park bor-
ders an area that supports over 1.6 million people. It is
the fastest growing region in Australia and one of the
most rapidly growing regions in the world (Skinner
et al., 1998). The Moreton Bay region is also the most
intensively fished area along the Queensland coast. It

0006-3207/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2004.08.013
560 B.L. Chilvers et al. / Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571

Fig. 1. Moreton Bay, South East Queensland, Australia (centred on 27°15 0 S, 153°15 0 E), showing approximate seaward boundary of the Moreton
Bay Marine Park (MBMP) area and specially designated ‘‘go slow’’ areas for the protection of dugongs and turtles.

comprises only 3% of the Queensland coastline, yet pro-
duces 15% of the commercial catch (Anon, 1997a). In
addition, the harvest of the recreational fisheries in the
region is considered to be substantially greater than this
commercial harvest (Anon, 1997a).
A recent assessment of the environmental health of
the region concluded that environmental degradation
was evident in the river estuaries and western portion
of Moreton Bay but that the rich and diverse ecosystems
of the eastern and northern Bay are essentially intact
(Dennison and Abel, 1999). This is in contrast to Pand-
olfi et al. (2003) who concluded that Moreton Bay is as
close to ecological extinction for all of the seven catego-
ries of biota they considered (which included large mar-
ine herbivores and carnivores) as the severely degraded
reefs of eastern Panama and the Virgin Islands.
Contrary to the predictions of Jackson et al. (2001) or
the assessment of Pandolfi et al. (2003), Moreton Bay
still supports a diverse and relatively abundant marine
mammal fauna. Three species of marine mammals are
resident and abundant in the region: the herbivore, the
dugong, Dugong dugon, and the top-level carnivores,
the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops aduncus, and hump-
back dolphin, Sousa chinensis. Significant numbers of
humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae visit the
bay region on their annual migrations and 13 other spe-
cies are seasonal or occasional visitors.
In this paper, we review the information on the cur-
rent and historical distribution and abundance of the
marine mammals of Moreton Bay and investigate the
features that make these populations regionally, nation-
ally and internationally significant. We then use the
 B.L. Chilvers et al. / Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571
information to suggest improvements to the large-scale
multiple-use management of the Moreton Bay Marine
Park and other coastal ecosystems in the context of ex-
pected increases in human population and associated
impacts.
2. Study site – Moreton Bay Marine Park
Sub-tropical (
27°S) Moreton Bay is flanked by four
large sand islands Bribie, Moreton, and North and
South Stradbroke (Fig. 1). Habitats include coastal
mangroves, extensive sand banks and seagrass beds,
mud banks and deeper coastal waters. Coral reef ecosys-
tems occur around Green and Peel Islands, Myora and
Flinders Reefs (north of Moreton Island), Flat and Boat
Rock (off Point Lookout, Fig. 1). Water depth within
the park varies from less than 1–50 m (on the oceanic
side of the islands) and surface water temperatures range
from 16 °C to 26 °C (Ryan, 1998).
The Moreton Bay Marine Park is currently divided
into five zones: (1) General Use Zone, where all activities
are allowed (61% of the area); (2) Habitat Zones, where
all activities are allowed except shipping operations and
mining (27%); (3) a Conservation Zone, where all activ-
ities except shipping, mining and trawling are allowed
(379 km2, 11%); (4) a Buffer Zone around Flinders Reef
which is protected from all activities except boating, div-
ing and trolling (0.5 km2, <0.01%); and (5) Protection
Zones, areas of high conservation value which are pro-
tected from all activities except boating and diving,
although other activities may occur with permits (17
km2, or <0.5%). In addition, designated areas within
the Moreton Bay Park have special management ar-
rangements. These include five areas (119 km2, or 3%)
recognised as critical habitat for marine turtles and du-
gongs. These are designated as ‘‘go slow’’ areas where a
person may only operate a boat in a non-planing or dis-
placement mode.
3. Methods
3.1. Dugong
Much of the scientific information on the distribution
and abundance of dugongs within the Moreton Bay
Marine Park area has come from aerial surveys con-
ducted between the 1970s and 2002, using several differ-
ent methodologies (Table 1). Boat-based studies have
also been conducted on the population ecology of du-
gongs in Moreton Bay using a range of techniques
including mark-recapture, satellite tracking and obser-
vations from a blimp-mounted video (Preen, 1993; Lan-
yon et al., 2002; Hodgson, 2004). Johnson (2002)
561
documented the history of the Moreton Bay dugong
fishery.
3.2. Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin
Information on the distribution, abundance and pop-
ulation biology of bottlenose dolphins within the More-
ton Bay Marine Park area has been collected since the
late 1970s (Lear and Bryden, 1980; Corkeron, 1989;
Chilvers, 2001; Chilvers and Corkeron, 2001, 2003),
using land, boat and aerial surveys, including photo-
identification surveys and behavioural studies. For
detailed examples of survey procedures, population esti-
mations and distribution mapping procedures see Chil-
vers (2001) and Chilvers and Corkeron (2001, 2003).
3.3. Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin
Within the Moreton Bay Marine Park area, Indo-Pa-
cific humpback dolphins have also been studied using
techniques similar to those used for bottlenose dolphins
since the late 1970s (i.e., Lear and Bryden, 1980; Cork-
eron, 1989; Hale et al., 1998; Macknight, unpublished
data).
3.4. Humpback whale
Data on the abundance and temporal and spatial dis-
tributions of the Group V humpback whales that pass
the Moreton Bay region every year on their annual
migration have been obtained from the records of the
commercial whaling industry (Chittleborough, 1965;
Dawbin, 1966, 1997), land-based surveys (Paterson
and Paterson, 1989; Bryden et al., 1990; Paterson,
1991; Paterson et al., 1994, 2001) and aerial surveys
(Bryden, 1985). Data on migratory behaviour and pop-
ulation structure have been collected from land- and
boat-based observations and biopsy samples (Brown
et al., 1995). Collectively, these data represent one of
the longest and most comprehensive studies of any pop-
ulation of baleen whale.
3.5. Other cetaceans
We obtained data on the distribution and abun-
dance of other cetaceans which visit Moreton Bay
from: (1) anecdotal and published sightings (e.g. Noad,
2000; Chilvers, 2000); (2) published literature on ceta-
cean strandings and specimens collected by the Queens-
land Museum (1986–1999) (Paterson, 1986, 1994,
2001a; Paterson et al., 1993, 1998); (3) the Moreton
Bay marine animal stranding and sighting database
(1997–2002) maintained by the Moreton Bay Marine
Park rangers, and (4) the informal observations of var-
ious researchers.
562 B.L. Chilvers et al. / Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571

Table 1
Summary of the aerial survey estimates of Moreton Bay dugong population 1976–2001
Date Population estimate Method Source
a
1976–77 118–283 Qualitative aerial survey Lear (1977)
1979 307 Perimeter survey with some transects over eastern banksa Heinsohn and Marsh, in litt.
1988–1990 201–569 Standardised aerial surveya Preen (1993)
1988 458 (±78) Quantitative aerial survey from 137 mb Marsh et al., in litt.
1993 664 Standardised aerial survey as per Preen (1993)a Preen (1995)
1995 503 (±64) Quantitative aerial survey from 274 mb Lanyon (2003)
1019 (±166)
2000–2001 344 (±88) Quantitative aerial survey from 137 mb Lawler, in litt.
493 (±45)
Many of the estimates have been obtained using different techniques (see references for details). Thus the estimates, especially those with and without
correction factors, are not strictly comparable.
a
Without correction for availability and perception bias sensu Marsh and Sinclair (1989a).
b
With correction for availability and perception bias sensu Marsh and Sinclair (1989a).

4. Results century, close to the current 2000–2001 estimates (Table

4.1. Dugongs
4.1.1. Background
Dugongs are obligate benthic feeders specialising on
tropical seagrasses (Lanyon et al., 1989). Consequently,
their distribution and abundance is highly correlated
with seagrass distribution and abundance and seawater
temperature. The dugongÕs range extends through the
coastal and island waters of the Indo-Pacific between
approximately 26° and 27°N and S of the Equator
(Marsh et al., 2002). Moreton Bay is the highest latitude
at which dugongs are found year round on the east coast
of Australia (Marsh et al., 2002). IUCN – the World
Conservation Union (Hilton-Taylor, 2000) and the
Queensland Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation
1994, both classify the dugong as ‘‘Vulnerable’’.
4.1.2. Historical situation
Before the arrival of Europeans in 1824, Aborigines
caught dugongs in Moreton Bay using large nets
(Mackaness, 1979). Dugong fishing by Europeans dates
from at least 1847 (MacGillivray, 1852), possibly from
the 1830s (Welsby, 1907). A cottage industry for dugong
oil developed from the 1850s and persisted intermit-
tently until about 1920 (Johnson, 2002). Dugongs were
caught on the banks around Green Island and in the
eastern bay (Amity and Moreton Banks; Johnson,
2002; Fig. 1), as well as St. Helena Island in the western
bay (Thorne, 1876). Comparison of Thorne (1876) re-
port with the present situation suggests that dugongs
and seagrass were more abundant in the western bay
than they are now. An estimated 20% of seagrass has
been lost from Moreton Bay since European settlement,
mostly from the western bay (Abal et al., 1998; Denni-
son and Abel, 1999).
On the basis of his informal boating activities, Wel-
sby (1905) estimated that Moreton Bay typically sup-
ported 300–400 dugongs at the end of the 19th
1). Nonetheless, Welsby observed a herd that he esti-
mated to be three miles long and about 300 yards wide
in July 1893 at the western entrance of Rous Channel.
Jackson et al. (2001) recently used this estimate, multi-
plied by a measure of density of animals from a photo-
graph from within a single clumped herd to estimate
that there had been approximately 104,000 dugongs in
this herd. As discussed below, we believe this to be a
substantial overestimate (Marsh et al., in press).
Dugong numbers in Moreton Bay were believed to
have been depleted for many years by the dugong oil
industry which ceased in the 1920s (Petrie, 1932). How-
ever, when supplies of cod-liver oil from the Atlantic
were disrupted during the Second World War, dugong
oil was once again sourced from Moreton Bay (Har-
bours and Marine, 1943). Bertram and Bertram (1973)
reported that it was believed that there were only a
few dugongs remaining in Moreton Bay in the 1960s,
although there was some suggestion that numbers were
increasing again. By the mid-1970s, aerial surveys estab-
lished that there was a population of at least 300 du-
gongs (Heinsohn et al., 1978).
4.1.3. Present situation
Dugongs may be found throughout Moreton Bay but
most occur on the seagrass beds on the eastern banks
(Fig. 2) throughout the year. During winter, some indi-
viduals seek thermal refuge in the deeper waters of the
Rous Channel and the oceanic waters to the east of
the bay (Lear, 1977; Heinsohn et al., 1978; Marsh and
Sinclair, 1989b; Preen, 1993; Lanyon, 2003).
The standardised population estimates of the More-
ton Bay dugong population resulting from aerial surveys
conducted since 1988 range between 344 (± SE 88) and
1019 (± SE 166) (Table 1). Evidence from other parts of
the dugongÕs range in Australia (Marsh and Lawler,
2001; Gales et al., 2004) indicates that dugongs undergo
large-scale movements. Thus some of the variation re-
ported in Table 1 (and in the historical accounts above)
 B.L. Chilvers et al. / Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571 563

Fig. 2. Distribution of dugongs, bottlenose dolphins and humpback dolphins in Moreton Bay. Dugong distribution determined from aerial surveys
conducted April, August and December 2001 (Lawler in litt.). Bottlenose dolphin distribution was determined from boat-based surveys July 1997 to
December 1999 (Chilvers, 2001). The distribution of Humpback dolphins was determined from opportunistic boat surveys conducted 1995–2002
(Hale et al., 1998; Hale and MacKnight, unpublished data).

may result from dugongs moving in and out of Moreton
Bay to other areas as well as to the differences in survey
methodologies.
4.1.4. Features of high conservation value
While the population is not large in comparison with
that in many other areas in tropical Australia (see refer-
ences in Marsh et al., 2002), Moreton Bay supports the
largest population of dugongs adjacent to a major met-
ropolitan centre in the world (Marsh et al., 2002). The
dugongs in Moreton Bay exhibit several unusual fea-
tures. First, they consistently form large herds on the
eastern banks. The largest herd recorded in recent years
was 459 animals in 1988–1990 (Preen, 1993). While
herds are occasionally seen on aerial surveys of dugong
populations in other regions in both Australia and the
Arabian Gulf (see Preen, 1993 for details), large herds
are not a consistent feature of most other dugong
populations.
Second, despite being adjacent to a fast-growing met-
ropolitan area, dugong numbers appear to have been
stable in Moreton Bay during the late 20th century, in
contrast with the declines reported from 36 countries
in the dugongÕs range (Marsh et al., 2002) and in the
remainder of the urban coast of Queensland (Marsh
et al., 2001).
Nonetheless, there are concerns that the present level
of anthropogenic mortality on dugongs in Moreton Bay
may be too high to be sustainable with an average of 15
recorded human-induced dugong deaths every year for
the last three, and nine deaths up until July 2003. Most
of these deaths are due to vessel strike (Moreton Bay
Marine Park rangers, personal communication). The
passenger ferries that operate in the southern Moreton
564 B.L. Chilvers et al. / Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571
Bay Islands have been implicated in many of the vessel-
related mortalities.
4.2. Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins
4.2.1. Background
Bottlenose dolphins are found throughout the world
in nearly all marine ecosystems except polar regions.
The taxonomy of the genus is poorly understood. A re-
cent review suggested that two species, Tursiops trunca-
tus and T. aduncus should be recognised (Rice, 1999).
T. aduncus predominates in Moreton Bay and surround-
ing areas. IUCN – the World Conservation Union (Hil-
ton-Taylor, 2000) and Queensland Nature Conservation
(Wildlife) Regulation 1994 (Bannister et al., 1996), both
classify Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.)
as data deficient, although they are thought to be com-
mon in specific areas.
4.2.2. Historical situation
There are no scientific data on the abundance or dis-
tribution of bottlenose dolphins in Moreton Bay prior
to the early 1970s (Lear and Bryden, 1980). However,
there are historical records of bottlenose dolphins Ôhunt-
ingÕ in association with the indigenous people of North
Stradbroke Island at the time of European contact
(Fairholme, 1856; Petrie, 1932; Bryden, 1978).
4.2.3. Present situation
Bottlenose dolphins are found throughout the More-
ton Bay Park both within the Bay and on the oceanic
side of the Islands (Fig. 2). Within Moreton Bay, two
winter photo-identification surveys estimated that
673 ± SE 130 (1997) and 818 ± SE 152 (1998) bottlenose
dolphins live within the central eastern proportion of
Moreton Bay (Chilvers, 2001). In the area surrounding
Point Lookout, North Stradbroke Island immediately
outside Moreton Bay (Fig. 1), the two corresponding
estimates of the population were 861 ± SE 137/(1998)
and 895 ± SE 74 (1999) respectively (Chilvers and Cork-
eron, 2003).
4.2.4. Features of high conservation value
Moreton Bay is the lowest latitude area on the east
coast of Australia where large numbers of bottlenose
dolphins are resident. There appear to be several distinct
Table 2
Estimates of the size of the bottlenose dolphin populations in the Moreton Bay region compared with estimates from other areas world-wide
Area of survey Population estimate
Point Lookout 861–895
Moreton Bay 673–818
Moray Firth Scotland 129
Doubtful Sound New Zealand 40–60
Sarasota, Florida 102
Sanibel Island Florida 286
Indian/Banana River, Florida 214
populations, two of which have been shown to be symp-
atric, with overlapping ranges, but with limited social
interaction. There is a correlation between the member-
ship of these two populations and human fishing activi-
ties, with members of one population feeding in
association with prawn (shrimp) trawlers while members
of the other populations do not (Chilvers and Corkeron,
2001). The bottlenose dolphin population identified
around Point Lookout, North Stradbroke Island, is
the largest resident population of bottlenose dolphins re-
ported in the world (Chilvers and Corkeron, 2003; Table
2). Members of this large population have very small
home ranges, restricted to the Point Lookout area (Chil-
vers and Corkeron, 2003).
4.3. Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins
4.3.1. Background
The distribution of the Indo-Pacific humpback dol-
phin (Sousa chinensis) is currently considered to extend
from Cape Town up the eastern coast of South Africa
northwards along the continental coastlines of the In-
dian Ocean and throughout Southeast Asia and Aus-
tralia (Ross et al., 1994). However, the taxonomic
status of the genus Sousa is unclear (Jefferson and Kar-
zcmarski, 2001) and recent work suggests that the Aus-
tralian population may be separate from that living in
south-east Asia (Rosenbaum et al., 2002). If this conclu-
sion is confirmed Sousa, will be AustraliaÕs first known
endemic cetacean. In Australian waters, humpback dol-
phins are distributed along the northern tropical coasts
extending as far south as Exmouth Gulf (21.56°S,
114.07°E) on the west coast and to northern New South
Wales (31.27°S, 152.55°E) on the east coast (Corkeron
et al., 1997).
The Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin is classified by
the IUCN-World Conservation Union (Hilton-Taylor,
2000) as data deficient. In Australian waters, Indo-
Pacific humpback dolphins are listed as ‘‘rare’’ in the
Queensland Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation
1994 – with the proviso they may be ÔendangeredÕ or
ÔvulnerableÕ due to their inshore habitat and the likeli-
hood of negative anthropogenic impacts (Bannister
et al., 1996). The status of the Australian population
needs to be formally reviewed when its taxonomic status
is resolved.
Study area (km2) References
150 Chilvers and Corkeron (2003)
350 Chilvers (2001)
250 Wilson et al. (1999)
114 Williams et al. (1993)
85 Wells et al. (1987)
140 Shane (1990)
810 Leatherwood (1982)
 B.L. Chilvers et al. / Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571 565

4.3.2. Historical situation 4.4. Humpback whales

There is little historical information for Indo-Pacific
humpback dolphins in Moreton Bay. The earliest paper
describing cetaceans found in Queensland waters is Bry-
den (1978) who notes that cetaceans were first recorded
by Banks in 1770 during the voyage of the Endeavour.
However, Banks referred to the animals as porpoises
and the species identification is thus doubtful.
4.3.3. Present situation
Moreton Bay is the one of the southernmost bay
systems recorded with resident humpback dolphin
populations. They are predominantly found on the
western side of the bay in shallow, nearshore waters
and are often associated with rivers, particularly the
lower reaches of the Brisbane River (Corkeron
et al., 1997; Hale, 1997; Fig. 2). Groups are frequently
observed feeding behind prawn trawlers (Corkeron,
1990; Jefferson, 2000).
Population estimates for the east Australian coastline
based on genetic and home-range evidence and photo-
identification studies, suggest there are approximately
100 individuals inhabiting Moreton Bay (Hale, unpub-
lished data). Corkeron et al. (1997) conducted photo-
identification surveys in Moreton Bay over two separate
time periods and obtained mean estimates of 119 and
163 individuals (Table 3).
4.3.4. Features of high conservation value
Moreton Bay is one of the highest latitude areas on
the east coast of Australia where Indo-Pacific humpback
dolphins are consistently found or resident. As Sousa
are generally considered rare in Australian waters, the
Moreton Bay population is relatively large and signifi-
cant at a national scale (Table 3).
4.4.1. Background
Humpback whales occur in all oceans. In the South
West Pacific, there are several populations, collectively
known as Group V humpback whales, that winter in
tropical waters along coastlines or around island groups
(Dawbin, 1966). There are low levels of interchange
among these populations as well as with others in the
South East Pacific (group VI) (Garrigue et al., 2000).
The east Australian population, the largest and best de-
scribed of all Group V populations, migrates along the
east coast of Australia with most whales traveling close
to the continental shoreline particularly between Cape
Byron and Cape Moreton (Bryden, 1985). The proxim-
ity of the migratory pathway to the coastline results in a
large proportion of the population migrating within the
boundary of the Moreton Bay Marine Park on the out-
side of the large sand islands. Humpbacks are also
sighted within Moreton Bay itself, particularly during
the southward migration in September and October.
IUCN – the World Conservation Union (Hilton-Tay-
lor, 2000) and the Queensland Nature Conservation
(Wildlife) Regulation 1994 both classify Southern
humpback whales as ‘‘vulnerable’’.
4.4.2. Historical situation
Group V humpbacks were not hunted heavily until
after the Second World War. The shore-based whaling
station established at Tangalooma on the western side
of Moreton Island (Fig. 1) in 1952 was the largest of
the eastern Australian whaling operations during this
period, killing an estimated 7423 humpback whales.
Although the whaling station easily achieved its yearly
quota initially, whale numbers declined rapidly from

Table 3
Estimates of the size of the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin populations in the Moreton Bay region compared with humpback dolphins from other
areas world-wide
Region Population estimate Study method References
Australia
Moreton Bay* a
119 (95% CI = 81–166) Photo-id Corkeron et al. (1997)
b
163 (95% CI = 108–251) Photo-id
Moreton Bay 100 Genetic/photo-id Hale, unpublished data
The Great Sandy Strait 60 Genetic/photo-id Hale, unpublished data
South Africa
KwaZulu-Natal 160–165 (95% CI = 134–229) Photo-id Durham (1994)
Algoa Bay, Eastern Cape 466 (95% CI = 447–485) Photo-id
Hong Kong
Hong Kong & Pearl River >1,028 (CV = 15–86%) Line-transect ship surveys Jefferson (2000)
North of Lantau Island Spring = 88 summer = 145 (CV = 15–18%) Line-transect ship surveys Jefferson (2000)
Spring = 100 (95% CI = 82–118) Photo-id Porter (1998)
Summer = 128 (95% CI = 94–184)
a
31 May 1984 to 4 February 1986.
b
9 August 1985 to 20 February 1987.
*
Estimates calculated over two time periods.
566 B.L. Chilvers et al. / Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571
1960. The station closing in 1962 when Chittleborough
(1965) estimated that the population had been reduced
to only 200 to 500 whales from an initial population
of 10,000 to 20,000. Illegal Soviet pelagic whaling in
the Southern Ocean killed 15,000 humpbacks, predomi-
nantly in the feeding grounds of Group V whales con-
tributing to the rapid decline between 1959 and 1962
(Tormosov, 1995; Mikhalev, 2000).
4.4.3. Present situation
Visual surveys from Point Lookout conducted regu-
larly since the late 1970s have established that this pop-
ulation is recovering strongly (Paterson and Paterson,
1989; Bryden et al., 1990; Paterson, 1991, 2001b; Pater-
son et al., 1994). Paterson et al. (2001) estimated the
population to be 3600 whales in 1999 and increasing
at almost 11% annually. Moreton Bay is one of the
Areas of Special Interest for humpback whales in
Queensland identified by the Management Program for
the Conservation of Whales and Dolphins in Queensland
1997–2001 (Anon., 1997b). Whale-watching activities
are tightly regulated with only two operators currently
permitted to conduct trips mainly in the vicinity of Cape
Moreton.
4.5. Other cetaceans
Thirteen other species of cetaceans have been identi-
fied either through sightings or strandings in the More-
ton Bay area (Table 4). Two species, common dolphins
Delphinus delphis, and minke whales, Balaenoptera acut-
orostrata, are often sighted (Chilvers and Paterson, per-
sonal observation). Large (50–300), presumably resident
groups of common dolphins, are sighted several times a
month along the oceanic coasts of Moreton, North and
South Stradbroke Islands (Chilvers, personal observa-
tion). None of the species listed in Table 4 has been
the subject of substantial research in this area.
5. Discussion
Despite Moreton Bay bordering one of the fastest
growing areas in the world (Skinner et al., 1998), the
information synthesised here demonstrates that this
coastal ecosystem still supports a remarkably diverse
and abundant marine mammal fauna. Indeed, the Mor-
eton Bay Marine Park has the highest recorded diversity
and abundance of resident and transient cetaceans and
dugongs of any area in Australia. This situation is in
marked contrast to Jackson et al. (2001) analysis of
coastal ecosystems and of Pandolfi et al. (2003) assess-
ment that Moreton Bay is well along the way towards
ecological extinction. As the population status of large
herbivores and large carnivores was a major contributor
to these assessments, we suggest that the ecological sta-
tus of Moreton Bay needs to be comprehensively re-
evaluated.
In particular, we consider that Jackson et al. (2001)
estimate that the herd of dugongs reported by Welsby
(1905) comprised 104,000 animals is unlikely to be
correct. Preen (1993) used field measurements of the
biomass removed from dugong feeding trails in Mor-
eton Bay and conservative data on the food intake
of captive dugongs to estimate that a dugong dis-
turbed about 400 m2 of seagrass each day on the east-
ern banks of Moreton Bay. On that basis, a dugong
herd of 104,000 animals would disturb more than 40
km2 of seagrass in a single day. The estimated area
of seagrass in Moreton Bay at the time of European
settlement is only 300 km2 (Abal et al., 1998; Denni-
son and Abel, 1999) suggesting that a herd of
104,000 dugongs would have eaten all the seagrass
in the bay in a week. As seagrass in Moreton Bay
takes <30–200 days to recover from dugong gazing
(Preen, 1995; Kathryn McMahon, personal communi-
cation), we reject Jackson et al. (2001)Õs estimate as
implausible.
We attribute the high abundance and diversity to the
Moreton Bay Marine mammal fauna to the geography
of the Moreton Bay area. The bay is near the boundary
of two biogeographic regions and supports both oceanic
and bay environments including strong oceanic and
coastal currents and high input from river systems
(Dennison and Abel, 1999; Fig. 1). This combination
of factors allows the region to support a high diversity
of marine mammals including dugongs and Indo-Pacific
humpback dolphins which are not commonly found at
higher latitudes due to colder temperatures, and bottle-
nose dolphins and common dolphins found only spar-
sely at lower latitudes because of the lower
productivity of these regions.
Despite these natural advantages, the diversity and
abundance of marine mammals in the Moreton Bay re-
gion is potentially threatened by high human population
growth. There is evidence that the environmental health
of western Moreton Bay is being degraded through sew-
age, chemical and noise pollution, habitat destruction
and modification, and from over fishing, both commer-
cial and recreational (Dennison and Abel, 1999). Addi-
tionally, there are moves for significant developments
in the eastern bay including a cage culture fish farm
and coastal development on the offshore islands partic-
ularly Bribie Island and the Southern Bay Islands. Thus
there is growing concern for the marine mammals within
the region including: (1) an overall concern about the
levels of chemical and noise pollution and habitat mod-
ification, and (2) specific concerns about (a) the levels of
boat strike on dugongs, (b) the influence of fishing on
food availability for cetaceans, and (c) the effects of mar-
ine mammal tourism, including a commercial ‘‘feed the
dolphin program’’ and two whale watching tour opera-
 B.L. Chilvers et al. / Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571 567

Table 4
Species of cetaceans recorded from sightings or strandings in the Moreton Bay area but not the subject of substantial research within the Moreton
Bay area, Queenland Parks and Wildlife Service (QPWS)
Species IUCN* Frequency in Reported sightings and strandings
classification Moreton
Locationa Type and date Sourceb
Bay region
Common dolphins LC Common MI & NSI Sightings Chilvers, personal
Delphinus delphis observation
Minke whales NT Common Cleveland, Stranding QPWS
Balaenoptera
acutorostrata
MI 17/6/99
MI Stranding 1986–1994 Paterson (1994)
NSI Stranding 1986–1994 Paterson (1994)
Sighting
Killer whales LR(cd) Seasonal MI, NSI Sightings Paterson (1986, 2001a)
Orcinus orca
Southern Right whales LR(cd) Seasonal MI, NSI, MB. Sightings Chilvers (2000) and
Eubalaena australis Noad (2000)
RissoÕs dolphins DD Occasional Amity, NSI Stranding 1986–1994 Paterson (1994)
Grampus griseus visitor
BrydeÕs whale DD Occasional MI, NSI Sightings Paterson, personal
Balaenoptera brydei visitor observation
Sperm whales VU Occasional MI North Stranding 17/2/2001 QPWS
Physeter catodon visitor
NSI Stranding 18/7/01 QPWS
NSI Stranding 1986–1994 Paterson (1994)
Pygmy sperm whales LC Occasional MI Stranding 26/4/00 QPWS
Kogia breviceps visitor
MI Stranding 1986–1994 Paterson (1994)
Irrawaddy dolphins DD Occasional Brisbane River, Sighting & Stranding Paterson et al. (1998)
Orcaella brevirostris visitor Moreton Bay June & July 1997
BlainvilleÕs beaked whale DD Occasional Point Lookout, NSI October 1991 Paterson et al. (1993)
Mesoplodon densirostris visitor
Melon Headed whales LC Occasional visitor Bribie Island Stranding 11/6/1999 QPWS
Peponocephala electra
Pantropical spotted LR(cd) Occasional MI Stranding 3/4/2000 QPWS
dolphins visitor
Stenella attenuata
MI Stranding 1986–1994 Paterson (1994)
Blue whales EN Occasional NSI Sighting Paterson, personal
Balaenoptera musculus visitor observation
Tangaloom – a whaling Paterson, 2001a
station, MI
a
MI Moreton Island, NSI North Stradbroke Island.
b
QPWS Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service.
*
Hilton-Taylor (2000) (cd) conservation dependent; EN endangered; DD data deficient; LR low risk; V vulnerable.

tors (Dennison and Abel, 1999; Chilvers and Corkeron,
2001).
5.1. Rising to the conservation challenge
We believe that most of the scientific information re-
quired for effective management of marine mammals in
the Moreton Bay is already available. The chief problem
in conserving large, highly mobile, diverse species of
marine mammals such as those that occur in the More-
ton Bay region is identifying the relevant ecologically
important and/or vulnerable areas and designing appro-
priate protective and management policies to minimise
mortality of marine mammals and maintain the habitat
quality of these areas (Marsh, 2000). As outlined above,
the key habitats for marine mammals in Moreton Bay
are already known (see Fig. 2). The challenge is to de-
sign and implement appropriate management.
Fortunately, the Moreton Bay Marine Park provides
a potentially strong management framework. We sug-
gest that this framework should be upgraded to address
the specific conservation needs of the marine mammals
using the Precautionary Principle. The statutory require-
ment to rezone the Moreton Bay Marine Park and the
present development of the South East Queensland
Coastal Plan offer excellent opportunities to do this.
Corresponding changes would need to be made to other
instruments such as the plans for Conservation and
568 B.L. Chilvers et al. / Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571
Management of Whales and Dolphins in Queensland
1997–2001 (Anon., 1997b), and the Conservation and
Management of Dugongs 1999–2004 (Anon., 1999), both
of which were developed under the Nature Conservation
Act Qld 1992.
Specifically we consider that additional areas of high
conservation significance to marine mammals in the
Moreton Bay Marine Mark should be zoned to provide
increased protection. These areas include:
 Near-shore Point Lookout (especially the near-shore
area between Boat and Shag Rocks (Fig. 1) and Cape
Moreton areas, to protect the critical habitat for the
large resident populations of bottlenose and common
dolphins (Chilvers, 2001), and the seasonal migration
of humpback whales that pass through during winter
migration (Fig. 1).
 The area near the Brisbane River mouth to protect
important Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin habitat
(Fig. 2). Intense habitat modification and continued
port development including the proposed reclamation
of 230 ha of land for port development around the
mouth of Brisbane River are planned for this area
(www.portbris.com.au).
In addition, the conservation and management plans
developed under the Nature Conservation Act Queens-
land 1992 for whales and dolphins (Anon., 1997b), and
dugongs (Anon., 1999) could be used to designate areas
of Moreton Bay as special interest zones and specific
conservation plans developed as part of the intercon-
nected protective areas for marine mammals along the
Queensland coast (e.g. Dugong Protection Areas;
Marsh, 2000). This approach would be appropriate for
dugongs as individuals are known to migrate long dis-
tances between important habitat areas as explained
above, and for humpback whales, complementing the
protection along their migration path afforded by the
Hervey Bay Marine Park and the Whitsunday Plan of
Management within the Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park.
The Queensland Coastal Management Plan aims to
ensure that the development of both the marine and ter-
restrial components of QueenslandÕs coastal zone is eco-
logically sustainable (Anon., 2001). The State Plan
provides the policy framework for the South East
Queensland Coastal Management Plan, which has the
potential to address the indirect human impacts that
are affecting the entire Moreton Bay system including
the decline in water quality and habitat degradation, evi-
dent in the river estuaries and western portion of More-
ton Bay, caused by chemical and nutrient pollution,
siltation, marine debris and dredging.
Overexploitation and depletion of food resources
within the Moreton Bay Park area, especially within
the Bay itself, require attention from managers of both
the environment and fisheries, including legislation and
control of the development of new fishing industries,
especially aquaculture. Of particular concern is a pro-
posal to develop a finfish aquaculture project within
Moreton Bay (www.sunaqua.com.au). This project has
the potential to affect the distribution of and quality of
marine mammal habitats in Moreton Bay and to in-
crease the potential for marine mammal entanglements
in fishing equipment and debris. For example, the distri-
bution of bottlenose dolphins will be impacted by such a
development as the area proposed for development cov-
ers 25% of the most highly utilised and critical habitat
for the dolphin populations within the bay (Chilvers,
2001) and is close to the most important dugong area
(Fig. 2).
Throughout the process of developing better manage-
ment and protection for marine mammals and their hab-
itats within the Moreton Bay Marine Park, it will be
critical to consider the political, social, and economic is-
sues involved, especially in the context of sites selected
for increased protection. Marine mammals have cultural
and spiritual significance to the indigenous people living
in the Moreton Bay region, especially the traditional
owners (Quandamooka). Officers of the Queensland
Parks and Wildlife Service working in the Moreton
Bay Marine Park are developing protocols to accommo-
date both the spiritual connection of the Quandamooka
to marine wildlife and the legislative requirements of the
Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. These protocols
should be formally recognised in any system to upgrade
the management of marine mammals in the Moreton
Bay Marine Park System, especially as much of the
Moreton Bay Marine Park is under Native Title Claim.
6. Conclusions
This synthesis demonstrates that significant popula-
tions of marine mammals can coexist with highly devel-
oped coastal environments. However, coastal
ecosystems are coming under increasing pressure and
we agree with DeMaster et al. (2001) who predict that
by the end of the 21st century, the number of extant
populations and species of marine mammals will be
much less than now and that this decline will be greater
for coastal than non-coastal taxa. Coastal areas that still
support significant populations of marine mammals,
such as Moreton Bay, need to be formally recognised
as a matter of urgency, in order that planning and man-
agement measures can be developed and implemented to
ameliorate the direct and indirect impacts of human
development on marine mammals.
The rezoning of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park,
through ‘‘The Representative Areas Program’’
(www.reefed.edu.au/rap/) has increased the percentage
of the 344,400 km2 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park,
 B.L. Chilvers et al. / Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571
zoned as Ôno-takeÕ to 33% from mid 2004 in order to
protect biodiversity. In addition, other measures have
been introduced specifically to protect marine mammals
in this region under fisheries legislation and Agency staff
are actively working with the indigenous peoples of the
region. This example illustrates the potential for large-
scale multiple use marine parks such as Moreton Bay
to be rezoned to increase the protection afforded to bio-
ta including marine mammals.
We appreciate that this approach may not be appro-
priate in many areas, particularly in some developing
countries. Nonetheless we consider that a proactive ap-
proaches guided by the Precautionary Principle are
potentially more productive than simplistic evaluations
that write-off coastal areas as degraded, especially as
such assessments can inadvertently provide justification
to those who support the unfettered development of
these regions.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the following people for useful dis-
cussion and/or access to unpublished data: Peter Cork-
eron, Peter Hale, Brenda Healey, Janet Lanyon, and
the Moreton Bay Marine Park Rangers, Cleveland. Re-
search on the marine mammals of Moreton Bay has
been funded by The Earthwatch Institute, the Queens-
land Environmental Protection Agency, the Queensland
Department of Primary Industries and Environment
Australia and CRC Reef Research.
References
Abal, E.G., Dennison, W.C., OÕDonohue, M.H., 1998. Seagrasses and
mangroves in Moreton Bay. In: Tibbetts, I.R., Hall, N.J.,
Dennison, W.C. (Eds.), Moreton Bay and Catchment. School of
Marine Science. University of Queensland, Brisbane, pp. 269–278.
Anon., 1997a. Marine Parks (Moreton Bay) Zoning Plan 1997.
Queensland Parliamentary Counsel, Brisbane.
Anon., 1997b. Conservation and management of whales and dolphins
in Queensland 1997–2001. Department of Environment, Brisbane.
Anon., 1999. Conservation and management of dugongs in Queens-
land 1999–2004. Department of Environment, Brisbane.
Anon., 2001. State Coastal Management Plan-QueenslandÕs Coastal
Policy. Queensland Government Environmental Protection
Agency, Brisbane. Available from: www.epa.qld.gov.au/environ-
ment/.
Bannister, J.L., Kemper, C.M., Warneke, R.M., 1996. The action plan
for Australian cetaceans. Australian Nature Conservation Agency,
Canberra.
Bertram, G.C.L., Bertram, C.K., 1973. The Modern Sirenia: their
distribution and status. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
5, 297–338.
Brown, M.R., Corkeron, P.J., Hale, P.T., Schultz, K.W., Bryden,
M.M., 1995. Evidence for a sex-segregated migration in the
humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London – Series B: Biological Sciences 259, 229–
234.
569
Bryden, M.M., 1978. Whales and whaling in Queensland waters.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland 89, 5–18.
Bryden, M.M., 1985. Studies of humpback whales (Megaptera
novaeangliae), Area V. In: Bryden, M.M. (Ed.) Studies of Sea
Mammals in South Latitudes. Proceedings of the 52nd ANZAAS
Congress, Sydney, Australia, pp. 115–124.
Bryden, M.M., Kirkwood, G.P., Slade, R.W., 1990. Humpback
whales, Area V. An increase in numbers off AustraliaÕs east coast.
In: Kerry, K.R., Hempel, G. (Eds.), Antarctic Ecosystems.
Ecological Change and Conservation. Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
pp. 271–277.
Chilvers, B.L., 2000. Southern Right whales, Eubalaena australis,
(Desmoulins, 1822) in Moreton Bay, Queensland. Memoirs of the
Queensland Museum 45, 576.
Chilvers, B.L., 2001. Behavioural ecology of bottlenose dolphins
(Tursiops aduncus) in S.E. Queensland, Australia: Adaptations to
ecological and anthropogenic influences. PhD Thesis, James Cook
University, Townsville.
Chilvers, B.L., Corkeron, P.J., 2001. Trawlers and bottlenose dolphinsÕ
social structure. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 268,
1901–1905.
Chilvers, B.L., Corkeron, P.J., 2003. Population density and residency
of inshore bottlenose dolphins,Tursiops aduncus, off Point Look-
out, Queensland, Australia. Marine Mammal Science 19, 85–95.
Chittleborough, R.G., 1965. Dynamics of two populations of hump-
back whales, Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski). Australian
Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 16,33–128.
Center for International Earth Science Information Network and
World Resources Institute. 2000. Gridded Population of the
World, Version 2 Columbia University, Palisades, New York,
USA.
Corkeron, P.J., 1989. Studies of inshore dolphins, Tursiops and Sousa,
in the Moreton Bay region. PhD Thesis, University of Queensland,
Brisbane.
Corkeron, P.J., 1990. Aspects of the behavioural ecology of inshore
dolphins, Tursiops truncatus and Sousa chinensis in Moreton Bay,
Australia. In: Leatherwood, S., Reeves, R.R. (Eds.), The Bottle-
nose Dolphin. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 285–294.
Corkeron, P.J., Morissette, N.M., Porter, L., Marsh, H., 1997.
Distribution and status of hump-back dolphins, Sousa chinensis,
in Australian waters. Asian Marine Biology 14, 49–59.
Dawbin, W.H., 1966. The seasonal migratory cycle of Humpback
whales. In: Norris, K.S. (Ed.), Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises,
pp. 145–170.
Dawbin, W.H., 1997. Temporal segregation of humpback whales
during migration in southern hemisphere waters. Memoirs of the
Queensland Museum 42, 105–138.
DeMaster, D.P., Fowler, C.W., Perry, S.L., Richlen, M.F., 2001.
Predation and competition: the impact of fisheries on marine
mammal populations over the next one hundred years. Journal of
Mammalogy 82, 641–651.
Dennison, W.C., Abel, E.G., 1999. Moreton Bay Study: A scientific
basis for the healthy waterways campaign. South East Queensland
Regional Water Quality Management Strategy, Brisbane.
Durham, B., 1994. The distribution and abundance of the hump-
back dolphin (Sousa chinensis) along the Natal coast, South
Africa. M.S. thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South
Africa.
Fairholme, M.R., 1856. The blacks of Moreton Bay and the porpoises.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 24, 353–354.
Gales, N., McCauley, R.D., Lanyon, J., Holley, D., 2004. Change in
abundance of dugongs in Shark Bay, Ningaloo and Exmouth Gulf,
Western Australia: evidence for large-scale migration. Wildlife
Research 31, 283–290.
Garrigue, C., Forestell, P., Greaves, J., Gill, P., Naessig, P., Patena-
ude, N.M., Baker, C.S., 2000. Migratory movements of humpback
whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) between New Caledonia, East
570 B.L. Chilvers et al. / Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571
Australia and New Zealand. Journal of Cetacean Research and
Management 2, 111–115.
Hale, P., 1997. Conservation of inshore dolphins in Australia. Asian
Marine Biology 14, 83–91.
Hale, P., Long, S., Tapsall, A., 1998. Distribution and conservation of
delphinids in Moreton Bay. In: Tibbertts, I.R., Hall, N.J.,
Dennison, W.C. (Eds.), Moreton Bay and Catchment. The
University of Queensland, Brisbane, pp. 477–486.
Harbours and Marine, 1943. Harbours and Marine Annual Reports.
Queensland Department of Harbours and Marine, Brisbane.
Heinsohn, G.E., Lear, R.J., Bryden, M.M., Marsh, H., Gardner, B.R.,
1978. Discovery of a large population of dugongs of Brisbane,
Australia. Environmental Conservation 5, 91–92.
Hilton-Taylor, C. (compiler), 2000. 2000 IUCN Red List of Threat-
ened Species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Available from:
www.redlist.org/.
Hodgson, A., 2004. Dugong behaviour, herd function and reaction to
anthropogenic influences in Moreton Bay, Australia: observations
using blimp-cam. PhD Thesis, James Cook University, Townsville.
Jackson, J.B.C., Sala, E., 2001. Unnatural oceans. Scientia Marina 65,
273–281.
Jackson, J.B.C., Kirby, M.X., Berger, W.H., Bjorndal, K.A., Botsford,
L.W., Bourque, B.J., Bradbury, R.H., Cooke, R., Erlandson, J.,
Estes, J.A., Hughes, T.P., Kidwell, S., Lange, C.B., Lenihan, H.S.,
Pandolfi, J.M., Peterson, C.H., Steneck, R.S., Tegner, M.J.,
Warner, R.R., 2001. Historical overfishing and the recent collapse
of coastal ecosystems. Science 293, 629–638.
Jefferson, T.A., 2000. Population biology of the Indo-Pacific hump-
backed dolphin in Hong Kong waters. Wildlife Monographs 144,
1–65.
Jefferson, T.A., Karzcmarski, L., 2001. Sousa chinensis. Mammalian
Species 655, 1–9.
Johnson, M., 2002. A modified form of whaling: the Moreton Bay
dugong fishery 1946–1920. Chapter 4 in Murray Johnson (Ed)
Moreton Bay Matters. Brisbane History Group papers, 19, 148p.
Lanyon, J., 2003. Distribution and abundance of dugongs in Moreton
Bay, Queensland, Australia. Wildlife Research 30, 397–409.
Lanyon, J., Limpus, C.J., Marsh, H., 1989. Dugongs and turtles:
Grazers in Seagrass systems. In: Larkum, A.W.D., McComb, A.J.,
Shepard, S.A. (Eds.), Biology of Seagrasses. A Treatise on the
Biology of Seagrasses with Special Reference to the Australia
Region. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 610–634.
Lanyon, J.M, Sneath, H.L., Kirkwood, J.M., Slade, R.W., 2002.
Establishing a mark-recapture program for dugongs in Moreton
Bay, south-east Queensland. In: Australian Mammalogy 24 Special
Issue: Proceedings of the 2001 Southern Hemisphere Marine
Mammal Conference, pp 51–57.
Lear, R.J., 1977. The Dugong (Dugon dugong) in Moreton Bay.
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service Report, 54–58.
Lear, R.J., Bryden, M.M., 1980. A study of the bottlenose dolphins,
Tursiops truncatus, in Eastern Australian Waters. Australian
National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra. Occasional Paper
4, pp. 1–25.
Leatherwood, S., 1982. Size of bottlenose dolphin population (s) in
Indian River, Florida. Report International Whaling Commission
32, 567–568.
MacGillivray, J., 1852. Narrative of the voyage of HMS Rattlesnake.
T&W Boone, London.
Mackaness, G., 1979. The discovery and exploration of Moreton Bay
and the Brisbane River. Review Publications, Dubbo.
Marsh, H., 2000. Evaluating management initiatives aimed at reducing
the mortality of dugongs in gill and mesh nets in the Great Barrier
Reef World Heritage Area. Marine Mammal Science 16, 684–694.
Marsh, H., Lawler, I., 2001. Dugong distribution and abundance in
the Southern Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and Hervey Bay:
Results of an aerial survey in October–December 1999. Great
Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Research Publication 70.
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Australia.
Marsh, H., Sinclair, D.F., 1989a. Correcting for visibility bias in strip
transect aerial surveys of aquatic fauna. Journal of Wildlife
Management 53, 1017–1024.
Marsh, H., Sinclair, D.F., 1989b. An experimental evaluation of
dugong and sea turtle aerial survey techniques. Australian Wildlife
Research 16, 639–650.
Marsh, H., DeÕath, G., Gribble, N., Lane, B., 2001. Shark control
records hindcast serious decline in dugong numbers off the urban
coast of Queensland. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
Research Publication 70. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Author-
ity, Townsville, Australia.
Marsh, H., Penrose, H., Eros, C., Hugues, J., 2002. The Dugong (
Dugong dugon ) Status Reports and Action Plans for Countries and
Territories in its Range. United Nations Environment Programme,
Early Arning and Assessment Report Series, 1.UNEP Nairobi,
Kenya.
Marsh, H., DeÕath, G., Gribble, N., Lane, B., in press. Historical
marine population estimates: triggers or targets for conservation?
The dugong case study. Ecological Applications, in press.
Mikhalev, Y.A, 2000. Biological characteristics of humpbacks taken in
Antarctic Area V by the whaling fleets Slava and Sovietskaya
Ukraina. International Whaling Commission paper Sc/52/1A12.
Noad, M.J., 2000. A southern right whale Eubalaena australis
(Desmoulins, 1822) in southern Queensland waters. Memoirs of
the Queensland Museum 45, 556.
Pandolfi, J.M., Bradbury, R.H., Sala, E., Hughes, T.P., Bjorndahl,
K.A., Cooke, R.G., McArdle, D., McClenachan, L., Newman,
M.J.H., Paredes, G., Warner, R.R., Jackson, J.B.C., 2003. Global
trajectories of the long-term decline of coral reef ecosystems.
Science 301, 955–958.
Paterson, R.A., 1986. A list of specimens of the order Cetacea in the
Queensland museum. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 46,
631–645.
Paterson, R.A., 1991. The migration of humpback whales Megaptera
novaeangliae in east Australian waters. Memoirs of the Queensland
Museum, 30,333–341.
Paterson, R.A., 1994. An annotated list of recent additions to the
cetacean collection in the Queensland Museum. Memoirs of the
Queensland Museum 35, 217–223.
Paterson, R.A., 2001a. A presumed killer whale (Orcinus orca) attack
on humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) at Point Lookout,
Queensland. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 47, 436.
Paterson, R.A., 2001b. Exploitation of humpback whales, Megaptera
novaeangliae, in the South West Pacific and adjacent Antartctic
water during the 19th and 20th centuries. Memoirs of the
Queensland Museum 47, 421–429.
Paterson, R., Paterson, P., 1989. The status of the recovering stock of
humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae in east Australian
waters. Biological Conservation 47, 33–48.
Paterson, R.A., Quayle, C.J., Van Dyck, S.M., 1993. A humpback
whale calf and two sub-adult Dense-beaked whales recently
stranded in SE Queensland. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum
33, 291–297.
Paterson, R.A., Paterson, P., Cato, D.H., 1994. The status of
humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae in east Australia thirty
years after whaling. Biological Conservation 70, 135–142.
Paterson, R.A., Van Dyck, S.M., Gynther, I.C., 1998. Irrawaddy
dolphins Orcaella brevirostris (Owen in Gray) from southern
Queensland. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 42, 554.
Paterson, R.A., Paterson, P., Cato, D.H., 2001. Status of humpback
whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, in east Australia at the end of the
20th century. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 47, 579–586.
Petrie, C.C., 1932. Tom PetrieÕs Reminiscences of Early Queensland.
Queensland Book Depot, Brisbane.
 B.L. Chilvers et al. / Biological Conservation 122 (2005) 559–571
Porter, L.J., 1998. The taxonomy, ecology and conservation of Sousa
chinensis (Osbeck 1765) (Cetacea: Delphinidae) in Hong Kong
waters. PhD thesis, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
Preen, A.R., 1993. Interactions between dugongs and seagrasses in a
subtropical environment. PhD thesis, James Cook University.
Preen, A., Marsh, H., 1995. Response of dugongs to large-scale loss of
seagrass from Harvey Bay, Queensland, Australia. Wildlife
Research 22, 507–519.
Rice, D.W., 1999. Marine mammals of the world: systematics and
distribution. Society of Marine Mammal Special Publication 4,
105–107.
Rosenbaum, H.C., Glaberman, S., Jefferson, T.A., Collins, T.,
Minton, G., Peddemors, V.M., Baldwin, B., 2002. Phylogenetic
relationships and population structure among humpback dolphins
based on mtDNA variation. IWC Scientificn committee, Shimo-
noseki, Japan.
Ross, G., Heinsohn, J.B., Cockroft, G.E., Victor, G., 1994. Humpback
dolphins Sousa chinensis (Osbeck, 1765), Sousa plumbea (G.
Cuvier, 1829) and Sousa teuszii (Kukenthal, 1892). In: Ridgeway,
S.H., Harrison, Sir R. (Eds.), Handbook of Marine Mammals, The
first book of dolphins, vol. 5. Academic Press, London.
Ryan, M., 1998. Wild guide to Moreton Bay, wildlife and habitats of a
beautiful Australian coast – Noosa to the Tweed. Queensland
Museum Publication, Brisbane.
571
Shane, S.H., 1990. Behaviour and ecology of the bottlenose dolphin at
Sanibel Island, Florida. In: Leatherwood, S., Reeves, R.R. (Eds.),
The Bottlenose Dolphin. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 245–265.
Skinner, J.L., Gillam, E., Rohlin, C-J., 1998. The demographic future
of the Moreton Region. In: Tibbetts, R., Hall, N., Dennison, W.C.
(Eds.), Moreton Bay and Catchment. School of Marine Science
University of Queensland, p. 645.
Thorne, E., 1876. The queen of the colonies; or Queensland as I knew
it. Sampson Low Marston, Searle and Rivington, London.
Tormosov, D.D., 1995. Humpback whales catches by area and sex in
the Antarctic taken by the Yuri Dolgorukiy. Reports of the
International Whaling Commission 45, 141.
Wells, R.S., Scott, M.D., Irvine, A.B., 1987. The Social Structure of
Free-ranging Bottlenose Dolphins. In: Genoways, H.H. (Ed.).
Plenum Press, New York, pp. 247–305.
Welsby, T., 1905. Schnappering and fishing in the Brisbane River and
Moreton Bay waters. Outridge, Brisbane.
Welsby, T., 1907. Early Moreton Bay. Outridge, Brisbane.
Williams, J.A., Dawson, S.M., Slooten, E., 1993. The abundance and
distribution of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Doubtful
Sound, New Zealand. Canadian Journal of Zoology 71, 2080–2088.
Wilson, B., Hammond, P.S., Thompson, P.M., 1999. Estimating size
and assessing trends in a coastal bottlenose dolphin population.
Ecological Applications 9, 288–300.