Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles

Fourth Edition
List of Chapters:
1 1.1 Introduction to Automobile Aerodynamics Wolf-Heinrich Hucho Scope 1.1.1 Basic Principles 1.1.2 Peculiarities of Vehicle Aerodynamics 1.1.3 Related Fields History of Vehicle Aerodynamics 1.2.1 Survey 1.2.2 Borrowed Shapes 1.2.3 The Era of the Streamline 1.2.4 Parameter Studies 1.2.5 One-Volume Bodies 1.2.6 The Bathtub Body 1.2.7 Commercial Vehicles 1.2.8 Motorcycles Present and Future Trends 1.3.1 State of the Art 1.3.2 Detail Optimization 1.3.3 Shape Optimization 1.3.4 Development Expenditure Aerodynamics and Design Notation Some Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Dietrich Hummel Properties of Incompressible Fluids 2.1.1 Density 2.1.2 Viscosity 2.1.3 Thermal Conductivity Flow Phenomena Related to Vehicles 2.2.1 External Flow 2.2.2 Internal Flow External Flow Problems 2.3.1 Basic Equations for Inviscid Incompressible Flow 2.3.2 Applications 2.3.3 Effects of Viscosity 2.3.3.1 Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layer Development 2.3.3.2 Separation 2.3.3.3 Friction Drag 2.3.3.4 Pressure Drag 2.3.3.5 Overall Forces and Moments 2.3.3.6 Thermal Boundary Layers 2.3.4 Special Problems 2.3.4.1 Aerodynamic Noise 2.3.4.2 Body to Body Interference 2.3.4.3 Transport of Solids Internal Flow Problems 2.4.1 Basic Equations for Incompressible Flow 2.4.2 Applications 2.4.2.1 Laminar and Turbulent Pipe Flow 2.4.2.2 Curved Pipes 2.4.2.3 Inlets 2.4.2.4 Local Contractions 2.4.2.5 Cross-Section Enlargement Relations Between External and Internal Flow Notation Performance of Cars and Light Trucks Hans-Joachim Emmelmann and Wolf-Heinrich Hucho Objectives Resistances to Vehicle Motion 3.2.1 Equation of Motion 3.2.2 Analysis of Resistances to Motion 3.2.2.1 Aerodynamic Drag 3.2.2.2 Tire Rolling Resistance 3.2.2.3 Ratio of Aerodynamic Drag to Tire Rolling Resistance

1.2

2.4

1.3

1.4 1.5 2 2.1

2.5 2.6 3 3.1 3.2

2.2 2.3

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3.3

3.4

3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4 4.1 4.2 4.3

3.2.2.4 Climbing Resistance 3.2.2.5 Vehicle Mass Performance 3.3.1 Traction Diagram 3.3.2 Maximum Speed 3.3.3 Acceleration Time and Elasticity Fuel Consumption, Fuel Economy 3.4.1 Definitions 3.4.2 Analysis of Fuel Consumption 3.4.3 Gear-Ratio Matching 3.4.4 Driving Schedules 3.4.4.1 EPA Urban and Highway Cycle 3.4.4.2 Present European Driving Cycle 3.4.4.3 New European Driving Cycle, and Others Strategy for Lowest Fuel Consumption Fuel Consumption of Light Trucks Outlook Notation Aerodynamic Drag of Passenger Cars Wolf-Heinrich Hucho The Passenger Car as a Bluff Body Flow Field Around a Car Analysis of Drag 4.3.1 Possible Approaches 4.3.2 Physical Mechanisms 4.3.3 Local Origins 4.3.4 Effect on the Environment 4.3.5 Drag and Lift Drag Fractions and Their Local Origins 4.4.1 Method of Observation 4.4.2 Front End 4.4.3 Windshield and A-Pillar 4.4.4 Roof 4.4.5 Rear End 4.4.5.1 Geometry and Flow Separation 4.4.5.2 Boat-Tailing 4.4.5.3 Fastback 4.4.5.4 Notchback 4.4.6 Plan View and Side Panels 4.4.7 Underbody 4.4.8 Wheels and Wheel Housings 4.4.9 Front Spoiler 4.4.10 Rear Spoiler 4.4.11 Attachments 4.4.12 Drag from Flow Through a Car

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8 5 5.1 5.2 5.3

4.4.13 Car with Trailer 4.4.14 Convoy Driving Strategies for Body Shape Development 4.5.1 Objectives 4.5.2 Detail Optimization 4.5.3 Shape Optimization 4.5.4 Facelift 4.5.5 Adaptation of Attachments 4.5.6 Forecasting Systems and Expert Systems Drag of Passenger Cars in Production 4.6.1 Evaluation of Test Results 4.6.2 Vehicle Features 4.6.3 Vehicle Position, Side Wind 4.6.4 Drag Coefficients of Production Cars Research 4.7.1 Objectives 4.7.2 Basic Bodies 4.7.3 Unconventional Measures 4.7.4 Concept Vehicles 4.7.5 Record Vehicles Notation Directional Stability Alfons Gilhaus and Ralf Hoffmann Introduction History of Directional Stability Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 5.3.1 Development 5.3.2 Aerodynamic Stability 5.3.3 Non-Stationary Forces and Moments Aerodynamics and Driving Behavior 5.4.1 Lift Force in Straight-Ahead Driving 5.4.2 Cornering 5.4.3 Power On/Off Reaction 5.4.4 Influence of the Aerodynamic Forces on Braking Performance 5.4.5 Driving Behavior in Crosswinds 5.4.5.1 Natural Wind and Crosswind 5.4.5.2 Side Wind Reactions 5.4.6 Pass-By Maneuvers 5.4.7 Driving with Trailer Influence of Vehicle Shape on Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 5.5.1 Aerodynamic Properties of the Basic Shapes 5.5.1.1 Lift and Pitching Moment 5.5.1.2 Side Force and Yawing Moment

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4.4

5.5

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5.7 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

Rolling Moment Comparison of the Key Basic Shapes 5.5.2 Aerodynamic Effects of the Features of Actual Vehicles 5.5.2.1 Cooling Airflow 5.5.2.2 Gaps and Openings 5.5.2.3 Exterior Rearview Mirrors 5.5.2.4 Wheels, Tires, and Underbody 5.5.3 Roof Loads Test and Evaluation Methods 5.6.1 Wind Tunnel Tests 5.6.2 Road Tests 5.6.3 Computation of Vehicle Dynamics 5.6.4 Driving Simulator Notation Function, Safety and Comfort Raimund Piatek and Johannes Schmitt Differentiated View The Flow Field Around a Vehicle Inlets and Outlets 6.3.1 Cooling Ducts 6.3.2 Air Inlets and Outlets to the Cabin Forces on Bodywork Components 6.4.1 Components with Attached Flow 6.4.2 Components with Separated Flow 6.4.3 Components with Periodic Flow Function of Individual Components 6.5.1 External Mirrors 6.5.2 Windshield Wipers 6.5.3 Sunroofs 6.5.4 Convertibles Water and Dirt Accumulation on Vehicles 6.6.1 Safety and Aesthetics 6.6.2 Water Flow 6.6.3 Dirt Deposits Reducing Splash and Spray 6.7.1 Obstruction to Visibility 6.7.2 Measuring Impaired Visibility 6.7.3 Measures to Reduce Spray Formation Notation

5.5.1.3 5.5.1.4

7 7.1 7.2

7.3

7.4

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6.6

6.7

6.8

Wind Noise John R. Callister and Albert R. George Introduction Mechanisms of Noise Generation and Transmission 7.2.1 Source-Path-Receiver 7.2.2 Idealized Models of Acoustic Sources 7.2.3 Physical Wind Noise Source Types 7.2.3.1 Leak Noise 7.2.3.2 Cavity Noise 7.2.3.3 Wind Rush Noise 7.2.4 Airflow Velocity Effect on Wind Noise Levels Design Features 7.3.1 A-Pillar 7.3.2 Outside Rearview Mirrors 7.3.3 Windshield Wipers 7.3.4 Radio Antenna 7.3.5 Roof Racks 7.3.6 Doors 7.3.7 Side Window Systems 7.3.8 Fixed Windows 7.3.9 Hatch Roofs Wind Noise Measurement and Testing Techniques 7.4.1 Wind Tunnel versus On-Road Measurements 7.4.2 Wind Tunnel Considerations 7.4.2.1 Wind Tunnel Background Noise 7.4.2.2 Simulation of Crosswinds and Gusts in the Wind Tunnel 7.4.3 On-Road Measurement Procedures 7.4.4 Importance of Narrow Band Spectra for Wind Noise Measurements 7.4.5 Overview of Measurement of Interior Wind Noise 7.4.5.1 Use of Artificial Head Device for Subjective Evaluation 7.4.5.2 Source Identification and Localization 7.4.6 Overview of Exterior Wind Noise Measurements 7.4.6.1 Microphone Nose Cones 7.4.6.2 Sound Intensity and Microphone Array Methods

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7.6

7.7 8 8.1 8.2 8.3

Buffeting of Open Windows, Open Sunroofs, and Convertibles 7.5.1 Side Windows 7.5.2 Sunroofs 7.5.3 Convertibles Manufacturing Concerns 7.6.1 Process 7.6.2 Inspection 7.6.2.1 Leak Detection Using a Smoke Generator 7.6.2.2 Ultrasonic Leak Detector 7.6.2.3 Simple, Quick Inspection Techniques 7.6.3 Feedback to the Design Organization Notation High-Performance Vehicles Helmut Flegl and Norbert Singer Definitions Some Historical Milestones The Meaning of Aerodynamics for HighPerformance Cars 8.3.1 Drag and Lift 8.3.2 Handling 8.3.2.1 Driving Tests 8.3.2.2 Angle of Attack and Yawed Airflow 8.3.2.3 Slipstreaming 8.3.2.4 Theoretical Investigations 8.3.3 Cooling and Ventilation Design Alternatives 8.4.1 Drag and Lift 8.4.1.1 Influence of the Basic Vehicle Configuration 8.4.1.2 Wings 8.4.1.3 Ground Effect 8.4.1.4 Special Body Configurations, Monoposti 8.4.2 Handling 8.4.3 Cooling and Ventilation Special Problems 8.5.1 Lap Time and Fuel Economy 8.5.2 Near-Sonic Speeds 8.5.3 Uncovered Wheels 8.5.4 Rotating versus Stationary Wheels of Monoposti 8.5.4.1 Road Version 8.5.4.2 High-Speed Version

8.5.5

8.6 8.7 9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4

Effect of Boundary Layer Variation on Wind Tunnel Results 8.5.6 Development Methods and Simulation Techniques Trends in Future High-Performance Vehicle Development Notation Commercial Vehicles Hans Gtz and Gnter Mayr Target Group Tractive Resistance and Fuel Consumption Drag Reduction and Fuel Consumption Aerodynamic Drag Coefficients of Various Commercial Vehicles 9.4.1 Operation in Still Air 9.4.2 Drag as a Function of Yawing Angle 9.4.3 Wind InfluenceDefinition of Yawing Angle 9.4.4 Characterization of Air Resistance in Actual Operating Conditions Reducing Aerodynamic Drag 9.5.1 Scope for Aerodynamic Changes on Commercial Vehicles 9.5.2 Optimization in the Wind Tunnel Problems with Reduced-Scale Models 9.5.3 Drag Minimization on Trucks 9.5.3.1 Characteristic Flow and Pressure Conditions 9.5.3.2 Partial Resistance Interference Problem 9.5.3.3 Cab Shape 9.5.3.4 Drag-Reducing Add-On Devices for Trucks 9.5.3.5 Full Trailer 9.5.3.6 Future Trends in TractorTrailer Design 9.5.3.7 Reduction of Aerodynamic Drag on Truckaway Units

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9.6

9.7

9.8 10 10.1 10.2

Minimizing Drag of Buses and Delivery Vans 9.5.4.1 Boundary Conditions 9.5.4.2 Characteristic Flow Conditions on Simple Geometric Bodies 9.5.4.3 Optimization of the Front End 9.5.4.4 Optimization of the Rear End 9.5.4.5 Add-On Devices on the Rear End 9.5.4.6 Future Bus Design Trends Taking Advantage of Aerodynamic Interference Effects 9.6.1 Driving in Convoy 9.6.2 Driving Through Tunnels Vehicle Soiling 9.7.1 Foreign Soiling 9.7.2 Self-Soiling 9.7.2.1 Reduction of Soiling of Bus Sides 9.7.2.2 Reduction of Bus RearEnd Soiling 9.7.3 Reduction of Truck Soiling 9.7.4 Impingement of Spray on Following Vehicles 9.7.4.1 New Approach to Solution of Spray Mist Reduction 9.7.4.2 The Measuring System Notation Motorcycles Bernward E. Bayer One Year Before the Automobile Summary of the Development of Motorcycle Aerodynamics 10.2.1 History 10.2.2 Todays State-of-the-Art Technology Riding Dynamics and its Relationship with Aerodynamics 10.3.1 Performance Specifications 10.3.2 Directional Stability 10.3.3 Crosswind Behavior 10.3.4 Pitch Effects 10.3.5 Cornering Methods of Measurement in Road Tests

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10.6 10.7 11 11.1

Wind Tunnel Results 10.5.1 Measurements on Solo Motorcycles 10.5.2 Rider Influences 10.5.2.1 Rider and Pillion Passenger 10.5.2.2 Clothing and Helmets 10.5.3 Sidecars Outlook Notation Engine Cooling Wulf Sebbee, Peter Steinberg, Norbert Deuen, and Dieter Schlenz Task of a Cooling System 11.1.1 Functional Requirements 11.1.2 Requirements to be Satisfied by Passive Characteristics 11.1.3 Development Potential of Cooling System Cooling Systems 11.2.1 Water Cooling 11.2.2 Air Cooling 11.2.3 Cooling with ComponentTemperature Control 11.2.4 Dual-Circuit Cooling System and Warm-Up Concept 11.2.5 High-Temperature Cooling 11.2.6 Oil Cooling 11.2.7 Phase-Change Cooling Methods of Computation 11.3.1 Principles of Heat Exchange 11.3.1.1 Heat Transfer and Radiation 11.3.1.1.1 Heat Transfer from Combustion Gas to Components Adjacent to Combustion Chamber 11.3.1.1.2 Heat Transfer from Cylinder to Coolant 11.3.1.1.3 Heat Transfer at the Engine-Block Wall 11.3.1.2 Heat Conduction in Components 11.3.1.3 Computing Model and Results of Simulation

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11.5 12 12.1 12.2

Modular Methods for CoolingSystem Dimensioning 11.3.2.1 Procedural Concept 11.3.2.2 Coolant Circuit 11.3.2.3 Fan and Fan Clutch 11.3.2.4 Cooling Air System 11.3.2.5 Heat Balance at Engine and Surface of Engine 11.3.2.6 Heat Balance at Radiator 11.3.2.7 Heat Flux Measurement on an Engine Flow Within the Engine Compartment 11.4.1 Cooling-Air System 11.4.1.1 Effect of Internal Airflow on Vehicle Aerodynamics 11.4.1.2 Aerodynamics of Internal Flow 11.4.1.3 Air Velocity Distribution in the Radiator Plane 11.4.2 Radiator 11.4.3 Radiator Fan 11.4.3.1 Tasks of the Radiator Fan 11.4.3.2 Fan and Drive 11.4.3.3 Design Criteria and Characteristics 11.4.3.3.1 Volumetric Flow 11.4.3.3.2 Power Requirement and Efficiency 11.4.3.3.3 Noise Generation 11.4.3.3.4 Mass and Space Requirement Notation Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning of Passenger Cars Holger Gromann Definition of Objectives: Comfort and Safety Climate Physiology 12.2.1 Parameters Affecting the Occupants 12.2.2 Interior Temperature 12.2.3 Temperature Stratification 12.2.4 Air Speed 12.2.5 Inhomogeneous Airflow 12.2.6 Humidity 12.2.7 Solar Radiation 12.2.8 Comfort Model Devised by P.O. Fanger

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12.3 12.4

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12.2.9 Climate Measuring Dummies 12.2.10 Heart Rates Parameters Affecting the Climate Inside a Car Airflow Through the Passenger Compartment 12.4.1 Intake and Outlet Vents 12.4.2 Airflow Definition 12.4.3 Airflow Measuring Methods 12.4.4 Characteristic Curves 12.4.4.1 Fan Characteristics 12.4.4.2 Leakage Characteristics Lw 12.4.4.3 Outlet Characteristics Aw 12.4.4.4 Ventilation Characteristics Bw 12.4.4.5 Ventilation Airflow 12.4.4.6 Ventilation Airflow with Slide-Tilt Sunroof Open 12.4.5 Incoming Leakage Airflow 12.4.5.1 Significance of Incoming Leakage Airflow 12.4.5.2 Determination of Incoming Leakage Airflow 12.4.5.3 Examples Heat Flow Through the Passenger Compartment 12.5.1 Heat Transfer Through the Body 12.5.2 Interface Heater Core/Passenger Compartment 12.5.2.1 Characteristics of the Heater Core 12.5.2.2 Steady Interior Temperature in Fresh-Air Mode 12.5.2.3 Unsteady Interior Temperature in Fresh-Air Mode 12.5.2.4 Mean Interior Temperature in Recirculating Mode 12.5.2.5 Engine with Low Fuel Consumption 12.5.3 Interface Evaporator/Passenger Compartment 12.5.3.1 Characteristics of Evaporator 12.5.3.2 Mean Interior Temperature in Fresh-Air Mode 12.5.3.3 Mean Interior Temperature in Recirculating Mode 12.5.3.4 Interface Evaporator/ Refrigeration Cycle 12.5.3.5 Unsteady Cooling in Recirculating Mode

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12.9 13 13.1

Solar Radiation 12.5.4.1 Solar Radiation Through the Windows 12.5.4.2 Heating Up a Parked Car 12.5.4.3 Solar-Cell Operated Independent Ventilation 12.5.4.4 Heating Up While Vehicle in Motion Flow of Water Vapor and Dust 12.6.1 Water Vapor 12.6.2 Gas Concentration in the Passenger Compartment 12.6.3 Defrosting and Defogging of Windows 12.6.4 Filtering Control Systems 12.7.1 Temperature Control of a Heating System 12.7.2 Automatic Control of Evaporators 12.7.3 Automatic Control of Air Distribution and Temperature Heater and A/C Units in Production 12.8.1 Air-Side Controlled Heater 12.8.2 Water-Side Controlled Heater 12.8.3 Integrated AC Systems Notation Wind Tunnels Wolf Heinrich Hucho Scope 13.1.1 Requirements for a Vehicle Wind Tunnel 13.1.2 Simulation of the Various Aspects of On-Road Driving Some Fundamentals of Wind Tunnel Technique 13.2.1 Selection of References 13.2.2 Configuration Considerations 13.2.3 Properties of the Essential Components 13.2.3.1 Planning a Test 13.2.3.2 Test Section 13.2.3.3 Nozzle 13.2.3.4 Determination of Wind Speed 13.2.3.5 Plenum 13.2.3.6 Heat Exchanger and Sun Load 13.2.4 Equipment Limitations of Simulation

13.3.1 13.3.2 13.3.3

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13.6 13.7 13.8 14 14.1 14.2

Systematic Errors Representation of the Road Wind Tunnel Corrections 13.3.3.1 Objectives 13.3.3.2 Closed Test Section 13.3.3.3 Open Test Section 13.3.3.4 Boundary Layer Effects 13.3.3.5 Yawed Model 13.3.3.6 Thermal Tests Tests with Reduced-Scale Models 13.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 13.4.2 Details of Model Construction and Test Technique 13.4.3 Reynolds Number Effects Existing Automobile Wind Tunnels 13.5.1 Classification of Test Facilities 13.5.2 Full-Scale Wind Tunnels 13.5.3 Wind Tunnels for Reduced-Scale Models 13.5.4 Climatic Tunnels 13.5.5 Dynamometers with Fan Comparative Measurements Final Comments and Future Prospects Notation Measurement and Test Techniques Grgn A. Necati and Wigbert R. Kohl Scope Measuring Equipment and Transducers 14.2.1 Measurement of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 14.2.1.1 Wind Tunnel Balances 14.2.1.2 Resolution of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments into Their Components 14.2.1.3 Measurement of the Projected Frontal Area 14.2.2 Pressure Measurements 14.2.2.1 Pressure Probes 14.2.2.2 Pressure Transducers 14.2.3 Measurement of the Airflow Velocity 14.2.3.1 Determination of the Airflow Velocity Outside and Inside a Vehicle 14.2.3.2 Determination of the Test Speed in a Wind Tunnel 14.2.3.3 Measurement of Flow Direction

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14.5 15 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4

Temperature Measurement 14.2.4.1 Temperature Sensors 14.2.4.2 Typical Temperature Measurement Errors 14.2.5 Test Data Collection and Data Management Wind Tunnel Testing Methods 14.3.1 Measurement of the Aerodynamic Coefficients 14.3.2 Airflow Management Tests 14.3.3 Measurement of the Airflow Rate Through the Passenger Compartment 14.3.3.1 Airflow Rate Measurement by Means of Extraction Curves 14.3.3.2 Alternative Methods of Measuring Airflow Rate Through the Passenger Compartment 14.3.4 Passenger-Compartment Heating and Air Conditioning Tests 14.3.5 Defrosting and Demisting Tests 14.3.6 Engine Cooling Tests in a Wind Tunnel 14.3.7 Flow Visualization Techniques 14.3.8 Wind-Noise Measurement in a Wind Tunnel 14.3.9 Water Basin versus Wind Tunnel Road Testing Methods 14.4.1 Measurement of the Aerodynamic Drag Force in a Coast-Down Test 14.4.2 Crosswind Tests 14.4.3 Engine Cooling Road Tests 14.4.4 Soil Deposits on Glass Surfaces and Vehicle Body Areas 14.4.5 Wind Noise Measurement on the Road Notation Computational Fluid Dynamics Syed R. Ahmed Introduction Some Salient Features of Road Vehicle Flow Demands on a CFD Simulation CFD Methods for Vehicle Aerodynamics 15.4.1 General Remarks 15.4.2 Approximations of the Navier-Stokes Equations 15.4.3 Basic Steps of a CFD Computation 15.4.4 Three-Dimensional Grid Generation

Linear CFD Methods 15.5.1 The Panel Method 15.5.2 Some Applications of the Panel Method 15.6 Nonlinear CFD Methods 15.6.1 Solution Schemes for Nonlinear Methods 15.6.2 Euler Methods 15.6.3 Methods Based on Time-Averaged NS Equations 15.6.3.1 Turbulence Modeling 15.6.3.1.1 Eddy Viscosity Concept Turbulence Models 15.6.3.1.1.1 Algebraic Models 15.6.3.1.1.2 Transport Equation Models 15.6.3.1.2 Non-Eddy Viscosity Concept Turbulence Models 15.6.3.2 Some Applications of RANS Methods 15.6.4 Methods Based on Unsteady NS Equations 15.6.4.1 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) 15.6.4.2 Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) 15.6.4.3 Some Applications of DNS Methods 15.7 Zonal Methods 15.8 Future Computer Requirements and Trends of Supercomputer Development 15.9 Evaluation and Perspective of CFD Methods 15.10 Notation References Author Index Subject Index Abbreviations About the Authors

15.5