Types of Communication

Posted on March 8, 2009 by admin

Communication
Communication is a process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions through speech, signals, writing, or behavior. In communication process, a sender(encoder) encodes a message and then using a medium/channel sends it to the receiver (decoder) who decodes the message and after processing information, sends back appropriate feedback/reply using a medium/channel.

Types of Communication
People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its context in which it is being sent. Choice of communication channel and your style of communicating also affects communication. So, there are variety of types of communication. Types of communication based on the communication channels used are: 1. Verbal Communication 2. Nonverbal Communication

1. Verbal Communication
Verbal communication refers to the the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of writing. Objective of every communication is to have people understand what we are trying to convey. In verbal communication remember the acronym KISS(keep it short and simple). When we talk to others, we assume that others understand what we are saying because we know what we are saying. But this is not the case. usually people bring their own attitude, perception, emotions and thoughts about the topic and hence creates barrier in delivering the right meaning. So in order to deliver the right message, you must put yourself on the other side of the table and think from your receivers point of view. Would he understand the message? how it would sound on the other side of the table? Verbal Communication is further divided into:
o o

Oral Communication Written Communication

Oral Communication
In oral communication, Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet. In oral communication, communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking. Advantages of Oral communication are: It brings quick feedback. In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial expression and body language one can guess whether he/she should trust whats being said or not. Disadvantage of oral communication In face-to-face discussion, user is unable to deeply think about what he is delivering, so this can be counted as a

Written Communication
In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written message may be printed or hand written. In written communication message can be transmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc. Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary & grammar used, writing style, precision and clarity of the language used. Written Communication is most common form of communication being used in business. So, it is considered core among business skills. Memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail are the types of written communication used for internal communication. For communicating with external environment in writing, electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and news releases are used. Advantages of written communication includes: Messages can be edited and revised many time before it is actually sent. Written communication provide record for every message sent and can be saved for later study. A written message enables receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate feedback. Disadvantages of written communication includes: Unlike oral communication, Written communication doesnt bring instant feedback. It take more time in composing a written message as compared to word-of-mouth. and number of people struggles for writing ability.

2. Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say that communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of speaker. Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received. Often, nonverbal signals reflects the situation more accurately than verbal messages. Sometimes nonverbal response contradicts verbal communication and hence affect the effectiveness of message. Nonverbal communication have the following three elements: Appearance Speaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings Body Language facial expressions, gestures, postures Sounds Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears their own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are: 1. Formal Communication 2. Informal Communication

1. Formal Communication
In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while communicating message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style. Usually professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal pattern. In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal communication.

2. Informal Communication

Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal communication channels. Its just a casual talk. It is established for societal affiliations of members in an organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and family. In informal communication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted. Usually. informal communication is done orally and using gestures. Informal communication, Unlike formal communication, doesnt follow authority lines. In an organization, it helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more when talking informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.

The World Beyond Words

Nonverbal Communication:Codes of communication consisting of symbols that are not words, including non word vocalizations. Comparing Verbal & Nonverbal Communication
Similarities Both are symbolic Both are rule-guided Can be intentional or unintentional Are cultural-bound

Differences NV communication is "more believable" Nonverbal can be multi-channeled Nonverbal is continuous

4 Principles of Nonverbal Communication

supplements or replaces verbal communication regulates interaction establishes relationship-level meanings (responsiveness, liking, power) reflects & expresses cultural value

Types of Nonverbal Communication

Kinesics - body position & motion

Haptics - touch Physical appearance Artifacts - personal objects

Environmental factors Proxemics - use of space Chronemics - time Paralanguage - how we speak Silence

Give me an example of...

Emblems Illustrators Affect Displays Regulators Adaptors

Facial Commnication
Management Techniques Intensifying Deintensifying Neutralizing Masking

Eye Communication
Functions o Monitor Feedback o Maintain Interest and Attention o Regulate the Conversation o Signal the Nature of the Relationship o Compensate for Physical Distance

Touch
Many meanings Touch more in intermediate stages than in initial or established relationships Facilitates self-disclosure Playfulness Power and Control Ritualistic (shake hands, etc.) Task-related o interesting -- more touch, more tips

Touch Avoidance
Avoidance & Communication Apprehension Low self-disclosers tend to avoid touch

Gender Issues With Touch

Men avoid touching other men; Women are less likely to avoid same-sex touch Women have higher avoidance of opposite-sex touch. As we age we avoid opposite sex touch Women initiate opposite sex touch more often than men. Especially in married relationships. Opposite sex friends touch more than same-sex friends.

Cultural Issues
Muslim children are not to touch the opposite sex. Koreans avoid touch in public (store owner) Japanese students touch 1/2 less than American students.

Smell Communication
Attraction Messages Taste Messages Memory Messages Identification Messages

Use of Space
Spatial Messages Personal Space Space that surrounds a person in which they are made comfortable or uncomfortable. It is a personal bubble of space that moves with you. o Halls Distances Intimate distance: 0-18 inches Personal Distance: 18-48 inches Social Distance: 4-12 feet Public Distance: beyond 12 feet

Territoriality o o our need to establish and maintain certain spaces as our own. (non-verbal indicators that signal ownership) In a dorm room- items on the common desk mark territory.

Personal Space Theories

Protection Theory o you establish a protective body buffer zone Equilibrium Theory o intimacy and distance vary together Expectancy Violations Theory o explains what happens when you < or > distance.

Territoriality and Types

Primary o areas you call your own (your room, desk, office) Secondary o do not belong to you, but you occupy and are associated with (a regular parking spot at work, a table you sit at) Public o open to all people (movie theater seat)

Territoriality and Ownership

Signals Ownership Home Field Advantage (get raise, win argument in your space!) Markers o Central Markers -- items placed somewhere your drink at the table o Boundary Markers -- show the division like bar placed in check-out lane o Ear markers -- "branding" like a name tag, initials on shirt or briefcase

Territoriality and Status

Who has the right to invade territory? Who has more? Who has what?

Male and Female Tendencies

Women exhibit less discomfort with small space and tend to interact at closer range. Men have higher territorial needs, especially where its short in supply. Women and children seem to desire more relational closeness than do men

Space and Children

As children grow older their perceptions of crowding will increase. Personal space requirements grow with age, and that once that personal space is invaded we consider the perception of crowding.

Overcrowding Personal Space

As our personal space gets smaller, our perception of feeling comfortable becomes minimized. Tension builds up and conflict arises Sometimes personal items become a factor and an uneasiness of security of personal items sets in.

Personal Space
Europeans: Dont need as much personal space. French: Emphasis on outside and public space Arabians: Like to have high ceilings, out of normal line of vision, and an unobstructed view. Asians: Place higher focus on functional space.

Differences in Gender
Theory:

generally, females use more nonverbal gestures than males in order to express themselves and give feedback

Artifactual Communication
Space Decoration o What you have and where Study of beautiful, average and ugly rooms Color Communication Clothing and Body Adornment o Formaly dressed professor = prepared, knowledgeable and organized o Informally dressed = friendly, fair, enthusiastic and flexible

Temporal Communication
Cultural Time Technical Time = precise, scientific time Formal Time = manner in which a culture defines time. Informal time = forever, right away, soon, etc.

Time...
Displaced time o views time exactly. Diffused time orientation o approximate rather than exact. Time is Cultural, for example: o Japan -- clocks were exact and fastest walkers o England, Italy, Taiwan and US in between o Indonesian -- slowest walkers and least exact.

Monochronic and Polychronic

Monochronic o Does one thing at a time. o Time is very serious! o Job tends to be more important than family even. o Privacy is extremely important. Seldom borrows or lends Works independentl Polychronic o Does several things at a time. o Time is important but not sacred. o Family and interpersonal relationships are more important than work. o Actively involved with others.

Cultures...
Monochronic o United States, Germany, Scandinavia and Switzerland. Polychronic o Latin Americans, Mediterranean people, Arabians.

Psychological Time

Importance placed on the past, present or future.

Past Orientation -- reverence to the pastgood ole days Present Orientation -- Live in the present for the present. o less $$ -- tend to be happy with what they have. Future Orientation -- Focus on future o more $$ -- tend to look down on other orientations as lazy, unmotivated.

Time and Status...

More Status you have, the more freedom you have! o Dinner Less status eat sooner More status wait...

2 Guidelines for Improvement of Your Nonverbal Communication Skills!

1. monitor your nonverbal communication 2. be tentative interpreting others nonverbal communication More Tips on Improving Nonverbal Communication: Self-awareness o being aware of the ways in which you communicate, and realizing different people have different ways of using nonverbal comm. monitor behavior, take note of your posture, movements, and objects ask friends for feedback videotape yourself in a conversation or speech Expand your repertoire of nonverbal activities o by expanding your own vocabulary for sending messages, you will expand your ability to decode the messages of others Remember that good communication focuses on the receiver of the message You can send appropriate signals to amplify or intensify your verbal messages

Nonverbal Communication or How Do Our Bodies Talk?

"Most people do not know what they are doing with their bodies when they are talking and no one tells them." (EKMAN &FRIESEN, 1968) Daniela Sime, CELT, University of Stirling E-mail : ds1@stir.ac.uk

A. WHAT IS NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION? B. VERBAL NONVERBAL INTERRELATIONSHIPS C. NONVERBAL SUBCODES (DESCRIPTION, CULTURAL DIFFERENCES, IN UNIVERSITY) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. FACE EXPRESSIONS EYE CONTACT AND GAZE GESTURES; CLASSIFICATIONS POSTURE TOUCH SOCIAL USE OF SPACE VOCALISATIONS

D. NVC IN SOCIAL CONTEXTS

A. WHAT IS NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION (NVC) ? Traditional studies of communication have focused almost exclusively on the verbal forms of the discourse. From the first encounter to their separation, two people examine each other with all their senses and exchange verbal and non-verbal messages. Non-verbal communication (NVC) clearly plays an important role in human interaction. The main reasons for studying the role of NVC in human interaction may be summarised as follows:

Intentionally or unintentionally, consciously or unconsciously, people send and receive non-verbal messages. We make important decisions and judgements about people and situations based on these messages. Peoples emotional state is best communicated through their non-verbal messages. We make judgements about the verbal messages in light of accompanying non-verbal cues. We use the non-verbal elements to present ourselves to people and to alter their thinking and behaviour. NVC has a major role in facilitating cross-cultural interaction.

Authors in the field suggest that more than 60% of the emotional meaning is non-verbal (MEHRABIAN: 38% voice, 55% facial expression, 7% verbal statement; BIRDWHISTELL says 60%) Given these figures, why do we study so little about the NV code? A possible explanation might be the generally unconscious and normative character of the NV code. People simply overlook the non-verbal, as it is more "naturalistic" than its verbal counterpart. The unconscious and normative nature of the non-verbal code might be thus the main stops in researching it. How to access peoples minds and how to identify the steps of the learning process in acquiring the norms? These are the main challenges for the research in the field of non-verbal. Consider the following DEFINITIONS as a reference for your personal analysis and interpretation. "Non-verbal communication involves all those stimuli within a communication setting, both humanely generated and environmentally generated, with the exception of verbal stimuli, that have potential message value for the sender or receiver" (SAMOVAR et al; 1993; NB my underlying) "Non-verbal communication [is] those attributes or actions of humans, other than the use of words themselves, which have socially shared meaning, are intentionally sent or interpreted as intentional, are consciously sent or consciously received, and have the potential for feedback from the receiver" (BURGOON,J.K.; SAINE,T.J, 1978; NB my underlying)

B. VERBAL NONVERBAL INTERRELATIONSHIPS

Repeating

e.g. teacher says "go to that desk" and points in the proper direction

Contradicting e.g. student says "I am not nervous", meantime his hands and knees are trembling, he avoids eye contact and his voice is in a low tone

Substituting e.g. teachers face expression suggesting a miserable mood

Complementing e.g. students attitude of embarrassment may be inferred in his stiffed posture, low eye contact, submissive attitude while saying "Im afraid I was not prepared" (attitude and intentions expressed like this)

Accenting e.g. teachers head nodding to stress some of his words

Regulating

e.g. increase eye contact when we want a student to answer B. NONVERBAL SUBCODES (DESCRIPTION, CULTURAL DIFFERENCES, IN UNIVERSITY)

The widely recognised sub-codes are though summarised as follows by MICHAEL ARGYLE (1996) :

facial expression eye contact and gaze (pupil dilatation) gestures posture

bodily contact (touch) spatial behaviour clothes and other aspects of appearance non-verbal vocalisations smell

1. FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
The face is the most important non-verbal channel, as it is the primary site for expressing human emotions and attitudes to the others. We look at the peoples faces and we subconsciously make judgements about their age, sex, social status, intelligence, personality, mood etc. Remarks like "He seems quite young/nice/intellectual/boring/bored" are often made without any verbal exchange between the subjects. The literature identifies six emotional expressions (EKMAN 1982): happiness, surprise, disgust, contempt/anger, fear and sadness. Those facial masks seem to be universal, as expressing feelings or states, which can not be stopped in normal circumstances from revealing themselves on the face. The cultural and educational environment influence the way in which individuals display their emotions in various circumstances and even "teach" children the appropriate social masks. Some cultures encourage the display of emotions in public (e.g. Mediterranean cultures), while others develop certain social rules of not showing emotions in public or adopting an adequate social mask (e.g. most Asian cultures).

Cultural Differences Facial Expressions

-cultural groups are taught how facial expressions of emotion should be controlled e.g. Japanese would mask their negative emotions (disgust, fear) with a happy face mask, while Europeans will not; -Europeans have difficulties in judging Japanese emotional expressions e.g. experiment in which subjects were asked to judge emotions

Judges / Performers

English

Italian

Japanese

English

63

58

38

Italian

53

62

28

Japanese

57

58

45

Teacher/Students

In university, watch for teachers/colleagues face expressions to indicate attitudes of:

agreement (happy face, pleased, smiling), disagreement (serious face, frowning, avoids eye contact or surprise-questioning your answer, "are you sure?") , encouragement to speak (smiling, nodding, eye contact) , intention to stop you ("serious" face or smiling, while nodding rapidly and starts to talk).

1. EYE CONTACT AND GAZE The eyes are an important source of information and the eye contact has a certain effect on human behaviour. Every society establishes a number of eye-related norms, which we learn how to encode and decode. Some examples in European cultures:

we associate downward glances with modesty or shame; wide eyes with frankness, wonder, naivet, and terror;

immobile face and stare is associated with coldness; excessive blinking is associated with anxiety, while blinking will decrease during concentrated thought etc.

During conversation, people look at each other, but not all the time. ARGYLE (1994) quotes the following figures as an average: - individual gaze 60% -while listening 75% -while talking 40% -length of glance 3 seconds -eye-contact (mutual glance) 30% -length of eye-contact 11/2 seconds Individual variations depend on the individuals status, distance (increased distance generates increased gaze), attitudes towards each other, type of personality, topic of conversation, culture etc. Gaze levels are in generally higher in those who are extroverted, dominant or assertive, socially skilled. Gaze seems to be less in anxiety, submissive attitude towards the interlocutor, in groups, when discussing a difficult topic, or when the subjects have a visual support for their conversation (map, graph etc.) There is also a difference in the way in which the two categories are perceived by the others: the persons with a good eye-contact are seen as competent, friendly, self-confident, credible, assertive and socially skilled (KLEINKE, 1986). On the opposite, the persons who look less are seen as cold, pessimistic, cautious, defensive, immature, submissive, indifferent and sensitive.

KNAPP and HALL (1992) identify the following functions of gazing:

1. Regulating the flow of communication

visual contact signalise that the subject is willing to communicate, the channel is open; the avoidance of eye-contact is obviously a refusal to interaction (student who does not know the answer); while speaking, we look to the listeners at the end of an idea or sentence for feed-back; while listening, the establishing of eye-contact might suggest an intention of turn-taking;

1. Monitoring feed-back - the speaker looks to the audience to see if they are interested or attentive, while the listener looks to the speaker to signalise their interest; -not looking at the speaker is perceived as a sign of boredom or lack of interest; -both listener and speaker seem to look away when thinking at complicate ideas.

2. Expressing emotions The main emotions involving the eyes are:

o o o o o o

interest-excitement : eyebrows down, eye track and look enjoyment- joy: smiling eyes, circular wrinkles distress-anguish : cry, arched eyebrows fear terror: eyes frozen open shame- humiliation : eyes down anger- rage: eyes narrowed

1. Communicating the nature of the interpersonal relationship -the low status persons look more than the high status ones; -we look more when we are interested in the person or we like him/her. In persuasive interaction, speakers with better eye contact are always seen as more persuasive, truthful, sincere and credible. Discussions on topics which generate embarrassment , humiliation, guilt or shame are always accompanied by an avoidance of gaze.

Cultural Differences Eye Contact -people from contact cultures (Mediterranean cultures-Greek,. Italian etc.; Latin AmericansMexicans; Southern Europeans) look more and focus directly on the other persons eye ; -people from non-contact cultures (Asians, Indians, Northern Europeans) look less or focus mainly on the other persons head and face;

-direct gaze is encouraged in some cultures (Arabs), while its considered rude in other cultures (Indian ,Asian)

Teacher/Students When lecturer/colleague speaks in class, look at him/her! British culture encourages eye contact in the class as a sign of consideration. Watch for teachers/colleagues eye contact when they finish a sentence and want you to continue or ask a question and want you to answer. These signals will normally occur together with others. e.g. teacher wants you to answer a question : eye contact + smile + raised intonation at the end of the sentence + pointing at you + saying your name

GESTURES

There are several classes of gestures:

1. Illustrators - close formal relationship to the semantic content of the speech the gesture exhibits the same act referred to in the speech (coexpressiveness); e.g. "and he hit it" gesture with the fist, showing the action "a round ball" gesture suggests a circle in the air, showing the shape

2. Metaphorics

- they are pictorial like the iconics, but they present an abstract idea; - the concept is presented as a bounded, supportable, spatially localizable physical object; e.g. "the idea of the book is" gesture of hands like holding an imaginary object

3. Beats - simple flicks of hand, mark in a discourse those elements which the speaker wants to emphasise; - unlike iconics and metaphorics, beats tend to have the same form regardless of the content; - they reveal the speakers conception of the narrative discourse., what does s/he think that is an important idea/concept etc. e.g. "whenever she looks", hand rises short way from the chair and drops back down

1. Pointing gestures -pointing with finger/hand/arm/book

MCNEILL (1992) makes some considerations on the relationship between language and gesture. His main argument is that gestures and speech are a single system because they occur and develop together, they are coexpressive and develop together in children.

KENDON (1988) differentiates between : GESTICULATION # LANGUAGE-LIKE GESTURES # PANTOMIMES #EMBLEMS # SIGN LANGUAGES As we move from left to right:

the obligatory presence of speech declines; the presence of language proprieties increases; idiosyncratic spontaneous gestures are replaced by socially regulated signs.

Emblems are those gestures which have a verbal equivalent known by the community which is using the gesture (culture, professionals etc.) Most of them are used to express commands ("be silent", "go this way", "I cant hear you" etc) insults ("he is crazy", "fuck you"), greetings ("hello", "bye!"), own affect or state (angry/surprised/hot/smart/hungry etc). They might differ from culture to culture, even if some of them are universal. There are particular emblems used in the classroom, airports, court, religious rituals etc. Adaptors are behavioural adaptation gestures which we make in response to certain learning situations. Generally, this are unconscious behaviours, but we become more sensitive to them due to the others feedback ("Stop fiddling with your hair!") Conflict, frustration or hostility seem to generate an increased self-touching (hand to the face, arms barrier, fidgeting, scratching face, opening and closing fists etc.) Personal questions generate similar body-focused gestures.

Cultural Differences Gestures

-some

cultures encourage the use of gestures (Italian, Arabs), while others are less expressive (Asian); -there are cultural differences, especially in the use of emblems ("finger ring" means OK in Britain, "zero, nothing" in France, "money" in Japan) -some gestures are universal: shaking fist (anger), twisting hands together (anxiety) , showing the palm of the hand (submission), yawning (boredom)

Teacher/Students

In a lecture/seminar, watch for teachers and students gestures as they carry relevant meanings. Gestures which occur in speech normally complete the information transmitted verbally. In certain situations, gestures help the understanding of the verbal message! Gestures to watch for in university:

any gestures which have more amplitude than the "routine" gestures; gestures during an explanation, they will give words "a picture"; gestures when explaining words/ concepts they will give a picture; gestures of emphasis, flicks of hands, suggest the importan part of the sentence, the main ideas/concepts etc. gestures of pointing to chart/slide/board- orient you to the main ideas; gestures of pointing to you give you turn to speak.

1. POSTURE There are 3 main human postures: -standing; -sitting, squatting and kneeling; -lying. The culture has a relevant role in determining which postures are appropriate for various social situations. Think at the different postures teachers adopt when lecturing, listening to a student talking, discussing a topic with a student, picking up a pen from the floor etc. The analysis of a certain posture requires attention paid to:
o o o o

leaning backwards, forwards, sideways; arms: open ,closed, on hips; head: lowered, raised, tilted sideways; legs: stretched, open, crossed (ARGYLE, 1996)

Cultural Differences Posture

posture is the focus of definite social rules; Japan-the concern with status and power developed three levels of deference in bowing, up to 45 ; the most factor being the dominant-submissive one; in UK- the friendly-hostile factor is dominant in influencing posture.

Teacher/Students

Interest is conveyed through forward lean, drawn back legs, eye contact. Boredom and lack of participation in the activity is signalised by: lowered head; supporting head with hand; leaning back; stretched legs; head turned away suggests reduced arousal and attentiveness; self-directed movements: playing with objects, grooming; staring defiantly might suggest lack of interest or boredom as well.

o o o o o

# TOUCH Touch and use of space are highly influenced by cultural rules. Most touch is an expression of attitudes from the toucher, but the receiver could react in different ways depending on the type of relationship, social context, cultural rules etc. There are five categories of touch according to the degree of intimacy (HESLIN, 1983): 1. functional/professional touch e.g. teacher touches student to make him attentive, doctors, shoe sellers 2. social/polite touch e.g. shaking hands, other greetings 3. friendship touch e.g. light touch on the arm/hand while talking 4. love. intimacy e.g. holding the others hand 5. sexual arousal i.e. further degrees of bodily contact

There appear to be definite rules which permit certain kinds of touch, between certain people, on certain occasions only. Bodily contact outside these narrow limits is unacceptable. Rules for different relationships in most cultures: -touching accepted in close relationships e.g. couples, close family -touch not permitted in less close relationships e.g. work, neighbours etc. -men dislike being touched by men, women dislike being touched by strangers; -men accept touch from female strangers ; -touch allowed in certain parts of the body (hand, arm, back), but not in more intimate areas; -amount of physical contact decreases with age.

Cultural Differences Touch

some cultures encourage the use of touch contact cultures(Greeks, Turks), while others are less tactile non-contact cultures (African cultures) JOURARDs study (1966)- how many times do couples touch each other in cafes: @ Puerto Rico they touched 180 times/ hour @Paris- 110 times @London 0 times Japan- contact on body and legs by friends and parents is far less than in America; in Japan, very little bodily contact in public, this is opposite of other cultures; South America and Arabia contact in public, especially between people of the same sex, is permitted and does not have any sexual connotations (this is the opposite in countries like UK and America).

Teacher/Students

Generally, teachers will not touch students in the class in UK. Occasional touch on the arm or shoulder might suggest friendliness or encouragement to speak. Students from other cultures might display though rules of physical contact normally used in their country of origin. If somebody comes very close to you, touches your arm while talking, keeping insistent eye contact, you may identify his /her cultural background as being a contact-type.

# SOCIAL USE OF SPACE

Spatial behaviour consists of proximity, orientation, territorial behaviour and movement in physical setting. There is a wide range of possibilities in positioning our bodies in relationship to the others.

HALL (1966) suggests that there are four main zones in individuals use of space:

1. Intimate 6-18 in (15-45 cm) intimate relationships

2. Personal space 1 - 4 ft (45-125 cm) generally no access

3. Social distance 4-12 ft (1.25-3.60 m) friends, colleagues 4. Public distance over 12 ft (over 3.6 m) strangers, public

Proximity is decoded in terms of liking or disliking. In general: -people stay closer to others whom they like; -individuals sit closer to each other if they are of similar status/age/ race; -people sit side by side with close friends and rather opposite with strangers; -competitors will face each other, co-operators will sit side by side;

Ways of invading the individuals private space:

Moving physically close- sitting very close, trying to touch etc. Looking insistently or listening Using his/her personal things or living things on her/his territory;

The reaction to invasion depends on the attributions of the reasons for doing it. Generally, people will start to recreate the private space. (eg moving a step forward).

Cultural Differences Use of Space

-people from contact cultures stay closer, stand at more directly facing orientation; -people who sit too far away might be seen as cold and withdrawn, those who stay too close- as intrusive and over-intimate; -when seated, people generally adopt greater distances than standing.

Teacher/Students

-teachers generally sit at the front of the class, but original, unconventional seating might be occasionally encouraged; -students who sit in the first rows are generally seen as enthusiastic and interested; -students who sit in the centre of the rows seem to participate more in the class.

7.VOCALISATIONS Vocalisations generally refer to sounds, of different intensities and frequencies. The main aspects to consider here are the paralinguistic properties of voice: pitch, rate of speech, volume and loudness,tone of voice, accent. These are all very relevant clues for the main emotions and can offer supplementary information about the speakers emotions and verbal meanings.

SCHERER (1986) identifies the following cues for the main emotions: Joy: raised pitch, pitch variability, gentle tones Stress, anxiety: raised pitch, faster speech, silent pauses, breathy voice qulaity Fear: raised pitch, variability of speech rate, voice quality like in crying Anger: raised pitch and intensity, higher speech rate, sudden increase of pitch

Pitch of the voice : can be manipulated to convey emphasis, interest and excitement. e.g. the question "What are you doing?" pronounced differently: -raised pitch on the last word friendly enquiry -falling pitch on the last word aggressive, suspicious, hostile Rate of speech: the speed of a persons speech, normally 150-200 words/minute

A fast rate of speech helps in inducing feelings of happiness, fear, anger and surprise, while a slow rate expresses, in general, sadness and disgust. Volume: the variation of the intensity of the voice level (loud whispering) Tone of voice: Resonant sounds are more attractive to listen to and in combination with a loud voice produce a dominant impression. Accent: used in judging a persons origin and level of education

Cultural Differences Vocalisations

Americans,Arabs, Greeks - speak in louder voices than other cultures, and are seen as assertive or aggressive by others, but as sincere by themselves; Arabs- violet expressions of emotion, speaking loud, cry in public Japan- very restrained, modify vocal style according to status and gender UK- accent is seen as a cue to social class

Teacher/Students

In UK, teachers will normally speak with clear articulation, more intonation and English accent. Watch for the emphasising of the main ideas by raised intonation and slower rate of speech. Silence and pauses are normally emphatic or give you turns to ask questions or to think about what has been said. D. NVC IN SOCIAL CONTEXTS NVC in Conversational Interaction

People use verbal as well as non-verbal cues to suggest that they want to say something or that they want the other person to intervene in the conversation. Speakers and listeners engage in two types of turn-taking behaviours (KNAPP and HALL,1992): SPEAKER: a. Turn-yielding, i.e. speaker gives up his turn and expects the other to talk Signs: less gestures, relaxed body, raised eyebrows, silence, decreased loudness, slower tempo, gaze, drawl on the last syllable, touching the other on arm or shoulder b. Turn-maintaining, i.e. speaker wants to continue talking Signs: vivid gesturing, loud voice, eye contact, touching the interlocutor ("hold on") LISTENER: c. Turn-requesting, i.e. the listener wants to take the floor Signs: raising hand/finger (school-learnt emblem), inspiration of breath, tightening posture, rapid head nods (to make the speaker finish)

d. Turn-denying , i.e. speaker gives turn-yielding cues, but listener does not want the turn to talk Signs: relaxed listening pose, keep silence, avoid eye contact, smiling, nodding, shaking head, completing a sentence started by the speaker, showing approval with "hmms"

NVC in Deceit

Research has long time ago suggested a variety of non-verbal behaviours which are characteristics of the deception. Some of them might be worth mentioning: less gaze duration, blinking, less nodding and body move; longer adaptors duration; fewer illustrators (less enthusiastic), more hand-shrug emblems (uncertainty); more adaptors (face play adaptors); less smiling; blushing; more speech errors, higher pitch, slower speech rate; less immediate position relative to the interlocutor. (KNA PP; HALL, 1992)

o o o o o o

EKMAN AND FRIESEN (1975) investigated the phenomenon of leakage and deception clues, establishing that in more than 50% untrained subjects were able to identify the liars. The areas which give most leakage information were the legs, the hands and the face, in this order. The most frequent leakage clues are as follow:

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aggressive foot-kicks of legs; flirtatious leg displays; restless moving, tense leg positions; frequent shifts of leg posture; hands are easier to inhibit, as they normally are hidden by the liar; hands could also attempt to cover the mouth or the cheeks; smile can be drawn too long; too severe frowning.

In general, people are very accurate liars especially if they have a good motivation. A failure of deception in adults might come from the conscious wish to be caught, guilt, shame or anxiety about punishment. In children, deceptive cues are less controlled , as the feed-back from the adults is not available yet. Not to forget the particular blending of reality and fantasy at around the age of 4-6, an unintentional deceptive process in most of the cases.

NVC of Status

Status is also communicated through non-verbal behaviours. In general , a higher status is conveyed through:

-less eye gaze; -postural relaxation; -greater voice loudness; -dress ornamentation with power symbol; -greater territorial access; -more expansive movements and gestures; -more distance and greater height.

This relaxed posture seems to be adopted towards those of lower status (teacher-student, bossworker) , more to females than to males, to a person of opposite sex than to a person of the same sex.

NVC in Courtship and Love

Gestures are particularly important in communicating, aware or not, attitudes and feelings. Liking is shown by more forward lean, closer proximity, more eye gaze, more openness of arms and body, more touching, postural relaxation, positive facial expression (MEHRABIAN , 1972).

Finding and seducing a partner is a game of signals which are sent by the individuals to their potential partner. The signals of liking another person and indicating attraction include:

looking longer than usual with eyes wide open into the others eyes; looking longer at the others body parts; small, touching movements, sometimes "by mistake"; closer proximity, allowing access to personal space; smiling more than usual, sometimes with mouth open; gestures of agreement, nodding the head; sitting opposite, no body barriers (crossed arms /legs) using more gestures to illustrate the spoken words; lips being moistened more often, even biting lips; fiddling with hair, jewellery (women); erect body posture, hands on hips (men) ; orienting body and feet towards the person of interest.

FURTHER READING:

1. Argyle, M. (second edition,1996) Bodily Communication, London: Routledge] 2. Axtell,R.(1997) Gestures: Dos and Taboos of Body Language Around the World, John Wiley and Sons 3. Knapp, M.L. (second edition, 1978) Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston 4. Morris, D (1977) Mawatching: A Field Guide to Human Behaviour, New York: Henry Abrams

ANNEX 1

WATSON (1970) Contact/Non-contact cultures study -110 male foreign students at University of Colorado
Gaze Touch Proximity Voice Axis

Contact cultures Arabs Latin Americans Southern Europeans 1.25 1.41 1.49 3.53 4.96 4.42 2.57 2.47 2.19 6.59 6.74 6.88 3.96 4.14 5.57

Non-contact cultures Asians Indians-Pakistanis Northern Europeans Gaze 2.06 2.05 2.17 5.20 3.94 5.92 3.25 3.59 3.51 6.97 6.99 7.00 4.79 4.39 4.32

(1) sharp-focusing directly on the other persons eye (2) clear- focussing about the other person's head and face

Proximity (3) Within touching distance with forearm extended (4) Just outside this distance (5) Within touching distance with arm extended (6) Just outside this distance Touch (6) Accidental touching (7) No touch Voice (3) Normal plus (4) Normal (5) Soft COMPARISONS:

people from contact cultures look more than people from non-contact cultures they also stand closer, face more directly, touch and look more and speak louder than people from non-contact cultures

personal space is valued more in non-contact cultures. PLEASE E-MAIL ME WITH QUESTIONS AND COMMENTS AT: ds1@stir.ac.uk