Ecology and Distribution of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.

) in Mustang and Manang Districts, Nepal

By Khilendra Gurung

A Dissertation Submitted for the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of Masters Degree in Botany

Central Department of Botany Tribhuvan University Kathmandu, Nepal December, 2001

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am obliged to Prof. Vimal N. Gupta, Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University for the valuable supervision. I would like to appreciate his help as supervisor of this dissertation work and to my MSc Botany education. I would also like to thank Prof. Sanu Devi Joshi, Head of the Central Department of Botany for the privilege to carry out this thesis and also for laboratory facilities. Valuable comments that were provided by Prof. R. P. Chaudhary from time to time are acknowledged with a deep sense of appreciation. Similarly, I have gained academic benefits from all of the teachers at Central Department of Botany. I owe them a great deal and would like to acknowledge their contributions for my education. I am thankful to the authorities of TISC/NARMSAP namely B. Shultz, K. Hoegh, K. R. Shrestha, L. P. Dhakal, P. R. Tamrakar and all the staff members for their financial support and for facilitating me during my field visit. My sincere thank to Cornell-Nepal Study Program for partial financial support and academic help during my study. I really appreciate NARC for the laboratory facilities provided to carry out this dissertation. My special thanks to my seniors V. P. Nepal, C. K. Subedi, K. Adhikari and D. P. Poudyal for their priceless suggestions and assistance during the field study. My appreciation to Dipesh Pyakurel with whose immense help I carried out this dissertation. I am also indebted to Sanjeev Shrestha, Arjun Adhikari, Kishor Bhattarai and my colleagues who helped me in my work as well as imparted ideas and criticisms. Lastly, I am grateful to my family who encouraged and supported me throughout the making of this dissertation.

Date:

Khilendra Gurung

ABSTRACT

Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) is a multipurpose plant species of fragile high Himalayan habitat. In the present study, ecology and distribution pattern of Seabuckthorn was carried out in Mustang and Manang districts. The local people have been using this species as subsidiary food items, medicines, fuel wood, timber wood, fencing, fodder, fixative and polish and in agro-forestry. There are two species of Seabuckthorn viz Hippophae salicifolia and Hippophae tibetana distributed in barren, least fertile open fields, landslide zones near water source mostly on South facing slopes of high altitudes in Mustang and Manang. Results showed that Hippophae salicifolia occurred between 2000-2800m elevation with 280 36' N to 280 43' N and 830 35' E to 830 38' E in Mustang. While, the corresponding data were 2100-3600m elevation with 280 31' N to 280 37' N and 840 14' E to 840 28' E in Manang, possessing intimate relationship with Pinus wallichiana, Salix sp, Arundinaria falcata and Berberis aristata. Similarly, in Mustang Hippophae tibetana occurred on relatively drier habitats with elevations between 2950-3942m with 280 48' N to 290 15' N and 830 46' E to 830 58' E. While in Manang, it occurred between 33004200m elevation with 280 37' N to 280 44' N and 830 54' E to 840 07' E, mostly associated with Berberis erythroclada, Caragana brevispina, Lonicera spinosa, Rosa sericea and Juniperus indica. In this study soil parameter, as soil texture, pH, soil organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were analyzed. Accordingly, soil texture was classed as sandy loam and loamy sand in which sand ranged from 53% to 88%, silt from 7% to 41% and clay from 1% to 8%. The Ph value ranged from 5.2 to 7.5. The amount of organic matter content varied as 0.10 to 5.03. Nitrogen content ranged from 0.012% to 0.941%, phosphorus from 12.15 kg/ha to 170.77 kg/ha and potassium from 127 kg/ha to 778 kg/ha. In general, soil analysis revealed that nutrients contents in Seabuckthorn available sites were more than that of barren mountain lands.

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ACAP D DANIDA DBH DDC DFO DISCO E GPS HKH HMG/N ICIMOD IUCN IVI MFS N NAA NARC NARMSAP PCARR PFRA PRA RECAST SDR SOM SUG TISC VDC USDA

: Annapurna Conservation Area Project : Density : Dannish International Development Agency : Diameter at Breast Height : District Development Committee : District Forest Office/Officer : District Soil Conservation Office/Officer : East : Global Positioning System : Hindu Kush Himalaya : His Majestys Government of Nepal : International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development : International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources : Importance Value Index : Mountain Farming System : Nitrogen/North : Naphthalene Acetic Acid : Nepal Agriculture Research Council : Natural Resource Management Sector Assistance Program : Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resource Research : Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration : Participatory Rural Appraisal : Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology : Sum Dominance Ratio : Soil Organic Matter : Seabuckthorn User Group : Tree Improvement and Silviculture Component : Village Development Committee : United States Department of Agriculture

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Introduction 1.2 Name and Taxonomic Position 1.3 Geographical Distribution 1.4 Plant Morphology 1.5 Environmental Requirements 1.6 Conservation value 1.7 Objectives 1.8 Limitations of the study

1-4 1 1 2 2 2 4 4 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

5-10

CHAPTER 3: STUDY SITE 3.1 Physiognomy 3.1.1 Mustang District 3.1.2 Manang District 3.2 Study Area 3.3 Climate 3.3.1 Rainfall 3.3.2 Temperature 3.4 Vegetation

11-17 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12

CHAPTER 4: MATERIALS AND METHODS 4.1 Data Collection 4.1.1 Primary Data Collection

18-23 18 18

4.1.2 Secondary Data Collection 4.2 Data Analysis 4.2.1 Density 4.2.2 Frequency 4.2.3 Soil Analysis 4.2.3.1 Sampling Technique 4.2.3.2 Soil Texture 4.2.3.3 Soil Organic Matter (SOM) 4.2.3.4 Soil Ph 4.2.3.5 Nitrogen (N) 4.2.3.6 Available Phosphorus (P2O5) 4.2.3.7 Exchangeable Potassium (K2O)

20 20 20 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 23 23

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS 5.1 Areas of Seabuckthorn Occurrence 5.2 Iso-Potential Areas of Seabuckthorn 5.3 Distribution of Seabuckthorn 5.4 Density of Seabuckthorn 5.5 Species Association 5.6 Frequency of Associated Species 5.6.1 Common Associates from Mustang and Manang 5.7 Ecological Status of Seabuckthorn in Association 5.7.1 Ecology of Hippophae salicifolia D. Don 5.7.2 Ecology of Hippophae tibetana Schlecht. 5.8 Soil Analysis 5.8.1 Soil Texture 5.8.2 Soil pH

24-33 24 24 24 26 28 28 29 30 30 30 30 32 32

5.8.3 Soil Organic Matter (SOM) 5.8.4 Nitrogen (N) 5.8.5 Available Phosphorus (P2O5) 5.8.6 Exchangeable Potassium (K2O) 5.9 Local uses of Seabuckthorn

32 32 32 33 33

CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION 6.1 Areas of Occurrence and Distribution 6.2 Density of Seabuckthorn 6.3 Species Association 6.4 Ecological status 6.5 Soil Analysis 6.6 Local uses of Seabuckthorn

34-40 34 35 36 36 37 39

CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7.1 Conclusion 7.2 Recommendations

41-42 41 42

REFERENCES

43-48

LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Climatological Statistics of Mustang District Table 2: Climatological Statistics of Manang District Table: 3 Soil Analysis of Hippophae salicifolia of Mustang District Table: 4 Soil Analysis of Hippophae tibetana of Mustang District Table: 5 Soil Analysis of Hippophae salicifolia of Manang District Table: 6 Soil Analysis of Hippophae tibetana of Manang District Table: 7 Local Uses of Seabuckthorn in Mustang and Manang Districts 16 17 30 31 31 31 33

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Density of Hippophae salicifolia in Mustang Figure 2: Density of Hippophae tibetana in Mustang Figure 3: Density of Hippophae salicifolia in Manang Figure 4: Density of Hippophae tibetana in Manang Figure 5: Common associates of Hippophae salicifolia in Mustang and Manang Figure 6: Common associates of Hippophae tibetana in Mustang and Manang 26 26 27 27 29 29

LIST OF MAPS MAP A: The Distribution of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) in Europe and Asia MAP B: District Map of Mustang MAP C: District Map of Manang District MAP D: Potential distribution areas of Seabuckthorn in Manang and Mustang 3 14 15 25

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Introduction

Dry temperate Himalayas are characterized by extreme climatic conditions, high rates of soil erosion and landslides, shortages of fuel wood, timber and fodder, poor productivity of agricultural lands and sparse vegetation (Negi et al., 1993). The high mountain areas in Nepal face the same ecological and developmental problems. In spite of that, the area has until now received relatively little attention compared with the hill area and the lowlands (Hilbert, 1997). Natural resources of the area are scarce. But one of the potential sources of income generation and the best solution for reclaiming the bare fragile mountain areas is the use of indigenous and under exploited plant resource of high mountain areas, "Seabuckthorn" (Sehgal, et al., 2000). Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) is a multipurpose plant species. Native to Europe and Asia, it is known and used by humans for centuries. In ancient Greek, Seabuckthorn was known as a remedy for horses. Leaves and young branches were fed with fodder. This resulted in rapid weight gain and shiny coat for the horses. This, in fact, gave the name to the plant in Latin "Hippo"-horse, "phaos" -to shine (Rongsen, 1992).

1.2 Name and Taxonomic Position

Seabuckthorn is the general term given to the shrub-tree Hippophae L. This genus belongs to the family: Elaeagnaceae, Order: Elaeagnales, Superorder: Celastraneae, Subclass: Rosidae, Class: Magnoliopsida and Division: Magnoliophyta (Takhtajan, 1980). Rousi (1971) recognized three species of Hippophae: Hippophae rhamnoides L., Hippophae salicifolia D. Don and Hippophae tibetana Schlecht. Hippophae rhamnoides L. has been further divided into nine subspecies (Rousi, 1971). Liu and He (1978) reported the existence of a new species, Hippophae neurocarpa S.W. Liu et T.N. He. Again, Lian (1988) upgraded Hippophae rhamnoides, sub sp. gyantsensis, to an independent species, viz Hippophae gyantsensis (Rousi) Lian. So, according to Lians classification system there are five species and eight sub species of Hippophae. National Herbarium and Plant Laboratory, Plant Research Division, Nepal at Godawari has specimens of three species of Hippophae, namely Hippophae salicifolia, Hippophae tibetana and Hippophae rhamnoides (Appendix 3). However, only two species of Hippophae viz, Hippophae salicifolia and Hippophae tibetana are identified in the high mountain areas of Nepal (Rongsen, 1992; Rimal, 1995; Shrestha, 1999; Gupta et al., 2001 and Vaidya, 2001). 1

1.3 Geographical Distribution

The genus Hippophae is distributed between 270-690 N latitude and 70-1220 E longitude in the world (Rousi, 1971; Ruiling et al., 1989; Yu et al., 1989). Hippohae rhamnoides has an extremely wide distribution in Eurasia, from China Mongolia, Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Romania, Switzerland, France and Britain to North Finland, Norway and Sweden. It grows on hills and hillsides, in valleys and river beds, along sea coast and islands, in small isolated or large continuous pure or in mixed stands with other shrub or tree species (Yao, 1994; Schroeder and Yao, 1995). The remaining species of Hippophae have a rather limited distribution and occur only in China and some neighboring countries along the Himalayan range (Rousi, 1971; Liu and He, 1978; Lian, 1988; Yu et al. 1989). Hippophae is the native plant of the mountain region of Nepal. This is reported from the mountainous areas of Nepal such as Darchula, Humla, Mugu, Dolpa, Jumla, Jajarkot, Baglung, Mustang, Manang, Rasuwa, Ramechhap and Dolakha districts with altitudes ranging form 2000m to 4500m (Joshi, 1998; Vaidya, 1999; Gupta et al., 2001). The distribution of the Hippophae spp. throughout Europe and Asia is shown in Map A.

1.4 Plant Morphology

The morphological structure of Seabuckthorn shows much variation. It exists as a deciduous dwarf shrub to a medium sized tree according to species accounting microclimatic adaptations. According to Rongsen (1992) and Ghaffar (1997), though Seabuckthorn is a hydrophyte, yet it has developed some xerophytic features. Seabuckthorn is a dioecious plant species. Sex of the plant is not clear till the flowering stage. Flowers are devoid of petals in both male and female plants. Male flowers produce four stamens and female bears solitary ovary with only one ovule that develops into fruit in season (Rongsen, 1992). The plant has a very strong tap and horizontal root system. A symbiotic association has been found on roots of Seabuckthorn resulting root nodule formation (Rongsen, 1992).

1.5 Environmental Requirements

Ideal temperature for germination of seed is 240-260C. However, the plant can withstand temperatures as low as 430C and as high as 400C. Seabuckthorn can grow in areas where annual rainfall is 400-600 mm. Soil requirement of Seabuckthorn is sandy and silt loam with good drainage (Rongsen, 1992 and Ghaffar, 1997).

MAP A: The Distribution of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) in Europe and Asia

1.6 Conservation value

Seabuckthorn is used as a garden plant in many European countries and the Canadian prairies. Observations and surveys show that many birds and animals utilize Seabuckthorn for food and shelter (Ma and Sun, 1986; Anonymous, 1988). In Canadian prairies, Seabuckthorn serves as a valuable habitat for the sharp tail grouse, Hungarian Partridge and Pheasant (Schroeder, 1995). Characters such as wide ecological adaptation, fast growth, strong coppicing and suckering habits coupled with efficient Nitrogen fixation (60-180 kg/ha per year) make Seabuckthorn well suited for soil conservation, soil improvement and marginal land reclamation (Rongsen, 1992; Jodha et al., 1992; Khosla et al., 1994). Studies have shown that Seabuckthorn promotes the growth of Poplar, Pine and other trees in mixed stands (Lei et al., 1983; Shi et al., 1987). Furthermore, it contains nutritious berries containing protein and bioactive substances such as sugar, organic acid, amino acid, carotene, flavones and vitamins (B, C, E and K). The vitamin C content is 5-100 times higher than in most fruits and vegetables known (Rongsen, 1990, 1992, 1993). Though Seabuckthorn is a multipurpose plant species, it is one of the least known and unexplored species in Nepal. Thus, this work attempts to study the ecology, distribution and to some extent the local uses of Seabuckthorn in Manang and Mustang districts of Nepal.

1.7 Objectives
To study the distribution pattern of Seabuckthorn in Mustang and Manang districts based on the quadratic measurement. To identify the associated species of Seabuckthorn. To study soils from Seabuckthorn growing areas. To study the local uses of Seabuckthorn in the study area.

1.8 Limitations of the study

The present work was carried out for the partial fulfillment of the Masters Degree in Botany. The time constraint for the field study was one and half month in one season only. Therefore the phenological aspects and seasonal variation of soil parameters could not be justified by this study.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Rongsen (1990) studied the distribution, economic significance, ecological value, current and prospective uses of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) in the Himalayan region of China. He concluded that Seabuckthorn as a new horticultural crop of tremendous potential, playing an important role in improving the living standards of mountain farmers and in maintaining ecological stability. Rongsen (1992) made an extensive study on Seabuckthorn including features, as a multipurpose plant species for mountain farming system, for upgrading marginal mountain lands, plantation and management techniques. Further he concluded prospects of Seabuckthorn as a source of low priced vitamins, as a source for generating cash-income, as an option for establishing mountain slopes and discussed about the strategies and the under-utilized potential. Bhatt et al. (1993) discussed about the introduction and promotion of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.). It would help in vegetation rehabilitation, ecological and environmental benefits, more job opportunities and finally improving the economic status of the mountain community. They studied about the occurrence, availability and utility of this plant in relation to Himachal Pradesh. Daiqiong et al. (1995) made an experiment on aerial sowing of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) and investigated its benefits at Wuqi County, a semiarid region of the Loess Plateau in China from 1977 to 1995. They showed that Seabuckthorn woodland had higher water use efficiency at an average of 1.39g/m2/mm, which was 5.3 times of that in wasteland vegetation. They compared with natural waste slope and deduced that the surface runoff measured in 2, 3 and 4 years old Seabuckthorn woodlands decreased by 66.2%, 65.9% and 78.2% respectively and the soil erosion volume decreased by 39%, 37.8% and 47% respectively. Again they observed on 5 years old Seabuckthorn woodlands and found no gully erosion and landslides because of larger canopy density. Ekaterina et al. (1995) studied that the Populus euroamericana (Dode) Guinier. (Poplar) can be successfully grown together with Nitrogen fixing species such as Robinia pseudoacacia L. (False Acacia), Alnus glutinosa L. (Black Alder) and Hippophae rhamnoides L. (Seabuckthorn).They observed that the accumulation of Nitrogen into the plants and soil, as well as the effectiveness of the utilization of Nitrogen by the Poplar was, in this variant, by 13mg N/kg/plant higher, as compared with Poplar growing alone than these were planted together with Seabuckthorn on alluvial-meadow soil. Besides, the Nitrogen reserve in the soil increased to the greatest 5

extent 70mg N/kg of soil. Black Alder raised up the accumulation of Nitrogen into Poplar seedlings to the highest level, on alluvial-meadow soil, but to a lesser extent than Seabuckthorn. Goncharov (1995) showed that more than 20 varieties of Seabuckthorn bred in Siberia with characteristics of early maturing, large fruit, low crown, thornless, firm pulp, released in almost 20 regions of Russia, occupying 1/3 of the Russia plantings. Each variety has its own economic biological properties and also is recognized before its releasing. Laagang (1995) marked that Seabuckthorn was one of the 30 species of the most important fruit plants in Mongolia. He obtained three new Seabuckthorn varieties, namely 'Tes', 'Chandman', 'Ulaangom' through many years of hard work. Further, he deduced the average fruit yields were 5500-6200kg/ha, and the oil content 8.0% to 8.5%. Li et al. (1995) studied Seabuckthorn in Canada and stressed that the main purposes of its growing are enhancement of wildlife habitat, farmstead protection, erosion control and mainland reclamation. Lian et al. (1995) collected a new species and two new subspecies from Sichuan Province and Tibet Autonomous region of China, namely Hippophae goniocarpa Lian, X.L. Chen et K. Sun, Hippophae goniocarpa ssp. litangensis Lian et X. L. Chen and Hippophae neurocarpa S.W. Liu et J.N. He ssp. stellatopilosa Lian et X. L. Chen. Min and Li (1995) analyzed on the significance of exploitation and utilization of Seabuckthorn resources to the development of Chinese local economy. Their study revealed that large areas of Seabuckthorn had been afforested and at the same time established more than 200 Seabuckthorn processing factories producing foods, beverages, health protecting products, medicine and cosmetic, totaling eight series and more than 200 products. Rimal (1995) presented that Seabuckthorn which is both ecologically and economically beneficial plants could be a better option for the slope stability, soil moisture conservation, off farm employment leading to the alleviation of poverty for the people living in the mountain areas of Nepal. Rongsen (1995) made an extensive study on the eco-geographical distribution of Seabuckthorn and prospects of international cooperation. He stated that Seabuckthorn, a multipurpose and multifunction plant has very wide natural distribution and potential growing areas as well as can tolerate harsh environmental conditions. Furthermore, Seabuckthorn can play very important roles in terms of controlling desertification 6

lands, improving degraded environment, increasing the productivity of agriculture and animal husbandry in the remote areas, creating opportunities of employment and alleviating rural poverty. Shuhua et al. (1995) studied the hardwood and green cutting propagation technique of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L. ssp. sinensis Rousi) under the cold climate condition of high elevation in Zhuolu County, Hebei Province, China using container and man-made matrix, dipping the cuttings in the 500 ppm Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) solution before planting. Their result showed that the rooting rate was about 90%-94%. Shunguang et al. (1995) studied on the exploitation and utilization of Seabuckthorn in China. According to them, the Chinese government has taken the lead in advocating Seabuckthorn development on a large scale to conserve soil and water, improve ecological environment, develop local economy and promote the alleviation of poverty. Singh et al. (1995) carried out the study on wild growing Seabuckthorn in the district Lahaul-Spiti, a dry temperate region of Himachal Pradseh, India. They reported that Hippophae rhamnoides ssp. turkestanica Rousi is the most dominant and widely distributed (2500-4000m) shrub (1-4m), whereas Hippophae salicifolia D. Don, a medium sized tree (4-9m) is distributed in fewer sites (2800-3700m). Hippophae tibetana Schlecht., a dwarf shrub (0.2-0.6m) is also confined to a few sites at higher altitude (4000-4300m). Furthermore, they analyzed that the fruit size varies from a maximum of 40gm to minimum of 8gm per 100 fruits, Vitamin C varies from 947mg/100gm to 225mg/100gm and total oil content varies from 4.1% to 8.3%. Verma (1995) studied the greening potential of Seabuckthorn in cold desert Indian Himalayas. He proved that besides the ecological value, Seabuckthorn could also be used as a source of fodder, fuel wood, fertilizer etc. in the fragile eco-conditions of cold desert Indian Himalayas. Wahlberg (1995) emphasized on the possibilities for establishing commercial cultivation of Seabuckthorn as a new crop in Sweden. He reported that the natural occurrence of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) in Sweden along the Northern coast. He found that the local people in former days used Seabuckthorn as a remedy against scurvy. Moreover, he studied about the possibilities to introduce Seabuckthorn plantations and products in Sweden are good and identified as the main problem in cultivating this species is a disease caused by a bacterium, Pseudomonas syringe and by mechanical harvesting.

Xin and Shuhua (1995) investigated the plant community of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L. ssp. sinensis Rousi) in Zhuolu County, Hebei Province, China. They used the Sum Dominance Ratio (SDR) of species to classify the community with the methods of cluster analysis and isodata Fuzzy cluster analysis. Moreover, they classified the community as five formations and two associations. Furthermore, they discussed the independence of species and the continuity of the community through the comparison and analysis within Seabuckthorn communities. Yao and Tigerstedt (1995) studied the genetic diversity in Hippophae L. They interpreted that Hippophae, the multipurpose plant has the wide distribution on the Eurasian continent (270-690 N). They analyzed that its wide genetic variation is the basis of its distribution and provides good opportunities for selection and breeding. Moreover, they reported that Hippophae is variable in height (50cm-20m), difference in Vitamin C concentration between and within natural populations, fruit size varies (4 to 60g/100 berries), fruit color (yellow, orange to red) and the shape (flat, round, oval to cylindrical). Yaonian et al. (1995) analyzed the fatty acid, sterol and tocopherol contents of fruit and seed oils of some species of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) growing in China by gas chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography. They indicated that the different sources of the raw materials and the oil processing technologies could lead to different contents in the non-triglyceride minor of the oil. Also they reported that the oils extracted by hexane have the highest contents of sterols and tocopherols. Zhenhua et al. (1995) compared Seabuckthorn to the 'Cosmetician' and 'House cleaner' of the human body due to its multi-benefits to health. They argued that because it is accustomed to grow under rigorous ecological conditions, it has accumulated many different physiologically active components and hence due to their physiological and pharmacological efficacy, these substances are beneficial to normal metabolism activities as well as helpful in getting rid of harmful metabolic wastes. Singh and Dogra (1996) carried out the distribution, utilization, characteristics, regeneration, biomass and nutritional values of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) in Lahaul valley located in high hill dry temperate Himalaya. They reported that the main utilization of this plant was as a fuel wood by the farmers added that the plant has a high regenerative potential even in dry infertile soil. Again, horizontal roots extend up to 245-680cm, which produce 9-27 root turion seedlings per root. They found that the fruit yield varied from 590gm to 956gm per plant, seed oil content varied from 8.2 to 11.7%, whereas protein content ranged from 25.8 to 35.9%. 8

Thomson et al. (1996) carried out the study on ecology, morphological variation, utilization, status of resources, market potential and intervention strategy of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) in Mustang district, Nepal. They concluded that it was justified for the implementation of a programme of initiatives to encourage the development, management and utilization of Seabuckthorn resources in the Kali Gandaki river basin. Ghaffar (1997) recorded Seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides ssp. turkestanica) in Pakistan. He studied the plant morphology, environmental requirements, uses and propagation of Seabuckthorn and that the suitable areas for growing this plant are in Northern and Western dry mountains of Pakistan. Banjade (1999) studied on the multipurpose plant species Seabuckthorn in Dolpa, Mustang and Rasuwa districts, Nepal. He explored the distribution of species within these districts and the use of the plant parts that the local people are practicing. Also, he performed the chemical analysis as well to some extent. Singh et al. (1999) estimated fodder values of Indian Seabuckthorn growing in Lahaul Valley, a dry Himalayan region. Crude protein content varied from 17.5-20.5% in H. rhamnoides ssp. turkestanica to 21.6% in H. salicifolia which are significantly higher than 17.1% red clover (Trifolium pratense), however lesser than 24.7% white clover (Trifolium repens). Ether extract value in H. rhamnoides was 3.5-4.8% and 4.5% in H. salicifolia, much higher than both clovers (2.7-3.65%). Crude protein content was also quite higher in bark (17.4%), where it was low in branch (13.7%) in common Seabuckthorn. Ether extract value was quite low both in bark and branches. Content of minor elements particularly iron (Fe) was also quite high. Vaidya (1999) studied Seabuckthorn in the Himalayan region of Nepal and stated that its plantation might bring an overall development in those remote areas by protecting landslide, conserve soil erosion, conserve water, nourish surrounding plants, fodder, fuel wood, employment for man and woman, nutritional benefits and at the large economic benefits from the fruits. Also, he had tried some of the fruit products as Seabuckthorn Squash, Jam, Juice powder, Wine, Fenugreek Pickle, etc. Sehgal et al. (2000) studied the present status, traditional uses, ecological and economic impact and constraints in Seabuckthorn propagation of cold desert areas of Indian Himalayas. They concluded that Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) is an ecologically viable and ethno botanically sustainable food crop of the mountains which could be developed as an agro industrial crop as well as essential component of any activity for sustainable

development, vegetative rehabilitation, conservation and for creating more job opportunities for the poor mountain people with limited options. Basistha et al. (2001) studied on cultivation, propagation and economic potentiality of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) from Sikkim in 1998-2000. The plant was found naturally growing between 2280m to 3100m. The natural habitat of this species was studied both in riverine and non-riverine areas where geo-physico-chemical parameters like aerial temperature, aerial moisture, soil pH, soil temperature and soil moisture varied significantly. In addition to morphological studies, variation in nodulation with respect to plant height was also observed which was higher in riverine areas. Dwivedi et al. (2001) surveyed on Seabuckthorn in Ladhakh, India. They found that this plant grows well on sand dunes and steep slopes of mountains in a wide range of soil conditions from rocky to sandy and marshy to moist soils. Again, ethno medical survey indicated that the fruit, seed and bark of this plant were used in medications for cold and cough, malnutrition, skin diseases, ulcers, lung problems and blood purifiers. Gupta et al. (2001) studied on ecology and distribution of Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) resources in Northwest Nepal. They reported that this plant species was found in the riverbanks, flood plains and mostly on the South or Southwest facing slopes. Again, the distribution of Seabuckthorn in Northwest Nepal was found always irregular and sparse, the regeneration of the plant was found poor due to various factors as extreme cold, human interference, glacial flood effects and high velocity wind. Further, they identified the major associates of Seabuckthorn as Pinus wallichiana, Desmodium elegans for Hippophae salicifolia and species of Lonicera, Caragana and Myricaria for Hippophae tibetana. Kuniyal et al. (2001) carried out the study on agro-ecological importance of Seabuckthorn in Khoksar, Jahlama and Hinsa, cold deserts of Lahaul valley in Himachal Pradesh, India. In Jahlama, Seabuckthorn showed 60.9% of the total density and 33.5% of the total importance value index (IVI); however, IVI of Salix sp. was relatively higher (49.9%). Further, in Hinsa area, it was important after Salix sp. Singh (2001) studied Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) as a wonderful plant of dry temperate Himalayas, including characteristics, fruit a storehouse of bioactive substances, its industrial potential, environmental conservation, fuel wood and fodder. He emphasized to harness the rich potential of this wonder plant in economic utilization and ecological restoration of degraded hills of Himalayas.

10

CHAPTER 3: STUDY SITE 3.1 Physiognomy

The area under present study lies on Northcentral Nepal. One district of Dhaulagiri zone viz Mustang and one district of Gandaki zone viz Manang are the representative districts worked out for the present study.

3.1.1 Mustang District

It represents the rain shadow district behind the Himalayas. By covering an area of 3573 sq. km, it lies at 280 24290 20 N latitude and 830 30840 10 E longitude. The altitudinal range varies from 1372 m 8167 m representing sub-tropical, temperate and alpine types of climate. The district is surrounded by the Tibetan plateau to the North, Manang, Myagdi and Tibetan border to the East, Dolpa, Myagdi and Tibet to the West and Myagdi district to the South. Dhaulagiri and Mustang are the major Himalayan peaks. Damodar Kunda and Muktinath are the places of holistic importance. The panoramic view of the Himalayas and holistic places are the cause of tourism development. Only 1.5% of the total land area is suitable for agriculture and 5.2% area is covered with forest. Bushy type of vegetation, desert like landscape and snow capped hills are of special interest. Kaligandaki and Mustang Khola are the major river system (Anonymous, 1999) as shown in Map B.

3.1.2 Manang District

It lies at 280 27- 280 54 N latitude and 830 40 840 34 E longitude covering an area of 2246 sq. km. The elevation ranges from 1600 m (Tal) to 8156m (Mt. Manaslu) representing the sub tropical to alpine type of climate. The district is bounded by Gorkha and Lamjung districts to the east, Mustang, Gorkha and Tibet to the North, Mustang to the West and Parbat, Kaski and Lamjung districts to the South. The major Himalayan peaks of this district are Manaslu (8156m), Annapurna I (8091m), Annapurna II (7939m) etc. Dudhkhola, Marshyandi, Narkhola etc. are the major river systems originated from these Himalayas and flow down to the flat land of terai. The land pattern of this district is not suitable for agriculture that represents only 0.5% of the total land. About 9% land is covered with forest and rest land is grazing and others (Anonymous, 1999) as shown in Map C.

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3.2 Study Area

The study area extends from the altitude 2000 m (Ghansa) to 3942 m (Thengar), lying between 280 36 77290 15 1.5 N latitude and 830 35 701 830 58 44.4 E longitude in Mustang district. Similarly, in Manang district, the study area extends from 2100m (Tache, Dharapani) to 4200m (Lattar), lying between 280 31 51.9 280 44 16.5 N latitude and 830 54 22.9840 28 28 E longitude.

3.3 Climate
3.3.1 Rainfall
Nepal has a great variation of topography, which has impact on the diversity of weather and climate. It experiences tropical, mesothermal, taiga and tundra types of climate (HMG, 1994). The climates of the study area are arid and semi-arid in Mustang and Manang districts respectively. The amount of rainfall declines from East towards West in the Himalayan region (Singh and Singh, 1992). The rainfall was maximum in July and August (i.e. 42.3 mm and 41.8 mm respectively) in Mustang district whereas it was maximum in July and September (i.e. 182.7 mm and 144.5 mm respectively) in Manang district. Similarly, minimum rainfall occurred in November i.e. 1.6mm and 15.3mm respectively in Mustang and Manang districts as shown in Table 1 and 2.

3.3.2 Temperature
Temperature varies not only from east to west but also at the local level and depends upon exposure of the sun. The average monthly temperature at the study site was highest in July and August (i.e. 140C and 13.80C respectively) in Mustang district and it was recorded as 15.70C in June/July as the highest temperature in Manang district. Similarly, the lowest temperature in Mustang district was recorded in the month of January and February as -3.50C and -2.50C respectively. In the same way, the lowest temperature recorded in Manang district was 3.60C during January as shown in Table 1 and 2.

3.4 Vegetation
Vegetation is the term used to designate the plant cover of a region. It is generally made up of one or more plant communities or aggregations of plants usually forming a complex. It is a geographic feature of great importance, as it determines the appearance and general characters of most land areas (Fosberg, 1961).

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Negi (1994) has divided the forest of Nepal into 4 forest regions. I. II. III. IV. Outer or Siwalik region Lower Himalayan or Midland region Main Himalayan region Arid or Trans Himalayan region.

The arid or Trans-Himalayan region of Nepal lies to the North of the main Himalayan axis. This region receives very little rainfall, as the Southwest monsoons are unable to cross the high mountains. Manang and Mustang areas are categorized as the prominent arid zones (Stainton, 1972). In Manang area there is a rich variety of vegetation in hills, valleys, riverbeds and high Himalayan pastures in different climatic zones. Corresponding to the climatic condition, there is a change in vegetation type from subtropical to temperate, xerophilous and alpine formations. The forest vegetation includes Oak (Quercus spp.) and Rhododendron forests in a lower belt and Conifers (Pinus wallichiana, Picea smithiana, Taxus wallichiana, Tsuga dumosa and Abies spectabilis) and Birch (Betula utilis) in the upper belt. The vegetation above timberline is enriched by steppe communities mostly of Berberis spp., Caragana spp., Rosa spp., Juniperus spp. and Lonicera spp. (Pohle, 1990). Similarly, Mustang is a large area lying to the North of the main Himalayan range in North-central Nepal along the Nepal-Tibet boarder. Rainfall is very low and the conditions resemble those of a cold desert. The natural vegetation is mainly composed of dry alpine scrub frequented by Tibetan plant species (Stainton, 1972). The various types of vegetation found in this area at different elevations are given as: a. Between 2100 m-2650 m

This region receives comparatively more precipitation and contains Conifers (Pinus wallichiana, Picea smithiana, Taxus wallichiana, Tsuga dumosa, Abies spectabilis and Cupressus torulosa). b. Between 3000 m-4000 m and above

Betula utilis, Caragana spp., Cotoneaster spp., Lonicera spinosa, Aster spp., Juniperus spp., Rosa spp., Taraxacum officinale, Primula spp. and Hippophae tibetana.

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MAP B: Mustang District

14

MAP C: Manang District

15

Table 1: Climatological Statistics of Mustang District

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Table 2: Climatological Statistics of Manang District

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CHAPTER 4: MATERIALS AND METHODS The fieldwork was designed to obtain a detail quantitative data on the distribution of Seabuckthorn, soil analysis and the local uses in Mustang and Manang districts. Considering the aims and objectives of the research, field data sheets were designed and prepared so that the necessary information about sampling site conditions and people's perception were entered. The study period was one and half months viz March 15- April 30, 2000. The sheets used in the fieldwork are presented in Appendix 1 and 2.

4.1 Data Collection

Both primary and secondary data were used to fulfill the objectives of this study.

4.1.1 Primary Data Collection

The primary data of the research were collected by following two techniques. a) The Survey Technique The survey technique followed the participatory methods. The information about indigenous knowledge of the plant uses was obtained by using PRA method. The basic approach of the method is the direct involvement of people in the study as an integral part and not only as informants for the researchers from outside. They take part in designing the study, data collection, analysis of findings and the discussion of the result, which become benefit for the community (Martin, 1995). The specific PRA tools used in the study area are: i) Group discussion This method was carried out to list down the uses of the species, excavate the real picture of the site and tentative distribution of the species throughout the district. This method was carried out with office staffs (ACAP members, DFO, DISCO), local users, hotel owners, local leaders, school teachers and DDC members. ii) Semi-structured interview Semi-structured interviews are partly structured and mostly unstructured depending on the responses of the person or group with whom the interview takes place. This method was conducted as the same purpose of group discussion but this tool explored the secret scenario of the area, society, uses and misuses of the species, which in group might 18

have left as if social limitations obstruct. Semi-structured interview was carried out with key informants as Aamchis, shepherds, herders, firewood and fuel wood collectors specially women. iii) Timeline This tool was applicable to aged group persons of the village to describe about the past and present situation of Seabuckthorn resource. b) Inventory Technique Vegetation Analysis Quadratic studies of the Hippophae species was done based on well-established methods (Braun Blanquet, 1972 and Kershaw, 1973). Requisite size of the quadrat was determined by species area curve method (Barbour et al., 1980). For this purpose quadrat of various sizes (5x5 m2, 10x10 m2, 15x15 m2, 20x20 m2, 25x25 m2.....) for Hippophae salicifolia and (1x1 m2, 2x2 m2, 3x3 m2, 4x4 m2, 5x5 m2..) for Hippophae tibetana were laid down and individuals of both the species were enlisted. Also, all the associated species were recorded. Based upon the species area curve method, the size of the quadrat was determined. Appropriate size of the quadrat for the study of Hippophae salicifolia was 400 m2 (20 m x 20 m) and Hippophae tibetana was 25 m2 (5 m x 5 m). Generally the plant having DBH more than 10 cm is considered as mature tree. But Hippophae salicifolia is a small tree and in practice the plants with DBH about 5cm are fully matured. So, 5 cm DBH is proposed as matured tree for Hippophae salicifolia (Gupta et al., 1999). However, DBH was not measured for Hippophae tibetana since it is a bushy shrub. Aspects, inclination and altitude of each plot was recorded using Clinometer, Compass and Altimeter respectively. Latitude and longitude were recorded by Global Positioning System (GPS 4000 XL, Magellan, USA). From different plots, human interference in Seabuckthorn was analyzed by observing the number of cut stumps. Specimens of trees and shrubs were collected for identification. For the sake of convenience, common names and collection numbers were noted until the botanical name was determined in Herbarium. Some plant specimens were identified with the help of common names provided by local people. Some standard books such as Polunin

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and Stainton (1997), Stainton (1997) and Shrestha (1998) were consulted for the identification of plant specimens. However, field identification was further confirmed with the help of preserved herbaria. Unidentified plant specimens were subsequently identified with the help of National Herbarium and Plant Laboratory, Plant Research Division, Godawari (KATH) and Central Herbarium of Tribhuvan University (TUCH). Correct scientific names and author citation were made with the help of Hara and Williams (1979), Hara et al. (1978 and 1982) and Press et al. (2000).

4.1.2 Secondary Data Collection

The secondary information was collected from related publications, research papers, district forest office and other documents as per necessary. Climatological data were also collected from the secondary source.

4.2 Data Analysis

Collected data were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Data obtained by using PRA tools were analyzed qualitatively in descriptive methods whereas data obtained from inventory technique were analyzed quantitatively. For vegetation sampling of Seabuckthorn, frequency and density were analyzed according to Zobel et al. (1987). Quantitative characters for vegetation analysis were calculated by using the following formulae:

4.2.1 Density
Density in general is the total number of individuals of a species in relation to definite area, which gives the numerical strength of a species in given community (Zobel et al., 1987). Hence, density is calculated by using the following formula:
Density ( D) = Total number of individuals of species" A" Total area sampled

Density ( pt / ha) =

Total number of individuals of species" A" x 10,000 Total number of quadrats sampled x Area of quadrats (m 2 )

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4.2.2 Frequency
Frequency, as introduced by Raunkiaer (1934), indicates the number of sampling units in which a given species occurs and thus expresses the dispersion of various species in a community. The frequency refers to the degree of dispersion in terms of percentage occurrence (Zobel et al., 1987). The frequency is calculated as follows: Frequency ( F ) = Total number of plots in which species" A" occured x 100 Total number of plots sampled

4.2.3 Soil Analysis

Soil is one of the most important ecological factors, which is a reservoir of bio-organic salts and minerals that are essential for the living organisms. It is a stratified mixture of inorganic and organic materials. The plant from the soil absorbs almost all of the nutrients laid in soil. Soil is formed as a result of climate and organism acting in a given situation over a period of time.
4.2.3.1 Sampling Technique

Soil samples were collected by following Tribedi and Goel (1984) methods. For the collection of soil, about 1kg of soil was taken from Hippophae spp. growing areas and from the barren lands from the depth of 10 cm and collected samples were blended homogeneously and packed in a clean polythene bags tightly. It was a composite sample. Different soil parameters were analyzed in the Soil Science Division of NARC, Khumaltar and Central Department of Botany, TU.
4.2.3.2 Soil Texture

Soil texture is the relative proportion of clay, silt, sand, gravel, etc. present in the soil. According to the International Society of Soil Science, soil is differentiated as follows:
Particles Diameter Range of Particles

Clay Silt Fine sand Coarse sand Stone and gravel

less than 0.002 mm 0.002 to 0.02 mm 0.02 to 0.2 mm 0.2 to 2 mm greater than 2 mm

The soil texture was determined by the Hydrometer method (PCARR, 1980). Silt + Clay (%) = (first reading in 40 seconds x correlation coefficient) x 2 Clay (%) = (second reading in 2 hours x correlation coefficient) x 2 21

Silt (%) = [(Silt+Clay) % -Clay %] Sand (%) = 100-(Silt +Clay) % Finally, the texture group of soil was determined by using a texture triangle (USDA System).
4.2.3.3 Soil Organic Matter (SOM)

Organic matter is a source of essential plant nutrients and acts as a source of food for soil organisms and stabilizes soil structure. It is a key factor in the improvement or decline of soil fertility. It always plays positive correlation with fertility. The percentage of organic matter was analyzed by Walkley-Black method and calculated by using formula according to PCARR (1980). O.M. (%) = 10 ( S T ) x 0.0069 100 x S Weight of soil

Where, S = ml of ferrous solution required for blank. T = ml of ferrous solution required for sample.
4.2.3.4 Soil pH

pH is a degree of acidity or alkalinity of soil. It indicates the degree of availability and favorability of nutrients and soil condition to microbes respectively. Potentiometric method was used to test the soil acidity and alkalinity (PCARR, 1980).
4.2.3.5 Nitrogen (N)

The total Nitrogen content of soil provides a measure of the quantity of substrate undergoing decomposition. Nitrogen in the soil is present in different forms and in very small quantity. Here, the organic Nitrogen in the form of ammonium was analyzed by using modified Kjeldahl method (PCARR, 1980). % N in soil =

(T B ) x N x 14 x 100 S

Where, T = Sample titration, ml of standard acid. B = Blank titration, ml of standard acid. N = Normality of standard acid. S = Oven-dry weight of sample in mg.

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4.2.3.6 Available Phosphorus (P2O5)

Phosphorus is classed as one of the macronutrients, but its content in plants is considerably less than that of Nitrogen and Potassium. Plants can only utilize the available amount of Phosphorus in soil. It was measured using modified Troug's Method (Ayres-Hagihara). Spectrophotometer was used in this method (PCARR, 1980).

Phosphorus (P) kg /ha. = F x R Where, F = Coefficient factor from blank solution. R = Reading in Spectrophotometer.
4.2.3.7 Exchangeable Potassium (K2O)

Potassium appears to exist entirely as the ionic form in living plants. The content of Potassium in mineral soil is usually much greater than that of Nitrogen or Phosphorus. It was tested by using flame Photometer method (PCARR, 1980). Potassium (K) kg/ha = F x R Where, F = Dilution factor. R = Reading in Photometer.

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CHAPTER 5: RESULTS 5.1 Areas of Seabuckthorn Occurrence

Hippophae salicifolia plants were found occurring naturally between 2000m- 2800m, from Ghansa to Yamkin khola in Mustang. Similarly, the latitudes between 280 36 to 280 43 N and longitudes between 830 35 to 830 38 E were the representative sites of Hippophae salicifolia in Mustang. The luxuriant growth of Hippophae tibetana was recorded between 2950m- 3942m from Lupra to Thengar in Mustang. Hence, the latitudes between 280 48 290 15 N and longitudes between 830 46- 830 58 E were recorded boundaries for Hippophae tibetana in Mustang. In Manang, Hippophae salicifolia plants were observed at the altitudes between 2100m- 3660m from Tache and Dharapani to Tijilon in the geographical boundaries between 280 31 280 37 N latitudes and 840 14 840 28 E longitudes. Similarly, Hippophae tibetana were recorded in between the altitude of 3300m - 4200m from Pisang to Lattar within the geographical boundaries of 280 37 280 44 N latitudes and 830 54 840 07 E longitudes in Manang.

5.2 Iso-Potential Areas of Seabuckthorn

Any area inside the cited values of longitude, latitude and altitude with the riverine system, chiefly on the south facing slopes were the best suitable to vouch for the potential area of Seabuckthorn. Based upon the comprehensive field observations and consideration of ecological variability of the areas in question, potential distribution for Hippophae salicifolia and Hippophae tibetana was projected in Mustang and Manang districts.

5.3 Distribution of Seabuckthorn

Regarding the distribution of Hippophae salicifolia in Mustang, few names of places can be listed as follows: Ghansa, Kaikukhola, Ghumaune, Letekhola, Kokhethanti, Dhampu, Larjung and Yamkin Khola. Likely, talking about the Hippophae tibetana, Lupra, Tsaile, Khinga, Jhong Khola, Chhaingur Khola, Ghami, Charang, Marang, Jharkot, Purang, Dhakmar, Nyamshuk, Lomanthang, Chhoser, Phuwa and Thengar were the remarkable places in Mustang. 24

MAP D: Potential distribution areas of Seabuckthorn in Manang and Mustang

25

Likewise, for Hippophae salicifolia in Manang, Dharapani, Tache, Thonche, Bagarchhap, Tilche, Latamarang, Narkhola, Thanchowk, Surki Khola, Chame and Tijilon were few noteworthy places. Similarly, starting from Pisang upto Lattar including Humden, Manang, Khangsar, Gunsang, Yak Kharka and Tilicho base camp, the shrub land of Hippophae tibetana was prominent in Manang. The potential distribution areas of Seabuckthorn in Mustang and Manang are shown in Map D.

5.4 Density of Seabuckthorn

The density of species, Hippophae salicifolia and Hippophae tibetana were calculated as given in figures (1, 2, 3 and 4).
F ig u r e N o . 1 : D e n s ity o f H ip p o p h a e s a lic ifo lia in M u s ta n g .

3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0

G hans a K a ik u k h o la G hum aune L e te k h o la K o k h e th a n ti D ham p u L a rju n g Y a m k in k h o la

A ltitu d e D e n s ity/h a

L o c a tio n s

F ig u re N o . 2 : D e n sity o f H ip p o p h a e tib e ta n a in M u sta n g .

50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 1 A ltitud e D ens ity/ha 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

L o c a tio n s

Locations:
1 Lupra 14 Chhoser 2 Tsaile 15 Phuwa 3 Khinga 10 Purang 16 Thengar 4 Jhongkhola 5 Chhaingur khola 6 Ghami 7 Charang 8 Marang 9 Jharkot 11 Dhakmar 12 Nyamshuk 13 Lomanthang

The highest density of Hippophae salicifolia in Mustang was recorded in Larjung (1575 individual per hectare) followed by Ghansa (1125 individual per hectare) and Letekhola 26

(1050 individual per hectare), whereas the lowest density was recorded in Dhampu (75 individual per hectare). Likewise, the highest density of Hippophae tibetana was recorded in Chhoser (42000 individual per hectare) followed by Phuwa (38400 individual per hectare) and Ghami (25200 individual per hectare), whereas the lowest density was recorded in Lupra and Chhaingur Khola (6000 individual per hectare) in Mustang.
Figure No. 3: Density of Hippophae salicifolia in Manang.

4000 3000 2000 1000 0

Ta ch e D r ha ap an i o Th nc he Ba r ga ch ha p Ti lc h e La m ta ar an g N ar kh ol a Th c an ho w k Su i rk kh ol a Ch am e Ti jil on

L ocations
Altitud e D ensity/ha

Figure No. 4: Density of Hippophae tibetana in Manang.

25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0

ang Pis en md Hu g nan Ma sar ang Kh ns Gu ang ka har kk Ya s oba ich Til mp eca r tta La

Locations
Altitude Density/ha

Similarly, the highest density of Hippophae salicifolia in Manang was recorded in Tijilon (2825 individual per hectare) followed by Bagarchhap (1675 individual per hectare) and Surki Khola (875 individual per hectare) whereas the lowest density was recorded in Nar Khola (100 individual per hectare). Likewise, the highest density of Hippophae tibetana in Manang was recorded in Lattar (22400 individual per hectare) followed by Yak Kharka (13200 individual per hectare) and Manang (12400 individual per hectare), whereas the lowest density was recorded in Pisang (2800 individual per hectare).

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5.5 Species Association

Various plant species were recorded from various study sites of Mustang and Manang as the associated species of Hippophae species. Among them few plant species with high frequency and ecological similarities are expected as the true friends of Hippophae species. The list of associated species with Hippophae species are given in Appendices 8 and 9.

5.6 Frequency of Associated Species

Frequency of associated species was studied by the quadratic measurement, which is given in appendices (10, 11, 12 and 13). In Mustang, excluding the high flood potential areas (Larjung Bagar and Kokhethanti) other plots have similar types of plant species found in association with Hippophae salicifolia. The main associates were Pinus wallichiana, Salix sp., Juniperus indica, Alnus nepalensis, Arundinaria falcata, Berberis aristata, Ephedra gerardiana, Sophora moorcroftiana., and Inula cappa. Similarly, associated species of Hippophae tibetana in Mustang were Berberis erythroclada, Caragana brevispina, Lonicera spinosa, Ephedra gerardiana, Populus sp., Rosa sericea, Rosa macrophylla, Cotoneaster microphyllus, Artemisia spp., Sophora moorcroftiana., Clematis spp., Juniperus indica and Astragalus sp. Likely, the common available plant species in close association of Hippophae salicifolia in Manang were Pinus wallichiana, Daphne papyracea, Rosa sp, Tsuga dumosa, Salix sp., Arundinaria falcata, Berberis asiatica, Hedera nepalensis, Berberis aristata, Populus sp. and Pyracantha crenulata. Similarly, the main associates of Hippophae tibetana found in Manang district were Lonicera sp., Lonicera spinosa, Aster himalaicus, Berberis erythroclada, Caragana brevispina, Cotoneaster microphyllus, Artemisia sp., Clematis sp., Ephedra gerardiana, Pinus wallichiana and Salix sp.

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5.6.1 Common Associates from Mustang and Manang

Figure No. 5: Com m on Associates of Hippophae salicifolia in M ustang and M anang.
120 Frequency % 100 80 60 40 20 0
Pinus wallichiana Salix sp. Berberis aristata Arundinaria falcata Alnus nepalensis

Manang Mustang

Species

Figure No. 6: Common Associates of Hippophae tibetana in M ustang and Manang.

120 Frequency % 100 80 60 40 20 0
Berberis erythroclada Caragana brevispina Lonicera spinosa Ephedra gerardiana Rosa sericea Cotoneaster microphyllus Artemisia sp. Clematis sp. Juniperus indica

Species

Manang Mustang

Among the above given associated species, few plant species were commonly found for Hippophae salicifolia from both districts, which are summarized in fig. (5). Similarly, common associated species for Hippophae tibetana are summarized in Fig. (6). From the fig. (5), it is obvious that the most frequent plant species associated with Hippophae salicifolia was Pinus wallichiana having frequency of 100% in Manang whereas it was 35.7% in Mustang. Likewise, according to fig. (6), the most frequent plant species associated with Hippophae tibetana was Lonicera spinosa having frequency of 100% in Manang whereas the most frequent species was Berberis erythroclada with frequency of 81.25% in Mustang.

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5.7 Ecological Status of Seabuckthorn in Association

5.7.1 Ecology of Hippophae salicifolia D. Don
The plant species occurred on the fragile lands with weak soil composition and unfertile river fords. Newly emerging plants were grown abundantly along the fords where the associated species were lacking. The plant species invade the barren lands as the pioneer species of secondary succession. This species grown and flourishes with a short interval from altitudinal point of view with occurrence in temperate regions at elevations ranging from 2000 m to 3600 m. The plant associated mainly with Alnus nepalensis, Pinus wallichiana, Arundinaria falcata and Berberis aristata at lower elevations whereas it mixed with Pinus wallichiana, Abies spectabilis, Taxus wallichiana, Tsuga dumosa and even with Betula utilis at higher elevations. Berberis sp., Sarcococca hookeriana and Sophora moorcroftiana were the bushes and shrubs that occurred in association with Hippophae salicifolia. Forbs and grasses on lower strata occurred in trace amount. However, Cannabis sativa, Artemisia sp., Ajuga sp., Gynura nepalensis, Inula cappa and Eulaliopsis binata were much common among them. In some areas the matured trees of Hippophae salicifolia were present.

5.7.2 Ecology of Hippophae tibetana Schlecht.

This species occurred frequently in alpine tundra habitats. The main associates of this species were Berberis erythroclada, Caragana brevispina, Sophora moorcroftiana, Lonicera spinosa, Cotoneaster microphyllus and Rosa sericea, ranging from altitudes of 3300 m to 4200 m. Mostly these plants found on the Southern slopes were more fruit bearing than those found on the Northern slopes. Excluding few exceptions, all the plants were recorded within the periphery of 100 m apart on either side from the water sources.

5.8 Soil Analysis

Table: 3 Soil Analysis of Hippophae salicifolia of Mustang District
Soil Parameters S. N. 1 2 3 4 Locations Ghansa Lete Khola Larjung Barren land pH 6.9 6.8 6.2 6.7 Organic matter (%) 1.21 3.48 0.13 0.10 Nitrogen (%) 0.070 0.203 0.127 0.059 Phosphorus kg/ha 36.49 35.03 24.81 21.51 Potassium kg/ha 175 136 136 129 Sand (%) 79 69 77 74 Soil Texture Silt Clay (%) (%) 17 4 27 4 19 4 23 3 Class LS SL LS SL

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Table: 4 Soil Analysis of Hippophae tibetana of Mustang District

S. N. Locations pH Organic matter (%) 1 2 3 4 Jharkot Ghami Chhoser Barren land 7.1 6.8 7.0 5.8 1.14 2.01 0.67 0.10 0.083 0.127 0.051 0.012 23.35 58.38 63.26 12.15 778 175 767 127 Nitrogen (%) Soil Parameters Phosphorus kg/ha Potassium kg/ha Sand (%) 61 53 75 60 Soil Texture Silt (%) 31 41 19 39 Clay (%) 8 6 6 1 SL SL SL SL Class

Table: 5 Soil Analysis of Hippophae salicifolia of Manang District

S. N. Locations pH Organic matter (%) 1 2 3 4 Bagarchhap Surkikhola Chame Barren land 6.0 5.2 5.5 5.9 1.34 2.01 5.03 1.03 0.064 0.121 0.941 0.039 46.13 37.95 170.77 37.17 343 175 292 162 Nitrogen (%) Soil Parameters Phosphorus kg/ha Potassium kg/ha Sand (%) 79 77 71 75 Soil Texture Silt (%) 19 19 17 21 Clay (%) 2 4 2 4 LS LS SL SL Class

Table: 6 Soil Analysis of Hippophae tibetana of Manang District

S. N. Locations pH Organic matter (%) 1 2 3 4 Humden Khangsar Lattar Barren land 6.0 7.5 6.5 6.8 1.07 0.27 0.13 0.12 0.051 0.076 0.025 0.021 19.77 18.97 13.18 17.51 186 652 147 134 Nitrogen (%) Soil Parameters Phosphorus kg/ha Potassium kg/ha Sand (%) 75 85 88 64 Soil Texture Silt (%) 19 11 7 33 Clay (%) 6 4 5 3 SL LS S(B) to LS SL Class

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5.8.1 Soil Texture

The texture of soil was more or less similar for all the locations of Hippophae spp. growing areas in Mustang and Manang districts. In Mustang it was Sandy loam in majority of locations, whereas in Manang both Sandy loam and Loamy sand were classed in equal proportion. In both districts, Sand ranged from 53% to 88%, while Silt ranged from 7% to 41% and Clay ranged from 1% to 8% as given in tables 3 to 6.

5.8.2 Soil pH
The result showed that the soil of both the districts was slightly acidic in nature. However, soil samples of Hippophae tibetana growing areas, Chhoser and Jharkot of Mustang showed neutral pH value (7.0 and 7.1 respectively). Moreover, soil sample from Hippophae tibetana growing areas, Khangsar of Manang indicated slight alkaline value (pH value, 7.5). In general the pH value ranged from 5.2 to 7.5.

5.8.3 Soil Organic Matter (SOM)

Organic matter content of soil varied greatly in different locations of both Mustang and Manang districts. The result showed that the organic matter was highest in the soil sample collected from Letekhola and least in the soil sample collected from barren land (3.48 and 0.10 respectively) in Mustang. Similarly, in Manang it was highest in Chame and the lowest in barren land (5.03 and 0.12 respectively). In general, the amount of organic matter content ranged from 0.10 to 5.03.

5.8.4 Nitrogen (N)

The study revealed that total Nitrogen content of the soil was higher in the Hippophae spp. growing areas than in barren land of both Mustang and Manang districts. Again, the result showed that the total Nitrogen content of the soil was comparatively higher in Hippophae salicifolia growing habitats than that of Hippophae tibetana growing areas. The value ranged from 0.012% to 0.941%.

5.8.5 Available Phosphorus (P2O5)

The result showed that the value of Phosphorus in soil was higher in Hippophae spp. growing areas than in barren areas of both Mustang and Manang districts. The value ranged from 12.15kg/ha to 170.77kg/ha.

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5.8.6 Exchangeable Potassium (K2O)

Potassium content of the soil was higher than Phosphorus and Nitrogen. The result showed that the exchangeable Potassium was higher in Hippophae spp. growing areas than that of barren lands in both Mustang and Manang districts. Its highest value was 778 kg/ha and the lowest value was 127kg/ha.

5.9 Local uses of Seabuckthorn

Table: 7 Local Uses of Seabuckthorn in Mustang and Manang Districts
Species Local Name Additive foods Vinegar, Pickles, Juice and Jam Vinegar, Pickles, Juice and Jam Local Uses Medicines Swelling and removal of tooth stain Others Timber (Plough making)

Hippophae Chichi salicifolia (Mustang), Tijikyun (Manang) Hippophae Tora tibetana (Mustang), Tserkenkyun (Manang)

Cold and cough, Skin diseases, Cutaneous eruption, Breathing and digestive disorder, Relief of pain, Asthma, Menstrual irregularity, Swelling and removal of tooth stain.

Fuelwood, Fencing, Fodder, Intercropping, Fixative, Dye, Polish for metal objects

Hippophae salicifolia is known by Tijikyun in Manang district while it is called Chichi in Mustang district. Similarly, Hippophae tibetana is known as Tserken kyun in Manang district, whereas it is known as Tora in Mustang district. Seabuckthorn has been put to many traditional uses for centuries by local inhabitants of both Mustang and Manang districts. Its fruits are edible and sometimes made into a pickle. The fruit is rich in acidic juices and often used for making chuk (traditional vinegar), juice and jam as subsidiary food items. Various medicinal products are prepared from the juicy extract of the fruit to cure several diseases in the local level. In some parts of Manang district, the fruit juice of Hippophae tibetana is applied to dye clothes and polish the metal objects. Mostly Hippophae tibetana is used as fuel wood in winters by the people of Upper Mustang and Lattar and Khangsar areas of Manang. Wood of Hippophae salicifolia serves as quality timber for making plough in some areas as Thonche and Tijilon of Manang. Some farmers use Hippophae tibetana as a fence around their houses and field yards in order to keep the cattle away. Green foliage of this plant is fed to cattle and horses as nutritious forage mostly in pasturelands of both the districts. The natural intercropping of Hippophae tibetana with cereals and apples in some areas of both districts resulted in increased yield.

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CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION
The present study is focused to ecological study and distribution pattern of Seabuckthorn in Mustang and Manang districts. It deals with the study of two species of Seabuckthorn with respect to distribution pattern, identification of associated species, soil parameters and to some extent the local use practices.

6.1 Areas of Occurrence and Distribution

Seabuckthorn equipped as it is with several potential applications including extraordinary quality of growth and survival even under adverse climate conditions is indeed a wonder plant of the Himalayas and can be the best option for overall environmental conservation and ecological rehabilitation of fragile marginal high mountain ecosystem in addition to increase economic gains (Partap, 1994). According to Polunin and Stainton (1997), Hippophae salicifolia appeared to be colonizing on alluvial gravels, wet landslips and riversides ranging from 2000 m-3500 m; Himachal Pradesh to Southeast Tibet whereas Hippophae tibetana showed to be colonizing the riversides, stony moraines, gregarious areas of the altitude in between 3300 m-4500 m in the inner drier habitat. It is reported to occur between Himachal Pradesh to Southeast Tibet, Northwest China. Therefore, Seabuckthorn is a kind of arborous shrub or tree plant having strong adaptability to varying geographical, climatic and soil conditions. On the basis of the difference of growth habit, ecological and geological distributions, two formation groups can be categorized viz the temperate and the high frigid bush formations (Zhuode et al., 1989). The temperate bush formation group includes Hippophae salicifolia growing at comparatively low altitude areas from 2000m-2800m in Mustang and from 2100m3660m in Manang, found only in the periphery of the riversides or riverbanks with unfertile soil. The community of this group is often stable and other plant species are generally not able to dominate in close association and hence this species grow as the dominant and pioneering plant under arid and semiarid conditions. Even this species colonized as secondary communities in the sites of destructed natural forest. Hippophae salicifolia can achieve as much as 7 m-15 m in height as they grow under longer photoperiod condition of comparatively low altitude areas. The high frigid bush formation group includes Hippophae tibetana growing at an altitudinal range of 2950m-3942m in Mustang and from 3300m-4200m in Manang. This species attains a low height of 0.2m-0.6m due to shorter photoperiod conditions.

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However, this species is able to resist extreme cold conditions of the alpine zone, where no other woody species grow naturally. These findings were similar to Gupta et al. (2001) in Northwest Nepal and Singh et al. (1995) in dry temperate Himalayas of Lahaul-Spiti. Geographical and climatic factors seem to greatly affect the distribution and morphological characteristics of Seabuckthorn in Mustang and Manang districts. The altitude and latitude play an important role in regulating climatic factors such as temperature, humidity, sunshine and soil conditions. The natural distribution of Seabuckthorn in Mustang and Manang districts appears to be extended from the regions of high altitude and low latitude to the regions of low altitude and high latitude. Distribution of Hippophae salicifolia in Manang was wider than that of Mustang whereas Hippophae tibetana was confined to wider distribution in Mustang than in Manang. Hippophae salicifolia, which attains as much 7 m-15 m height, is due to its large leaves, which must have a higher rate of photosynthesis than Hippophae tibetana. Shorter leaf size and height help the Hippophae tibetana to resist the high velocity cold wind blowing at high altitude regions. According to different altitudinal distribution, it seems that each species of Seabuckthorn need specific range of sunshine and a certain radiation for growth.

6.2 Density of Seabuckthorn

Various factors like altitude, aspect, slope, soil, vegetation type and anthropogenic activities influenced the plant density. The highest density of Hippophae salicifolia in Mustang was recorded in Larjung and the lowest in Dhampu. The highest density in Larjung may be due to less fertility of soil and less affected by flood and landslide. The lowest density of Dhampu was due to the forest fire on the old forest of Hippophae salicifolia, since it is associated with bamboos. Similarly, the highest density of Hippophae salicifolia in Manang was recorded in Tijilon which was due to inaccessibility of the site because of Dudhkhola whereas the lowest density was recorded in Narkhola because of the mass movement of soil as well as flood wash by Narkhola few years before. Likely, the highest density of Hippophae tibetana was recorded in Chhoser of Mustang and Lattar of Manang, which was due to the suitable habitats of Hippophae tibetana with riversides, gregarious stony moraines with inner drier habitats. Similarly, the lowest density was recorded in Lupra and Chhaingur khola of Mustang and Pisang of Manang. Hippophae tibetana in Lupra and Chhaingur khola were highly affected by grazing and lopping for fuel wood whereas due to the Northeast facing aspect of Pisang

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the density of the species seemed the lowest. The highest density of Hippophae salicifolia recorded in Manang was higher whereas other values were more or less similar to the findings of Gupta et al. (2001) in Northwest Nepal.

6.3 Species Association

Regarding the associated species of Seabuckthorn, Pinus wallichiana, Salix sp., Berberis aristata, Arundinaria falcata and Alnus nepalensis were the most frequent associates of Hippophae salicifolia from both Mustang and Manang districts. In addition to Lonicera spinosa, Berberis erythroclada, Rosa sericea, Caragana brevispina, Juniperus indica, Artemisia sp., Cotoneaster microphyllus were the plant associates of Hippophae tibetana in both Mustang and Manang districts having higher frequency value. The frequency values of both the species of Seabuckthorn were somewhat similar to the findings of Gupta et al. (2001) in Northwest Nepal. Again, similar findings were carried out by Bhatt et al. (1993) in Himachal Pradesh, India except Cedrus deodara and Juglans regia. This implies that the dispersion of those associated plant species were uniform in all the Seabuckthorn growing areas of both Mustang and Manang districts.

6.4 Ecological status

Hippophae salicifolia in Mustang and Manang occurred in its natural habitat, on the fragile lands, river fords with gravels as usual and in the slope up to 700 where air temperature and soil conditions do not suit many agricultural crops. In addition to that, the saplings found along the fords without associated species suggest that this plant acts as a pioneer species. Furthermore, the small and narrow leaves, thick cuticles and hairs on the backside of the leaves and thorny stems are the important morphological features that help the plant to grow in arid and semi-arid areas as Mustang and Manang. Hippophae salicifolia occurred chiefly in the forest type as indicated by Pinus wallichiana, associating also with Alnus nepalensis, Arundinaria falcata, Berberis aristata, Abies spectabilis, Taxus wallichiana, Tsuga dumosa etc in both the districts. However, the lower strata formed by forbs and grasses in Hippophae salicifolia occurrence sites were in trace amount. This might be due to the cold and dry season that caused to eliminate the associating forbs and grasses and most of them could not be identified because of their complete dryness. Some areas still remained undisturbed where the matured trees of Hippophae salicifolia were present. Bamboos were associated with such giant trees of Hippophae salicifolia. That might be due to the forest firing, since bamboos are good indicators of the forest firing. Therefore, the firing might have removed the invading new species in those areas. 36

The result showed the similarity with the findings of Gupta et al. (2001). Besides, they also reported the associated species as Desmodium elegans and Prinsepia utilis with Hippophae salicifolia in Northwest Nepal. On the other hand, Hippophae tibetana in Mustang and Manang occurred frequently in sub-alpine to alpine meadows. Moreover, the suitable altitude for this species was recorded in between 3600m-4200m and towards southern slopes. This species was found associated mainly with Lonicera spinosa, Berberis erythroclada, Caragana brevispina, Sophora moorcroftiana, Astragalus sp., Juniperus indica, Rosa sericea and Myricaria rosea. Mostly these plants were found in riversides, in the flat lands with infertile soil composition with good moisture content. Similar result was obtained by Gupta et al. (2001) in Northwest Nepal.

6.5 Soil Analysis

The relative proportions of Sand, Silt and Clay in a soil determine the soil texture. The texture affects the nutrient supply of the soil. One of the most important ways in which soil texture affects plant growth is through the influence of texture on water supply. The supply of water to plants usually is greater in moderately fine texture soil. Under the similar conditions, the availability of soil Nitrogen to plants usually increases as the texture becomes finer (Black, 1968). The soil texture varied from Loamy sand to Sandy loam in the study sites of both Mustang and Manang districts. The proportions of Sand and Silt were more or less similar and the percentage of Clay was less in all the sites. This indicates that the soil with more Silt and Sand on the banks of rivers is considered the most suitable for Seabuckthorn. Furthermore, since the Clay soil having poor porosity with excess water holding capacity and lack of air is regarded unsuitable for successful growth of Seabuckthorn, which is in accordance with the results obtained by Rongsen (1992) in North and Northwestern China. The climate and the biological activity within the soil affect soil pH. The pH value of soil in all study sites of Mustang and Manang showed acidic, neutral to slightly alkaline. Ghaffar (1997) accounted that Seabuckthorn can thrive in soils ranging from pH 5.5 to 8.3. However, soil pH ranging from 6 to 7 was found to be the best for Seabuckthorn population in North and Northwestern China according to Rongsen (1992). The present study finding falls upon soil pH ranging from 5.2 to 7.5. This indicates that soil acidity and alkalinity are probably not the limiting factors for the growth of Seabuckthorn. Soil organic matter is a source of essential plant nutrients. According to Suoheimo (1995) the value of 1.7-2.33% of organic matter is an indicator of a low fertility status of the soil. In the present study, high organic matter was found

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in Hippophae salicifolia growing sites than in Hippophae tibetana growing habitats, in both Mustang and Manang districts. It may be due to the dense tree canopy of Hippophae salicifolia which is similar to the findings of Ischeri and Moughalu (1992), who showed that soil under the dense tree canopy used to be significantly higher in organic matter. Also, the study showed that the studied sites were unfertile. Again, the result showed that the organic matter in Seabuckthorn growing areas were more than the amounts contained in bare lands. This shows that Seabuckthorn has raised soil fertility. The similar results were obtained by Quangzhong et al. (1989) and Daiqiong et al. (1995) in North and Northwestern China. The present study showed that the percentage of Nitrogen was higher in Hippophae salicifolia growing areas than that of Hippophae tibetana growing sites in both Mustang and Manang districts. The higher amount of Nitrogen may be due to high microbial activity and rapid decay of litter fall in the soil in Hippophae salicifolia growing sites. The lowest value of Nitrogen was reported for barren lands of all study sites in both Mustang and Manang districts. The reason behind the fluctuation in the amount of Nitrogen of the land with Seabuckthorn and in the land without it is explained by the presence or absence of symbiotic association. Rongsen (1992) identified the symbiotic mycorrhizal/actinorrhizal association as Frankia found in Seabuckthorn roots. This symbiosis between the association and Seabuckthorn results in root nodule formation that can fix the maximum amount of atmospheric Nitrogen. Furthermore, he showed that a land covered with six years old Seabuckthorn bushes contains Nitrogen up to 0.12% i.e. 1.9 times higher than land located on river banks in the same area. Similar results were reported by Quangzhong et al. (1989) and Daiqiong et al. (1995) in North and Northwestern China. The amount of available Phosphorus was highest in Hippophae salicifolia occurrence area of Manang whereas Hippophae tibetana growing areas showed the highest amount of available Phosphorus in Mustang. The low amount of Phosphorus may be contributed to the rapid utilization by large sized trees for the production of above ground biomass. According to Bhatnagar (1965), Phosphorus is present in higher amounts in soil from good soil regeneration area. The result showed that available Phosphorus was unaffected with increased organic matter content. However, the total Phosphorus content in pure Seabuckthorn growing areas of Mustang and Manang districts were more than the amounts contained in wastelands. Quangzhong et al. (1989) and Daiqiong et al. (1995) reported more or less similar findings in North and Northwestern China.

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The exchangeable Potassium was found comparatively higher in Hippophae tibetana growing sites of both Mustang and Manang districts. The lower value of exchangeable Potassium in Hippophae salicifolia growing areas may be due to the continuous lost through surface run off and leaching under land of uneven topography as explained by Allen (1964). The Potassium content of the soil was higher than Phosphorus and Nitrogen contents. Furthermore, the result showed that the total amount of Potassium was lesser in wastelands than in Seabuckthorn growing areas in both Mustang and Manang districts.

6.6 Local uses of Seabuckthorn

Human beings have used Seabuckthorn since eighth centuries, as recorded in the Tibetan medical classics "the rGyud Bzi"(i.e. the Four Books of Pharmacopoeia), completed in the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), Li and Guo (1989). Based on the folklore as well as scientific research, Seabuckthorn has become an important medicinal and nutritional product, especially in Russia where it is referred to as Siberian Pineapple because of its taste and juiciness. According to the literature of the former USSR, the products of Seabuckthorn fruit and oil have been included in the diet of astronauts and as a cream for protection from cosmic radiation (Besschetnov et al., 1989). The Chinese experience with Seabuckthorn fruit production is relatively the recent one. The Seabuckthorn based sports drinks Shawikang and Jianlibao were selected as the designated beverages for Chinese Physical and Cultural delegation to the Olympic games in Seoul, 1988 and the Asian Games in Beijing, 1990 respectively (Rongsen, 1992). These days a wide range of Seabuckthorn products have been formulated and marketed in China and former Soviet Union. However, in Nepal few Seabuckthorn products have developed by RECAST as Seabuckthorn squash, jam, juice powder, wine and fenugreek pickle (Vaidya, 1999). But, in Mustang and Manang the local people are still using this resource in traditional ways. Seabuckthorn in many parts of Mustang and Manang are known for Chuk (traditional vinegar). Locally processed juice can be stored for many years and used for pickle making. In recent years due to the launching of training programmes on jam and juice extraction, especially in lower Mustang (Ghansa-Muktinath) and Bagarchhap- Chame of Manang, the species is being popular. The juice worth about NRs. 90-150 per bottle (extracted from Hippophae salicifolia) and NRs 230-350 per bottle (extracted from Hippophae tibetana). This has increased the earning of local people mainly for 39

restaurant and hotel owners by selling them mostly to the trekkers. The juicy extract of the fruits in part has been used up by local Aamchis to cure several diseases like skin diseases, cutaneous eruption, breathing and digestive disorders, relief of pain, asthma (in both humans and domestic animals), menstrual irregularity and swelling and removal of tooth stains (Hippophae spp. is mixed with ash). In most of the areas of Upper Mustang and Khangsar and Lattar of Manang, with high altitudinal range, harsh climatic conditions and scanty vegetation, Hippophae tibetana fulfills the fuel wood demand. In those areas, almost every house uses stored wood of this species that is kept for use in winters when other options are not there. Beside that, Hippophae salicifolia is established as a good wood producing plant for plough making mainly in Tijilon and Thonche areas of Manang. People in most parts of Upper Mustang use Hippophae tibetana as a fence around their fields and house yards and manage them properly. According to them, due to spiny nature of plants, fields are protected from grazing animals and it has resulted in increased crop production. Hippophae tibetana fencing around houses protect them from the danger of wild animals. In alpine pasturelands of Mustang and Manang, all the herders drive their livestock to feed on the green foliage of Hippophae tibetana during early winter (SeptemberNovember). The herdsmen of Khangsar (Manang) and Lomanthang (Upper Mustang) experienced that sick horses when fed with Hippophae tibetana leaves and tender branches recover and regain the body and hair shine. The natural intercropping of Hippophae tibetana with apples in Ghami and Charang of Upper Mustang has resulted good yield and quality. This in turn, has enhanced the Hippophae tibetana in agro forestry in those areas. Furthermore, as Hippophae spp. is a Nitrogen fixer, certainly the soil at around Hippophae spp. growing area is fertile. An evidence of this is the public interest of bringing the soil from Hippophae tibetana growing areas and adding that in the cultivated lands in Jharkot of Mustang. According to Chalise (2000) Seabuckthorn User Group (SUG) was initiated in Mustang and Manang, are operational these days. The SUG in Jharkot, Mustang is now instrumental in protecting the Hippophae tibetana within their area. SUG has levied a penalty of NRs 500 for cutting or removing a single plant, this has significantly helped in the conservation of the remaining Hippophae tibetana population in this area. Still, people of Upper Mustang and Manang districts are not benefited from these schemes even though there is enough stock of resources. They are optimistic with this species as an alternative source of income generation.

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CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Conclusion
Seabuckthorn (Hippophae L.) is an identified multipurpose plant resource of high Himalayan habitats. This species is proved good for its usefulness in soil conservation, soil reclamation, edible fruit resource, fuelwood and fodder. Seabuckthorn fruit juice, prepared at the local level is considered as an important commodity. There are two species of Seabuckthorn viz Hippophae salicifolia and Hippophae tibetana, distributed in barren, moist, least fertile open fields and landslide zones near the water source of high altitudes in Mustang and Manang districts. In the present study, ecology and distribution pattern of Seabuckthorn was carried out. Results indicated that Hippophae salicifolia occurred close to the water bodies on alluvial gravel, landslides and riverfords, mostly on South facing slopes. In Mustang district it occurred between 2000m-2800m elevation with 280 36 N to 280 43N latitude and 830 35 E to 830 38 E longitude. While for Manang district the corresponding data were 2100m-3600m elevation with 280 31 N to 280 37 N latitude and 840 14 E to 840 28 E longitude. Variations in the distribution in Mustang and Manang districts were associated to differences in micro-climatic conditions. Mustang is characterized by the windy weather with dry air. In Mustang Hippophae tibetana occurred on relatively drier habitats with elevations between 2950m-3942m with 280 48 N to 290 15 N latitude and 830 46 E to 830 58 E longitude while in Manang it occurred between 3300m-4200m elevation with 280 37 N to 280 44 N latitude and 830 54 E to 840 07 E longitude. The study indicated that Manang has higher individual of Hippophae salicifolia forest compared to Mustang which may be due to the moist climate reflecting abundance of high altitude forest in Manang. But individuals of Hippophae tibetana scrub was found more in Mustang than in Manang district due to the drier habitats of Mustang. Furthermore, the results showed that Hippophae salicifolia possessed good relationship with Pinus wallichiana, Salix sp., Arundinaria falcata and Berberis aristata. Similarly, Hippophae tibetana showed good relationship with Berberis erythroclada, Caragana brevispina, Lonicera spinosa, Rosa sericea and Juniperus indica. From the analysis it was found that Seabuckthorn grows well both in Sandy loam and Loamy sand soil and pH probably is not the limiting factors for the plant to thrive. The result revealed that the total Nitrogen, the available Phosphorus, exchangeable 41

Potassium content and the organic matter content in Seabuckthorn available sites were more than the amounts contained in waste mountain lands. This proved that Seabuckthorn has increased the soil fertility.

7.2 Recommendations
The role of local people is quite important for the conservation and management of Seabuckthorn, but why and how to conserve this resource is a big question challenging ever. So the plans for the development and promotion of Seabuckthorn must justify the following facts: A detailed socio-economic survey is required that can provide the real situation of the peoples interest and feasibility of Seabuckthorn promotion in both the districts. Importance of Seabuckthorn on soil conservation, soil reclamation, its nutritional and medicinal values should be transferred to local people directly, in order to reduce the resource loss and the barren land reform. Extensive training programs are required to popularize the plant among local people, so as to establish it as an alternative source of income generation. Grazing causes remarkable damage on Hippophae tibetana in Mustang district. This can be minimized by fencing the area. Demonstration plots of Seabuckthorn should be established in potential areas, so as to convince the local people to be involved in Seabuckthorn conservation. Collection, harvesting and processing techniques of Seabuckthorn should be improved technically, in order to minimize the loss of product. Programs should be conducted to encourage the farmers for the cultivation of Seabuckthorn. Study in an integrated approach is needed conducting all aspects of Seabuckthorn including proper documentation, sustainable use and domestication of improved varieties.

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