Technicai Paper 122 _

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

FRANKLIN K. LANE, SECRETARY
BUREAU OF MINES
VAN. H. MANNING, DIRECTOR

EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERES DEFICIENT IN OXYGEN

ON SMALL ANIMALS AND ON MEN

BY

GEORGE A. BURRELL
AND

G. G. OBERFELL

WASHINGTON
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1915
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First edition. November, 1915.

2
 CONTENTS.
Pa~e.
Introduction. __.... __..... _ __.......... . __. ...... __ __ __ _... . . .. .... .. .... .. . 5
Experiments with mice and canaries.......... __. __. _ _ _ _ ... . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ " 5
Mode of preparing atmospheres used __ __ __ _. __.. _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Tests with canaries__.. __ __ _ __ __ . . . .. __ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Tests with mice... _ __. _. __ _ __ ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Comments on results of tests... _.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Effeet on men of atmosphercs low in oxygen.......__.......................... 7
Experiment by member of Bureau of Mincs__ __. __ __ _ __. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ 7
Effect of a mine atmosphcre low in oxygen......__.______..... _............ 7
Composition of a mine atmospherc aftcr an explosion_ _.... . ... . .. ... . . . . _ 9
Comparison of thc effects of oxygen deficiency on birds and mice and on men... 9
Summary __............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . __ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Publieations on minc explosions and mine gases.. _' _ _ _ _. __... . . . . . . . . . . . . __ . . . _ 11
3
 EFFECTS OF AnWSPHERES DEFICIENT IN OXYGEN ON
S!fALL ANIMALS AND ON MEN.

By GEORGE A. BURRELL and G. G. OBERFELL.

INTRODUCTION.
In studies of the composition of mine atmospheres as related to the
health and safety of miners, the writers of this paper have observed
that small animals, such as mice and canaries, are not quickly sensi-
tive to atmospheres deficient in oxygen, and hence may not indicate
to exploring parties in mines that the oxygen content of an atmos-
phere is dangerously low. For this reason a series of tests was con-
ducted to determine the sensitiveness of canaries and mice to such
atmospheres; also, some information was obtained as to the effects
of such atmospheres on men.
EXPERIMENTS WITH MICE AND CANARIES.
MODE OF PREPARING ATMOSPHERES USED.
In conducting the experiments atmospheres containing various per-
centages of nitrogen and oxygen were prepared in bell jars of 10 liters
capacity. As a source of nitrogen a tank of the gas containing a small
percentage of oxygen was used. The atmosphere in the tank con-
tained by analysis 97.8 per cent nitrogen and 2.2 per cent oxygen.
TESTS WITH CANARIES.

The results of tests with canaries are given in the table following.
Throe canaries, designated in this report as A, B, and C, were used in
the experiments:
Effects on canaris of breathing atmospheres low in oxygen.
-
Composition of atmosphere-
-._-~,_.-
Test No.
Canary At begiming of experiment. At end of experiment.
used.

--- -~ -- Oxygen. Nitrogen. Carbon

Per cent.
-_._-
dioxide. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Carbon
dioxide.

Percent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.

1... .._...-- -----.--0._____--- B. 9.42 90.48 0.10 8.50
2........__..................... C. 9.25 90.65 .10
90.90
.-.._----- -...._----
0.60
-.........
3_.. __.............. ........... A. 7.65 92.25 .10 7.55 92.05 .40
c. 7.83 92.07 .10 --........
1::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::1 AandC. 7.10 92.80 .10 ...._.....
::::::::::1::::::::::
5
6 EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERES DEFICIENT IN OXYGEN.

REMARKS.

Test I.-The canary, B, bhowcd immcdiate distress, as evinced by rapid breathing,

open bil, and unsteadiness. In 10 minutes' time the bird was apparcntly in normal
condition, cxcept for a slight increase in the rate of breathing. It was removed from
the atmosphere at thc end of i hour.
Test 2.-The bchavior of the canary, C, was similar to that of the bird in the previous
experiment.
Test S . -The canary, A, showed immediate distress by pantin and unstoadiness,
but did not collapse or evince more distress than the bird in trial 1. It was left in the
atmosphere for i hour.
Test 4.-The canary, C, collapsed as soon as it was placed in the atmosphcre. It
breathcd very slowly with eycs and bill closed, but recovered its normal state in less
than a minute aftcr it was removed to fresh air.
Test 5.-0ne canary, A, showed distress, but did not collapse in 20 minutes. Another
canary, C, was plaeed in the atmosphere and immediately collapsed.

TESTS WITH MICE.

Some experiments were also made with white mice, similar to those
mado with the canaries. The results were as follows:
Effect on white mice of breathing atmospheres low in oxygen.

Composition of atmosphere.

At begining of experiment. A t end of experiment.

Test No.
~_._---_._--i-
. Carbon
Oxygen. Nitrogen. àioxide. oxygen.
N"t1 rogen¡
i Carbon
dioxide.

Percent. Percent. Per cent.

---I ,

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.

1.... . 7.07 92.83 0.10 7.75 92.05 0.20
2......... .. 6.89 93.01 .10 7.12 92.78 .10
3. ........ ..__ 6.70 93.00 .30
4...... ..... 5.90 94.00 .10

REMARKS.
Testi .- Th.e mouse showed symptoms of distress i!nmediately. At times it appeared
normal and again appcarcd sluggish, but did not collapse. It was lcft in thc atmos-
phere for i hour.
Tests 2, S.-Thc results werc the same as test 1.
Test 4.-The mouse showed immediate distress and collapsed in 6 minutes. One
minute after removal from the atmosphere it was on its feet.
COMMENTS ON RESULTS OF TESTS.
Canaries show some distress in atmospheres containing 9.4 per cent
oxygen, more pronounced distress in atmospheres containing as low
as 7.6 or 7.8 per cent, and in an atmosphere containing as little as 7.1
per cent oxygen mayor may not collapse. Mice are slightly more
resistive to atmospheres low in oxygen. In about 7 per cent oxygen
they show some distress and become more or less sluggish. One
mouse resisted for 6 minutes an atmosphere containing as little as
5.9 per cent oxygen before it collapsed.
 EF.E'ECT 01' MEN OF ATMOSPHERES LOW IN OXYGEN. 7
EFFECT ON MEN OF ATMOSPHERES LOW IN OXYGEN.
For comparison with the results given above some observations
made by the authors and others on the effects on man of atmospheres
low in oxygen are included here.
EXPERIMENT BY MEMBER OF BUREAU OF MINES.

A member of the Bureau of Mines breathed air in and out of a bag

having a capacity of about 70 liters. By means of a can of caustic
potash inserted between the man's mouth and the bag, the exhaled
carbon dioxide was removed. Under these conditions, of course, the
oxygen content of the air in the bag was gradually reduced, and when
it had fallen to about 7 per cent, the subject lost consciousness for a
few seconds. The mode of action of the ii oxygen want" is instructive.
Although the man felt warning symptoms of collapse, he did not
appreciate that he was in serious danger of losing consciousness; in
fact he wanted to con tinue, and just before he collapsed made a show of
resistance against discontinuing the experiment. He felt no real
distress until some time after the experiment, but on the next day he
was decidedly unwell.
EFFECT OF A MINE ATMOSPHERE LOW IN OXYGEN.
In its insidious action" oxygen want" acts as carbon monoxide
frequently does; that is, when the oxygen is slowly decreased. One
diffculty in comparing the mode of action of the two lies in the
scarcity of experimental data on the effects on men of atmospheres
containing small percentages of oxygen.
Much light is thrown on the action of low-oxygen atmospheres by
an accident in the Lodge Mill collery, Huddersfield, England a in
1913. Three men were overcome in an unused part of the mine. Two
men, A and B, were overcome by the black damp at 3.30 a. m. A
third man, C, was overcome at 4 a. m. in an attempt to rescue his
comrades. At 1 p. m. of the same day rescuers equipped with
bteathing apparatus removed C and about an hour later removed A.
.A little later B was found, dead. Both C and A were in a critical
condition but still breathing. A died three days afterwards. The
i-tmosphere in which the men were overcome contained a high per-
~~ntage of methane and correspondingly little oxygen. Haldane b
~pmments on this disaster as follows:
~t¥iMl the facts recorded indicate that the men were overcome by thc insuffciency
~c:ylie oxygen percentage of the air. There was no reason to suspect the presence
,Q~"lfrbon monoxide as there was no gob fire or heating. In addition, the blood of
. .¡~,dead man was blaek; not red, as it would have been if death was due to carbon
", -:t~19!d, \V. D., 'rhe use of rescue ap~~;atus at Lodge Mil collery, Huddersfield, with a note b~-;~-;
~e:coll. Guard., Nov. 7, 1913, vol. 106, pp. 957--958.
:'~_~,_;,_ß.tUeJ J. S., Note on paper byW. D. Lloyd: ColI. Guard., vol. 106, 1915, p. 958.
8 EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERES DEFICIENT IN OXYGEN.

monoxide. It is probable that suffcient fire damp was present to rcduce the oxygen
to 7 or 8 per cent. The fact that A did not recover was due to exactly the same cause
which often prevents men recovering aftcr severe carbon monoxide poisoning. The
tiBsues have been severely damaged by thc prolonged exposure to dearth of oxygcn,
so that although thc oxygcn supply is completely restored recovcry is doubtfuL.
In the case of A, the post-mortem examination revealed the fact that the heart was
dilated. Probably the heart muscles and the other tissues were in a condition of
fatty degeneration caused by the want of oxygen. The writer has scen other similar
cases of dilatation simulating severe hcart disease, and only slowly recovering, after
prolongcd exposure to carbon monoxide poisoning. So far as hc is awarc, however,
this is the only recorded case of death, alter partial recovery from cxposurc to an
atmosphere which was simply deficient in oxygen, apart from the preser.ce of carbon
monoxide.
In regard to the oxygen deficiency required to cause distress in
men, Haldane
a says:
When the oxygen content of thc air is gradually reduced by the absorption of the
oxygen or (what is exactly the same thing) by addition of nitrogen, very little may
be felt bcfore thc occurrencc of impairmcnt of the senses and loss of powcr over the
limbs. If thc reduetion is gradual and thc symptoms be carefnlly watched it will
be notieed that at about 12 pcr ccnt oxygen, i. e., with a reduction of 9 per eent, thc
respirations become just perecptibly decper. At 10 pcr cent the respirations are
distinctly dcepcr and more frequent, and the lips become slightly bluish. At 8
pcr cent, the face begins to assume a leaden color, though the distress is still not
grcat. With 5 or 6 pcr ccnt there is marked panting, and this is aceompanied by
clouding of the senscs and loss of power over the limbs, which would probably end
sooner or later in death. It is probablc that any sudden exertion made in air markedly
deficicnt in oxygcn may lead to temporary loss of consciousness, so that sudden efforts
should be avoided in all cases where, through accident or necessity, a man is in an
atmosphere which wil not support light and in such a position that he might fall
into worse air or otherwise injurc himself. When air containing less than 1 or 2 per
ccnt of oxygen is breathed, loss of consciousness, without any distinct warning symp-
toms, occurs within 40 or 50 seconds. Loss of consciousness in air deprived of oxygen
is more rapid than in drowning or strangling, since in the former case not only is the
supply of fresh oxygen cut off, but the oxygen previously in the lungs is rapidly
washcd out, loss of consciousncss is quickly followcd by convulsions, which arc fol-
lowed by cessation of thc respiration. The heart still continucs to beat, in the case
of cats and dogs, for from two to eight minutes; in man this period is probably much
longer, for it seems to be the general rule that the larger the animal, the longer it
resists asphyxiation. So long as thc hcart is beating, however fcebly, animation
may be restorcd by artificial respiration. This may rcquire to bc continued for a
considerable pcriod, as the after effects of deprivation of oxygen are very serious
and the respiratory center may not recovcr for some time.

Haldane's remarks refer to men at sea level or thereabouts who

are suddenly subjected to atmospheres low hi oxygen. However,
by acclimatization men withstand atmospheres low in oxygen. For
instance, people live continuously in places having altitudes of 15,000
feet and higher, where the oxygen content corresponds to atmos-
pheres at sea level that contain only 12 per cent or less of oxygen.

a Haldane, J. S., The causes of deaths in collery explosions and underground fires: Report to the Secre-
tary of State for the Home Department, 1896, p. 15.
 COMPARISON QF EFFECTS ON BIRDS AND MICE AND ON MEN. 9

COMPOSITION OF A MINE ATMOSPHERE AFTER AN EXPLOSION.

Below is the analysis of an atmosphere encountered by members

of the Bureau of Mines in a mine after an explosion.
Composition of afterdamp in a mine.
Per cen t.
Carbon dioxide (C02) - . - .. . .. .. .. . _ .. .. _ .. . .. .. _ .. . __ . . _ _ . .. _ 4. 10
Oxygen (02)" . - - .. - . - .. .. . - .. . .. .. .. .. _ . . . .. . . . _ . . . . .. .. .. _ . 13. 64
Carbon monoxide (CO) - . .. .. . _ .. .. .. _ . _ .. . .. _ . . _ _ .. .. . . .. .. .. O. 00
Hydrogcn (H2). -..... . . - . .. . . .... . . .... . . _.. . ... _ . . . . . . . ..... 1. 20
Nitrogcn (N2)........... - _........ _... _....... _.......... 81. 06
100. 00
The party was not equipped with breathing apparatus but carried
safety lamps and birds. When the party entcred the atmosphere
the lamps were extinguished (an oil lamp goes out in air containing
less than 17 per cent oxygen), but neither the men nor the birds
showed signs of distress. The party immediately retreated.
COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF OXYGEN DEFICIENCY ON
BIRDS AND MICE AND ON MEN.
From the foregoing experiments on birds and mice and on men,
it will be seen that oxygen deprivation causes collapse in men in
about the same timc it does in mice and canaries. The animals
may collapse in atmospheres of different composition and presumably
the same is true of men. The fact is evident that birds and micc
can not be used safely as indicators of atmospheres low in oxygen by
exploring parties in mines.
Canaries arc chiefly valuablc for indicating the presence of carbon
monoxide, to which they are much more susccptible than man.
Mterdamp may contain enough oxygen (about 17 per cent) to sup-
port the flame of an oil-fed lamp so that exploring parties entering
it may have no means, other than canaries, of d.etecting that dan-
gerous gas, carbon monoxide. When oil lamps go out, an exploring
party unequipped with breathing apparatus may advance into atmos-
phere dangerously low in oxygen, even though the party be carrying
cananes.
An acetylene lamp does not go out until the oxygen in the atmos-
phere decreases to about 13 per cent. In such an atmosphcre a
party is in no immediate danger, although close at hand there may
be atmospheres considerably lower in oxygen, so that by advancing
a short distancc the members of the party may endanger their livcs.
However, when canaries are used in mines; that is, after a disaster,
exploring partics are invariably equipped with oil safety lamps and
elcctric lamps, so that the danger from using acetylene lamps need
hardly be considered here.
10 EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERES DEE'ICJENT IN OXYGEN.

SUMARY.
The results of these experiments may be summarized as follows:
Atmospheres that are deficient in oxygen begin to affect men when
the percentage of oxygen is about as low as that affecting canaries
and mice. Canaries are slightly more susceptible to "oxygen want"
than are mice. In mixtures of air and nitrogen containing about
7.6 to 7.8 per cent oxygen, canaries show pronounced distress. When
the oxygen content is about 7 per cent, mice show considerable dis-
tress, and a man is in grave danger of dying; hence canaries and mice
should not be used by exploring parties in mines to show when men
unequipped with breathing helmets should retreat, because the
atmosphere is low in oxygen.
Mice and canaries, especially the latter, are chiefly of value for
indicating to exploring parties the presence of dangerous proportions
of carbon monoxide. In an atmosphere in which oil-fed lamps wil
not burn, an exploring party should not depend upon canaries for
further guidance, but should use breathing apparatus in advancing
into the atmosphere.
 PUBLICATIONS ON MINE EXPLOSIONS AND MINE GASES.
Limited editions of the following Bureau of Mines publications are
temporarily available for free distribution. Requests for all publi-
cations can not be granted, and applicants should select only those
publications that are of especial interest to them. Al requests for
publications should be addressed to the Director, Bureau of Mines,
Washington, D. C.:
BULLETIN 20. The explosibiIity of coal dust, by G. S. Rice, with chapters by
J. C. W. Frazer, Axel Larsen, Frank Haas, and Carl Scholz. 204 pp., 14 pis., 28
figs.
BULLETIN 42. The sampling and examination of mine gases and natural gas, by
G. A. Burrell and F. M. Seibert. 1913. 116 pp., 2 pls., 23 figs.
BULLETIN 46. An investigation of explosion-proof mine motors, by H. H. Clark.
1912. 44 pp., 6 pis., 14 figs.
BULLETIN 50. A laboratory study of the inflammability of coal dust, by J. C. W.
Frazcr, E. J. Hoffman, and L A. Seholl, jr. 1913. 60 pp., 95 figs.
BULLETI,, 52. Igrution of mine gases by the filaments of incandescent electric
lamps, by II. H. Clark and L. C. I1sley. 1913. 31 pp., 6 pIs., 2 figs.
BULLETIN 56. First serics of coal-dust explosion tests in the experimental mine, by
G. S. Rice, L. M. Jones, J. K. Clement, and W. L. Egy. 1913. 115 pp., 12 pIs., 28
figs.
BULLETIN 68. Elcctric switches for use in gaseous mines, by H. II. Clark and R. W.
Croeker. 191:3. 40 pp., 6 pIs.
BULLETIN 69. Coal-mine accidents in the United States and foreign countries,
compilcd by F. W. Horton. 1913. 102 pp., 3 pIs., 40 figs.
TECHNICAL PAPER 11. The use of mice and birds for detccting carbon monoxide
alter mine fircs and explosions, by G. A. BurrelL. 1912. 15 pp.
TECHNICAL PAPER lB. Gas analysis as an aid in fighting mine fires, by G. A. Bur-
rell and F. M. Seibcrt. 1912. 16 pp., 1 fig.
TECHNICAL PAPER 14. Apparatus for gas-analysis laboratories at coal mines, by
G. A. Burrell and F. M. Scibert. 1913. 24 pp., 7 figs.
TECHNICAL PAPER 21. The prevention of mine explosions, report and rccommen-
dations, by Victor Watteyne, Carl Meissner, and Arthur Dcsborough. 12 pp. Re-
pnnt of United States Geological Survcy Bulletin 369.
TECHNICAL PAPER 28. Igrution of mine gas by standard incandescent lamps, by
H. H. Clark. 1912. 6 pp.
. TECHNICAL PAPER 29. TraÎIung with mine-rescue breathing apparatus, by J. W.
Paul. 1912. 16 pp.
TECHNICAL PAPER 39. The inflammable gases in mine air, by G. A. Burrell and
.:l. M. Seibert. 1913. 24 pp., 2 figs.
"'iTECHNICAL PAPERS 4:3. The effect of inert gascs on infammable gascous mixtures,
l¡yJ. K. Clement. 1913. 24 pp., 1 pI., 8 figs.
,\.''lEeHNicAL PAPER 44. Safety electnc switches for mines, by II. H. Clark. 1913.
\R,pp.
11
12 EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERES DEFICIENT IN OXYGEN.
TECHNICAL PAPER 47. Portable electric mine lamps, by II. H. Clark. 1913. 13
pp.
TECHNICAL PAPER 75. Permissiblc electric lamps for miners, by H, H. Clark. 1914.
21 pp., 3 figs.
TECHNICAL PAPER 77. Rcport of the committee on resuscitation from mine gases,
by W. B. Cannon, George W. Crilc, Joseph Erlanger, Yandcll Henderson, and S. T.
Meltzer. 1914. 36 pp., 4 figs.
MINERS' CIRCULAR 7. Use and misusc of explosives in coal mining, by J. J. Rut-
ledge. 1914. 51pp., 8 figs.
MINERS' CIRCULAR 10. Mine fircs and how to fight them, by J. W. PauL. 1912. 14
pp.
MINERS' CIRCULAR 11. Accidents from mie cars and locomotives, by L. M. Jones.
1912. 16 pp.
MINERS' CIRCULAR 12. Usc and eare of miners' safety lamps, by J. W. Paul. 1913.
16 pp., 4 figs.
J\IWERS' CIRCULAR 14. Gases found in coal mines, by G. A. Burell and F. M. Sei-
bcrt. 1914. 23 pp.
MINERS' CIRCULAR 16. Hints on coal-mine ventilation, by J. J. Rutledge. 1914.
22pp.
MINERS' CIRCULAR 21. What a minor can do to prevent explosions of ga and of
coal dust, by G. S. Rice. 1915. 24 pp.