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matter physics over the past 20 years. The fractional quantum Hall effect, in particular, has opened up a
new paradigm
”The quantum Hall effect is a quantum-mechanical version of the Hall effect, observed
in two-dimensional systems of electrons subjected to low temperatures and strong
magnetic fields, these systems do not occur naturally, but, using advanced technology and
production techniques developed within semiconductor electronics, it has become
possible to produce them
The quantization of the Hall conductance has the important property of being incredibly
precise. Actual measurements of the Hall conductance have been found to be integer or
fractional multiples of e²/h to nearly one part in a billion. This phenomenon, referred to as
"exact quantization", has been shown to be a subtle manifestation of the principle of
gauge invariance.”
precise quantization of the Hall conductance in units of was not recognized until
February of 1980. Five years later, in 1985, Klaus von Klitzing was awarded Nobel Prize
in Physics for the discovery of quantum Hall effect.
This was not the end of the story. In 1982 D.C.Tsui, H.L.Störmer, and
A.C.Gossard discovered the existance of Hall steps with rational fractional quantum
numbers, which is called fractional quantum Hall effect. R.B.Laughlin's wave functions
established a very good, though not yet perfect understanding of this phenomenon. Today,
the study of quasiparticles of fractional charge and fractional statistics are still active
areas of research
where VH is the voltage across the width of the plate, I is the current across the plate
length, B is the magnetic flux density, d is the depth of the plate, e is the electron charge,
and n is the bulk density of the carrier electrons.
So-called "Hall Effect sensors" are readily available from a number of different
manufacturers, and may be used in various sensors such as fluid flow sensors, power
sensors, and pressure sensors.
In the presence of large magnetic field strength and low temperature, one can
observe the quantum Hall effect, which is the quantization of the Hall resistance.
In ferromagnetic materials (and paramagnetic materials in a magnetic field), the Hall
resistivity includes an additional contribution, known as the Anomalous Hall Effect (or
the Extraordinary Hall effect), which depends directly on the magnetization of the
material, and is often much larger than the ordinary Hall effect. (Note that this effect is
not due to the contribution of the magnetization to the total magnetic field.) Although a
well-recognized phenomenon, there is still debate about its origins in the various
materials. The anomalous Hall effect can be either an extrinsic (disorder-related) effect
due to spin-dependent scattering of the charge carriers, or an intrinsic effect which can be
described in terms of the Berry phase effect in the crystal momentum space (k-space).
1.2 Evolution of Resistance Concepts:
Electrical characterization of materials evolved in three levels of understanding.
In the early 1800s, the resistance R and conductance G were treated as measurable
physical quantities obtainable from two-terminal I-V measurements (i.e., current I,
voltage V). Later, it became obvious that the resistance alone was not comprehensive
enough since different sample shapes gave different resistance values. This led to the
understanding (second level) that an intrinsic material property like resistivity (or
conductivity) is required that is not influenced by the particular geometry of the sample.
For the first time, this allowed scientists to quantify the current-carrying capability of the
material and carry out meaningful comparisons between different samples.
By the early 1900s, it was realized that resistivity was not a fundamental material
parameter, since different materials can have the same resistivity. Also, a given material
might exhibit different values of resistivity, depending upon how it was synthesized. This
is especially true for semiconductors, where resistivity alone could not explain all
observations. Theories of electrical conduction were constructed with varying degrees of
success, but until the advent of quantum mechanics, no generally acceptable solution to
the problem of electrical transport was developed. This led to the definitions of carrier
density n and mobility µ (third level of understanding) which are capable of dealing with
even the most complex electrical measurements today.
precise quantization of the Hall conductance in units of was not recognized until
February of 1980. Five years later, in 1985, Klaus von Klitzing was awarded Nobel Prize
in Physics for the discovery of quantum Hall effect.
This was not the end of the story. In 1982 D.C.Tsui, H.L.Störmer, and
A.C.Gossard discovered the existance of Hall steps with rational fractional quantum
numbers, which is called fractional quantum Hall effect. R.B.Laughlin's wave functions
established a very good, though not yet perfect understanding of this phenomenon. Today,
the study of quasiparticles of fractional charge and fractional statistics are still active
areas of research
1.1.1 Explanation about Hall Effect:
The Hall effect comes about due to the nature of the
current flow in the conductor. Current consists of many
small charge-carrying "particles" (typically electrons)
which experience a force (called the Lorentz Force) due to
the magnetic field. Some of these charge elements end up
forced to the sides of the conductors, where they create a
pool of net charge. This is only notable in larger conductors where the separation between
the two sides is large enough.
One very important feature of the Hall Effect is that it differentiates between
positive charges moving in one direction and negative charges moving in the opposite.
The Hall Effect offered the first real proof that electric currents in metals are carried by
moving electrons, not by protons. Interestingly enough, the Hall effect also showed that
in some substances (especially semiconductors), it is more appropriate to think of the
current as positive "holes" moving rather than negative electrons.
By measuring the Hall voltage across the element, one can determine the strength
of the magnetic field applied. This can be expressed as
where VH is the voltage across the width of the plate, I is the current across the plate
length, B is the magnetic flux density, d is the depth of the plate, e is the electron charge,
and n is the bulk density of the carrier electrons.
So-called "Hall Effect sensors" are readily available from a number of different
manufacturers, and may be used in various sensors such as fluid flow sensors, power
sensors, and pressure sensors.
In the presence of large magnetic field strength and low temperature, one can
observe the quantum Hall effect, which is the quantization of the Hall resistance.
In ferromagnetic materials (and paramagnetic materials in a magnetic field), the Hall
resistivity includes an additional contribution, known as the Anomalous Hall Effect (or
the Extraordinary Hall effect), which depends directly on the magnetization of the
material, and is often much larger than the ordinary Hall effect. (Note that this effect is
not due to the contribution of the magnetization to the total magnetic field.) Although a
well-recognized phenomenon, there is still debate about its origins in the various
materials. The anomalous Hall effect can be either an extrinsic (disorder-related) effect
due to spin-dependent scattering of the charge carriers, or an intrinsic effect which can be
described in terms of the Berry phase effect in the crystal momentum space (k-space).
The objective of the Hall measurement in the van der Pauw technique is to
determine the sheet carrier density ns by measuring the Hall voltage VH. The Hall voltage
measurement consists of a series of voltage measurements with a constant current I and a
constant magnetic field B applied perpendicular to the plane of the sample. Conveniently,
the same sample, shown again in Fig. 3, can also be used for the Hall measurement. To
measure the Hall voltage VH, a current I is forced through the opposing pair of contacts 1
and 3 and the Hall voltage VH (= V24) is measured across the remaining pair of contacts 2
and 4. Once the Hall voltage VH is acquired, the sheet carrier density ns can be calculated
via ns = IB/q|VH| from the known values of I, B, and q.
There are practical aspects which must be considered when carrying out Hall and
resistivity measurements. Primary concerns are ohmic contact quality and size, sample
uniformity and accurate thickness determination, thermomagnetic effects due to non
uniform temperature, and photoconductive and photovoltaic effects which can be
minimized by measuring in a dark environment. Also, the sample lateral dimensions must
be large compared to the size of the contacts and the sample thickness. Finally, one must
accurately measure sample temperature, magnetic field intensity, electrical current, and
voltage
1.3 Resistivity and Hall Measurements
The following procedures for carrying out Hall measurements provide a guideline
for the beginning user who wants to learn operational procedures, as well as a reference
for experienced operators who wish to invent and engineer improvements in the
equipment and methodology.
The difficulty in obtaining accurate results is not merely the small magnitude of the Hall
voltage since good quality digital voltmeters on the market today are quite adequate. The
more severe problem comes from the large offset voltage caused by non symmetric
contact placement, sample shape, and sometimes non uniform temperature.
The most common way to control this problem is to acquire two sets of Hall
measurements, one for positive and one for negative magnetic field direction. The
relevant definitions are as follows (Fig. 3):
I13 = dc current injected into lead 1 and taken out of lead 3. Likewise for I31, I42,
I24.
B = constant and uniform magnetic field intensity (to within 3 %) applied parallel
to the z-axis within a few degrees (Fig .3). B is positive when pointing in the positive z
direction, and negative when pointing in the negative z direction.
V24P = Hall voltage measured between leads 2 and 4 with magnetic field positive for I13.
Likewise for V42P, V13P, and V31P.
Similar definitions for V24N, V42N, V13N, V31N apply when the magnetic field B is
reversed.
HALL EFFECT CURRENT SENSOR WITH INTERNAL INTEGRATED CIRCUIT AMPLIFIER. 8MM OPENING. ZERO
CURRENT OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS MIDWAY BETWEEN THE SUPPLY VOLTAGES THAT MAINTAIN A 4 TO 8 VOLT
DIFFERENTIAL. NON-ZERO CURRENT RESPONSE IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE VOLTAGE SUPPLIED AND IS LINEAR
b) Analog multiplication
The output is proportional to both the applied magnetic field and the applied
sensor voltage. If the magnetic field is applied by a solenoid, the sensor output is
proportional to product of the current through the solenoid and the sensor voltage. As
most applications requiring computation are now performed by small (even tiny) digital
computers, the remaining useful application is in power sensing, which combines current
sensing with voltage sensing in a single Hall effect device.
c) Power sensing
By sensing the current provided to a load and using the device's applied voltage as
a sensor voltage it is possible to determine the power flowing through a device. This
power is (for direct current devices) the product of the current and the voltage. With
appropriate refinement the devices may be applied to alternating current applications
where they are capable of reading the true power produced or consumed by a device.
It was not expected, however, that the quantization rule would apply with a high
accuracy. It therefore came as a great surprise when in the spring of 1980 von Klitzing
showed experimentally that the Hall conductivity exhibits step-like plateaux which
follow this rule with exceptionally high accuracy, deviating from an integral number by
less than 0.000 000 1.Von Klitzing has through his experiment shown that the quantized
Hall effect has fundamental implications for physics. His discovery has opened up a new
research field of great importance and relevance. Because of the extremely high precision
in the quantized Hall effect, it may be used as a standard of electrical resistance.
Secondly, it affords a new possibility of measuring the earlier-mentioned constant, which
is of great importance in, for example, the fields of atomic and particle physics. These
two possibilities in measurement technique are of the greatest importance, and have been
studied in many laboratories all over the world during the five years since von Klitzing's
experiment. Of equally great interest is that we are dealing here with a new phenomenon
in quantum physics, and one whose characteristics are still only partially understood.
During the years 1975 to 1981 many Japanese researchers published experimental papers
dealing with Hall conductivity. They obtained results corresponding to Ando's at special
points, but they made no attempt to determine the accuracy. Nor was their method
especially suitable for achieving great accuracy. A considerably better method was
developed in 1978 by Th. Englert and K. von Klitzing. Their experimental curve exhibits
well defined plateaux, but the authors did not comment upon these results. The quantized
Hall Effect could in fact have been discovered then, the crucial experiment was carried
out by Klaus von Klitzing in the spring of 1980 at the Hochfelt-Magnet-Labor in
Grenoble, and published as a joint paper with G. Dorda and M. Pepper. Dorda and Pepper
had developed methods of producing the samples used in the experiment. These samples
had extremely high electron mobility, which was a prerequisite for the discovery. The
experiment clearly demonstrated the existence of plateaux with values that are quantized
with extraordinarily great precision. One also calculated a value for the constant e 2 /h
which corresponds well with the value accepted earlier. This is the work that represents
the discovery of the quantized Hall Effect. Following the original discovery, a large
number of studies have been carried out that have elucidated different aspects of the
quantized Hall Effect. The national metrological (measurement) laboratories in Germany,
the USA, Canada, Australia, France, Japan and other countries have carried out very
detailed investigations of the precision of the quantization, in order to be able to use the
effect as a standard.
The zeros and plateau in the two components of the resistivity tensor are
intimately connected and both can be understood in terms of the Landau levels (LLs)
formed in a magnetic field.
In the absence of magnetic field the density of states in 2D is constant as a
function of energy, but in field the available states clump into Landau levels separated by
the cyclotron energy, with regions of energy between the LLs where there are no allowed
states. As the magnetic field is swept the LLs move relative to the Fermi energy.
When the Fermi energy lies in a gap between LLs electrons can not move to new
states and so there is no scattering. Thus the transport is dissipationless and the resistance
falls to zero.
The classical Hall resistance was just given by B/Ne. However, the number of
current carrying states in each LL is eB/h, so when there are i LLs at energies below the
Fermi energy completely filled with ieB/h electrons, the Hall resistance is h/ie2. At integer
filling factor this is exactly the same as the classical case.
The difference in the QHE is that the Hall resistance can not change from the
quantized value for the whole time the Fermi energy is in a gap, i.e between the fields (a)
and (b) in the diagram, and so a plateau results. Only when case (c) is reached, with the
Fermi energy in the Landau level, can the Hall voltage change and a finite value of
resistance appear.
This picture has assumed a fixed Fermi energy, i.e fixed carrier density, and a
changing magnetic field. The QHE can also be observed by fixing the magnetic field and
varying the carrier density, for instance by sweeping a surface gate.
The disappearance of integer quantum Hall effect (IQHE) at strong disorder and
weak magnetic field is studied in the tight-binding lattice model.\footnote D. N. Sheng
and Z. Y. Weng, Phys. Rev. Lett., to be published. We found a generic sequence by which
the IQHE plateaus disappear: higher IQHE plateaus always vanish earlier than lower
ones, and extended levels between those plateaus do not float up in energy but keep
merging together after the destruction of plateaus. All of these features remain to be true
in the weak-field limit as shown by the thermodynamic-localization-length calculation.
Topological characteriz -ation in terms of Chern integers provides a simple physical
explanation and suggests a qualitative difference between the lattice and continuum
models. A comparison of our numerical results with recent experimental measurements
will be made.
The Integer Quantum Hall effect, first observed by K. von Klitzing, is used to
determine the fine structure constant with precision that is comparable to the precision
one gets from atomic physics. It is also used as a practical and fundamental way to define
the Ohm.
It is instructive to look at the experimental data. The graph that looks like a
staircase function has remarkably flat plateaus. The ordinates of the plateaus correspond
to integer multiple of the quantum unit of conductance, and can be measured very
precisely.
An intriguing aspect of this phenomenon is that a precision measurement of
fundamental constants is carried on a system that is only poorly characterized: Little is
actually known about the microscopic details of the system, which is artificially
fabricated, and whose precise composition and shape are not known with a precision that
is anywhere comparable with the precision that comes out of the experiment.There are
two related but somewhat distinct theoretical frameworks that attempt to answer this
question. The problem we pose has to do with their mutual relation, and the extent to
which they give a satisfactory answer.
One framework identifies the Hall conductance with a topological invariant: The
first Chern number of a certain bundle associated with the ground state of the quantum
Hamiltonian. This framework applies to a rather general class of quantum Schrodinger
Hamiltonians, including multiparticle ones. It has two principal drawbacks. The first is
that it requires an interesting topological structure: It applies in cases where there is a
Brillouin zone, and in cases where configuration space is multiply connected. The
multiple connectivity can be motivated, to some extent, by the experimental setup if one
includes the leads that connect to the two dimensional electron gas in the system. This
makes the Hall conductance a property of the system and not just of the two dimensional
electron gas. The second drawback is that the Chern number is identified with a certain
average of the Hall conductance. In some cases this average comes for free, but in
general it does not.
A second theoretical framework identifies the Hall conductance with a Fredholm
index of a certain operator. This framework is known to apply to non interacting
electrons in two dimensions where the Fredholm operator is constructed from the one
particle Schrodinger Hamiltonian of the system. This framework applies to a particularly
popular model of the Integer quantum Hall effect: non interacting electrons in two
dimensions and with random potential. Some models, like non interacting electrons in
homogenous magnetic field in two dimensions, and its generalization to a periodic
potential can be analyzed either framework, and the results agree. In these cases the Hall
conductance can be interpreted either as a Chern number or as an Index. the two
frameworks are complementary: Chern allows for electron interaction while Fredholm
does not, Chern assumes an interesting topology while Fredholm does not and requires
that configuration space be two dimensional; Chern comes with an averaging while
Fredholm does not. The Chern framework would be a satisfactory theory if one could
take the thermodynamic limit and remove the averaging. Progress in this direction has
been made by Thouless and Niu who described (implicit) conditions under which this is
the case. The Fredholm framework would be a satisfactory theory of the integer quantum
Hall effect if one could remove the restriction of non interacting electrons.
Overview of IQHE:
In the following we give some simple theoretical models which reflect the
properties of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in a strong magnetic field. Starting
from the Drude model, we show how Landau quantization occurs in the simplest
quantum mechanical model, and give a rather simplified model (the high field model)
that incorporates a disorder potential and shows the occurrence of localized and extended
states. The sequence of different plateaus seen in the Hall resistivity in a field sweep
experiment can be described theoretically as a sequence of phase transitions between
different Quantum Hall States. This result in scaling laws for the transport coefficients in
the proximity of the transition points that can be verified experimentally, an open
question is how the quantum Hall effect will vanish at small magnetic fields in the limit
of zero temperature. We will present one possibility, the levitation of extended states. We
will mention the gauge argument put forward by R. Laughlin, that explains the exact
quantization of the Hall conductivity by gauge invariance. Last we will mention the open
conductor approach to the quantum Hall effect by M. Büttiker, that describes electronic
transport in terms of reception and transmission of charge carriers.
Here m is the electron mass, v the velocity vector, B and E are the magnetic and electric
field vectors, respectively. Choosing B along the z-direction (B = (0; 0;B)), setting ≡ 0
(steady state condition) and using the equation for the current density, we get
the following expression for the conductivity tensor with the mobility _
vD = -E/B is called the drift velocity. The coordinates have been separated into a slowly
varying part (X(t); Y (t)), and a rapidly varying part (ε(t); η(t)), where the slow motion is
a constant drift with velocity vD along y, and the rapid motion is a cyclotron motion
around the center coordinates with the frequency we. The electron performs
a cycloid motion, drifting perpendicular both to the magnetic and electric field, along an
equipotential line.
Figure3.2: Electron trajectory in a classical picture
Choosing the direction of B along the z-axis, one can use the Landau gauge for the vector
potential: A = (0;Bx;0). This gauge is appropriate for systems with translational
symmetry along y. Another possible gauge is the symmetric gauge A = ½ B× r, which is a
good choice for systems with axial symmetry Assuming further that V (r) = V (x; y)+Vz
(z), the Schrodinger equation will separate into a part depending on z, and the remaining,
now effectively two dimensional part depending on x and y. Note that Vz(z) can be zero
(as assumed by Landau for the 3D case), or can be given by a confinement potential
imposed e. g. by a semiconductor heterostructure, therefore creating a "real" 2D system.
In any of the two cases the results for the remaining 2D problem in the (x,y)-plane are the
same.
W is the extension of the system in y-direction, m is an integer, and Hn are the Hermite
polynomials. The states (x; y) are delocalized (plane waves) in y-direction, and
localized (harmonic oscillator states) around X in x-direction. Note however that the
shape of the wave functions depend strongly on the gauge used for A. The energy eigen
values are called Landau levels
As the energy of an electron is independent of its x-position, the eigen values are
infinitely degenerate, and the density of states (DOS)
is
ill-defined (L is the extension of the system in x-direction). To get around this problem,
one considers only states with
_
and takes the limit L afterwards. This method, also called the Landau counting of
area of width around X in x-direction.Note that using the symmetric gauge for
A, one gets the same energy Eigenvalues, but the wave functions are localized on a circle
with radius p2m lB (m is a non-negative integer)
3.2.2 Disorder
In real semiconductor samples some kind of disorder potential, caused for example by
lattice defects or ionized donors is always present. The exact calculation of the effect of a
random potential onto the energy spectrum of the problem is not possible in a
straightforward way, on one hand because it is by far not clear what shape the disorder
potential should have (one can think of the whole range from an unscreened 1/r Coulomb
potential to a completely screened δ-potential), and on the other hand the mathematical
effort even for the simplest situation of a random arrangement of δ-potentials is
considerable. It is clear however, that the degeneracy of the Landau levels will be lifted
by an additional potential, and the delta-peaks in the density of states transform into
structures with a finite width. A prominent approach to calculate the shape of the
disorder-broadened Landau levels is the self consistent Born approximation (SCBA),
where only single scattering events are taken into account. The SCBA gives an elliptic
function as shape for the broadened Landau levels, models including multiple scattering
events give a Gaussian shape
where Γn is a Landau level dependent width. In addition to the broadening of the Landau
levels, a disorder potential will change the nature of most of the electronic states in the
Landau level. Except the states in the middle of the level, which will be extended over the
sample, all electronic states will localize. This can be shown easily with the help of the
semi-phenomenological high field model
Taking the limit B , one can neglect ζ and η in the argument of V , as their
expectation values are of the order of The Hamiltonian then separates, and the
first part is equivalent to the Landau level energies
_
This implies that dV/dt vanishes, so the potential energy of the electron is
Figure 3.3: Disorder potential with closed orbits (localized states) and open orbits (extended states)
constant.
We can say that, in the limit of high B, the electron is delocalized on an area of
Figure 3.4: Schematic density of states for the disordered Landau model.
The grey regions represent localized states.
Electron trajectories for the plateau regime are shown in figure 3.5. There is no net
current flowing in the bulk of the sample, and transport takes place only in the edge states
of the sample. As there are no extended states in the vicinity of EF , the longitudinal
conductivity σxx vanishes. The Hall conductivity is determined by the number n of
occupied Landau levels below EF , and can be shown to be equal to n e 2./ħ In the
transition regime, when EF lies in a region of extended states, electron transport in the
bulk of the sample is possible, and therefore dissipative currents will flow in the sample
giving a nonzero longitudinal conductivity and a Hall conductivity that lies between two
quantized values. Typical electron trajectories for the transition region are shown in
figure 3.6. An interesting question is, how the crossover between these two regimes will
look like. According to the high field model (chapter 3.2.2), electron trajectories in the
plateau region are closed, with the diameter of the closed loops increasing as the Fermi
energy approaches an area of extended states. For a real world (finite size) sample, the
system should enter the transition regime as soon as the average diameter of the electron
trajectories exceeds the sample size L. Note that for finite temperatures, L has to be
plateaus replaced by an effective sample size
Figure 3.6: electron trajectories for the transition region between two
,which corresponds to the phase coherence length of the charge carriers. This length,
which is usually given by LФ or Lin, depends on temperature with a powerlaw
2 ) Theoretically the transition between two quantum Hall states is
being described Ф as a continuous quantum phase transition, order parameter being the
localization length ξ which corresponds to the mean diameter of a closed electron
trajectory. At the transition point, when different localized trajectories come close to each
other, electrons are able to tunnel between different localized states close to a saddle
point. In this picture, the transition between the two regimes is a quantum-percolation
transition. The order parameter ξ has been predicted to diverge with a power law at the
critical energy of the transition: The most prominent model for the
calculation of the critical exponent _ is the Chalker-Coddington model, which calculates
the percolation exponent for a regular lattice of saddle points. The result for an analytic
solution is ν = 7/3, a value which has been verified numerically by lattice models for
different disorder potentials. The critical conductivity σxx(Ec) was found to be e2/2h. In a
typical quantum Hall experiment one therefore sees a series of phase transitions between
different plateau states, with a values of σxx = 0 in the two neighboring plateau regions,
reaching a value of σxx = 1/2 at the transition field Bc. Bc corresponds to the critical
energy Ec = ħωe. As an electronic state has to be considered extended as soon as its
localization length is larger than the effective sample size (ξ> Lin), the width of the area
of extended states around the critical energy Ec will shrink with decreasing temperature.
As Lin increases with a powerlaw for decreasing temperature, the area of extended states
should shrink to zero width for T 0. The transition region between two Quantum Hall
States should therefore become more and more narrow for decreasing temperature. As it
was shown by Pruisken the transport coefficients in the transition region should be
determined by a regular function that only depends on a singe scaling variable:
This makes it possible to observe the product of the localization length exponent ν and
the exponent of the inelastic scattering length p for example in the half width of the
peak in ρxx, or the slope of ρxy at Bc:
_
Theoretical calculations predict a value of μ = 0:43.
Figure 3.7: Sharpening of the transition between two quantum Hall plateaus for decreasing temperature.
The critical field Bc usually corresponds to a magnetic field value where the .Fermi
energy EF coincides with the center of a Landau level. However, there exists an
exception to this rule.
Figure 3.8: Left: Magneto conductance for a quantum Hall system according to the floating up scenario, in
the limit of very high temperature (Drude) and zero temperature. Right: Extended states in the floating up
scenario. Dashed lines represent the conventional Landau levels.
Any time an extended state crosses the Fermi level, there will be a quantum Hall
transition visible in the transport data of a quantum Hall transition at low magnetic fields
were made in strongly disordered systems, that only show a single quantum Hall phase,
and where a clear transition from the low field insulating state to the corresponding
quantum Hall plateau at σxy = 1 exists. Transitions between higher quantum Hall states
have only been observed in the high field regime (ωt < 1) up to now.
The transport coefficients for a system in the limit T 0, according to the floating up
scenario, are shown in figure 3.8.
Figure.3.9: Geometry considered by R. B. Laughlin in his gauge argument for the exact quantization of the
Hall conductance.
is an additional magnetic flux Φo that can be varied freely without changing the value of
B, passing through the hole of the system. The system then should be gauge invariant
under a flux change ΔФo by an integral multiple of the flux quantum h/e. An adiabatic
change of Φ0 by a single flux quantum should therefore leave the system unchanged.
Assuming a DOS as shown in the previous chapter, the effect of the flux change ΔΦo
onto the electronic wave functions will depend on the nature of the states at the Fermi
energy. Localized states will just acquire an additional phase factor, they won't be
affected otherwise Extended states however will suffer an electromotive force, and will
be pushed to the exterior of the sample. After Laughlin, gauge invariance requires an
integer number of electrons to be transferred across the sample under a flux change ΔΦo
= h/e, which in turn requires the Hall conductivity to be quantized. It should be noted that
some authors claim the gauge argument presented to be incomplete. After Laughlin's
gauge argument has been superceded of what is nowadays called the topological
approach to the quantum Hall effect. In this theoretical approach the Hall conductivity is
identified with the Chern number, which is a topological invariant
simplified a little bit in the case of the quantum Hall effect. In the case of the plateau
regime (EF located in a region of localized states) the only current carrying states are the
previously mentioned edge states. As these edge states are moreover sufficiently isolated
from all other current carrying states (e. g. on the opposite side of the sample), they are
perfectly transmitting (Tmn =1), as there are no states an electron could scatter to. As a
consequence of this absence of backscattering the longitudinal conductance of the sample
vanishes (gxx = 0), and the Hall conductance corresponds to e2/h times the number of
occupied edge states or channels (gxy = n.e2/h). An illustration of the classically calculated
electron orbits in the quantum Hall plateau regime is shown in figure 3.10.
After the completion of this thesis I conclude the following facts that:
The quantum Hall effect is a quantum-mechanical version of the Hall effect, observed in
two-dimensional systems of electrons subjected to low temperatures and strong magnetic
fields, in which the Hall conductance σ takes on the quantized values
where e is the elementary charge and h is Planck's constant. In the "ordinary" quantum
Hall effect, known as the integer quantum Hall effect, ν takes on integer values (ν = 1, 2,
3, etc.).
There is another type of quantum Hall effect, known as the fractional quantum Hall
effect, in which ν can occur as a vulgar fraction with an odd denominator (ν = 2/7, 1/3,
2/5, 3/5, etc.)
The integral quantum Hall effect can be explained solely by the filling of the Landau
levels. Each Landau level has a certain capacity to accept electrons, which depends on the
magnetic field B. By changing the magnetic field, we change the ability of each Landau
level to accommodate electrons. When there is a match between the capacity of the
Landau levels and the number of electrons in the sample, an integer number of Landau
levels are exactly filled, and the integral quantum Hall effect is produced
quantum mechanics is one of the pillars of modern physics.Quantum Hall effect The quantum Hall effect
is a quantum-mechanical version of the Hall effect, observed in two-dimensional electron systems
subjected to low temperatures and strong magnetic fields, in which the Hall conductance σ takes on the
quantized values
where e is the elementary charge and h is Planck's constant. In the "ordinary" quantum Hall effect,
known as the integer quantum Hall effect, ν takes on integer values (ν = 1, 2, 3, etc.). There is another type
of quantum Hall effect, known as the fractional quantum Hall effect, in which ν can occur as a vulgar
fraction (ν = 2/7, 1/3, 2/5, 3/5, 5/2 etc.)The quantization of the Hall conductance has the important property
of being incredibly precise. Actual measurements of the Hall conductance have been found to be integer or
fractional multiples of e²/h to nearly one part in a billion. This phenomenon, referred to as "exact
quantization", has been shown to be a subtle manifestation of the principle of gauge invariance. It has
allowed for the definition of a new practical standard for electrical resistance: the resistance unit h/e²,
roughly equal to 25 812.8 ohms, is referred to as the von Klitzing constant RK (after Klaus von Klitzing, the
discoverer of exact quantization) and since 1990, a fixed conventional value RK-90 is used in resistance
calibrations worldwide. The quantum Hall effect also provides an extremely precise independent
determination of the fine structure constant, a quantity of fundamental importance in quantum
electrodynamics.
The fractional quantum Hall effect continues to be influential in theories about topological order
For people who can read Dutch, there is a short article by Kareljan Schoutens,
published in the march 1997 issue of the faculty quasiperiodical "Afleiding".
The classical Hall effect
The Hall effect was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.
The Hall effect can be put to use in several ways. One application is magnetic
field strength measurement. Since the Hall voltage is proportional to the current
and the field strength, sending a known current through a medium and measuring
the Hall voltage tells you the field strength.
Another nice thing is that you can reveal the nature of the mobile charges in a
currentcarrying medium. The Lorentz force will push a moving hole (positive
charge) and a moving electron (negative charge) in exactly the same direction,
since they travel in opposite ways; from the sign of the Hall voltage you can tell if
there are more mobile holes than electrons or vice versa.
The discovery of the quantised Hall effect in 1980 won von Klitzing the 1985
Nobel prize.
nu := electron density*h / magnetic field*e
shows extremely flat plateaux at integer multiples of e²/h around integer values of
the ratio `nu'. (h is Planck's constant, e is the electron charge.) Furthermore, the
`ordinary' conductance plotted as a function of nu is zero everywhere except
where the Hall conductance has a transition from one plateau to another. In other
words, there are whole intervals of nu where the voltage drop is completely at
right angles to the current, with Hall conductance very accurately quantised in
terms of the fundamental conductance quantum e²/h; in between these intervals,
the longitudinal conductance has a peak, while the Hall conductance goes from
one plateau value to another.
In 1982, Tsui, Gossard and Störmer, working with samples that contained less
impurities, discovered the socalled "fractional" quantum Hall effect. Here the
conductance is quantised in fractional multiples of e²/h, like 1/3, 1/5, 2/3, 2/5 etc
etc, always with odd denominator. Whereas the integer quantisation could
perhaps have been expected, the fractional effect came as a total surprise. Tsui
and Störmer were awarded the 1998 physics Nobel prize for the discovery,
sharing it with Laughlin, who was the first to come with a theoretical description.
Why do we care?
Doing research is hard work and condensed matter systems are particularly
opaque. So the question naturally arises: why are we working on this, are we
masochists or what? To which the answer is of course, Yes; we are theoretical
physicists, remember? But apart from that, there are many reasons to be
interested in the quantum Hall effect.
• A very obvious first reason is that a large and growing part of the world's
information storage and manipulation depends on the movement of
electrons through semiconductors. Everything that could possibly be
known about the subject should therefore be known.
• For those who immediately want to know whether something has practical
applications: The integer quantum Hall effect is now used as the
international standard of resistance. The incredibly accurate quantisation
of the Hall resistance to approximately one part in 108 makes this possible.
• The constant e²/h is proportional to the `fine structure constant' in
electrodynamics, which basically tells how strongly light interacts with
matter. The quantum Hall effect provides an independent way of
accurately measuring this constant.
• To a theoretical physicist, the fractional effect is a mouthwatering feast of
new theories, nice mathematics, exotic statistics and topology galore. I will
try to explain this below.
The discovery of the quantum Hall effect showed that the theories of electron
transport in disordered twodimensional systems were inadequate. In the early
eighties a simple explanation was found for the integer effect in terms of
noninteracting electrons, i.e. electrons that do not repel each other. Such
particles `feel' each other only through Pauli's exclusion principle, which says that
no two fermions can occupy exactly the same quantum state. In this
approximation you only have to figure out what the possible states are for one
electron and then combine them in a simple way to form a many electron state;
you just fill the available states with electrons, beginning with the lowest energy.
It turns out that the quantum states for an electron in a magnetic field, moving in
a twodimensional random potential energy landscape, fall into two classes: so
called "localised" and "extended" states. Roughly speaking, the localised states
are bound to one or more `peaks' or `chasms' in the energy landscape and have
an energy corresponding to the `height' were they are sitting. In contrast, an
extended state spreads through the whole sample and its energy is that of a
particle that does not feel the random potential. (The energy levels of an
undisturbed electron are called Landau levels.) The localised states, being bound
to one small region, cannot contribute to electron transport. By putting extra
electrons into localised states it is therefore possible to change the parameter
`nu' without changing the conductance! This explains the occurrence of plateaux.
Only when the new electrons reach a Landau level does the conductance
change, because now the extended states come into play. The fact that the
plateaux of the Hall conductance lie exactly at integer multiples of e²/h can be
explained by relating the sample with its random potential to a hypothetical
situation without impurities, but I am not going to elaborate on this.
[Picture of the density of states; 3Kb]
The simplest theoretical explanations for the Hall effects already generated new
ideas like magnetic flux attachment, incompressible quantum fluids and the
importance of the `size' of wave functions (instead of only the question how many
electron states exist in a certain energy interval). It didn't stop there. By taking
these ideas a little step further, interesting predictions were made and links were
discovered with other branches of theoretical physics.
• The incompressible quantum fluid and composite fermion picture
immediately predicts the existence of particlelike disturbances of the
electron gas ("quasiparticles") with very unusual properties. These
quasiparticles can have a fractional charge like 1/3 or 1/5 and also
fractional statistics. The term `statistics' refers to the behaviour of a
wave function under exchange of identical particles. All known particles
are either fermions (the wave function acquires a factor 1 under
exchange) or bosons (factor +1). The quasiparticles in the fractional effect
can have factors like (1)1/3. The only other physical system that we know
of today where fractional statistics may be found is liquid helium.
• It turns out that interesting things happen at the edge of a quantum Hall
system. This can be roughly understood by noting that you can not
cheaply change the density of an incompressible fluid, but you can change
its form; and that happens at the surface. The lowenergy disturbances at
the edge are described by bosonic particles moving in one direction,
"chiral edge bosons". Roughly speaking, these bosons can combine to
form a quasiparticle on the edge that behaves like a composite fermion or
like a particle with fractional charge and statistics.
• The theory of edge bosons (when neglecting Coulomb interactions) has
socalled conformal symmetry. I will not elaborate on this, but symmetry
always comes in handy when you want to solve a problem, and two
dimensional conformally invariant systems have an infinite number of
symmetries. Conformal field theory, developed at lightning speed after
Belavin, Polyakov and Zamolodchikov's famous 1984 paper, has been
successfully applied to many problems in statistical mechanics and
condensed matter.
• Particles with unusual statistics can be described by ChernSimons field
theory. This is a topological theory, which means that it cares only about
the electrons' global motion, for instance how often they circle around one
another. Flux attachment is incorporated in a natural way. By arguments of
gauge invariance, ChernSimons theory is directly related to chiral edge
bosons.
• The chiral edge bosons are related to the CalogeroSutherland model and
Luttinger liquids.
• In everything mentioned above, the electron spin has been neglected. (In
a strong enough magnetic field all spins point in the same direction.) If one
does take these spins into account, one finds interesting spin structures
called Skyrmions.
Recent experiments
[This was still under construction in 1999 and therefore not so "recent" any more.]
Particles with fractional charge and statistics can at present only be probed at the
edge. Chang et al. have done an experiment where electrons tunnel from a
normal metal into the edge of a nu=1/3 quantum Hall sample. They found a
currentvoltage relation for the tunneling that goes like I ~ V for low voltage and
like I ~ V3 for higher voltage, in accordance with theory. The temperature
dependence was also in good agreement with theory.
In an experiment by Milliken et al., the tunneling current was measured between
two edges of a nu=1/3 quantum Hall sample as a function of temperature and
gate voltage.
In an experiment by Chang et al., electrons were tunneled from an ordinary metal
into quantum Hall samples with a very sharp edge, for filling fractions between
1/4 and 1. They obtained the surprising result I ~ V1/nu. Surprising for two reasons:
First, one would naively expect the power of V (the socalled tunneling exponent)
to be quantised when the conductances are quantised. Instead, the tunneling
exponent varies continously with the (nonquantised) filling fraction! Second,
even right in the middle of conductance plateaux the 1/nu result contradicts
calculations made purely on the basis of chiral edge boson theories, except for
the simplest cases nu=1 and nu=1/3.
We have proposed an explanation for this experiment, based on Coulomb
interactions between edge bosons and localised states in the bulk.
(Here I wanted to add a few words on shot noise, nuclear magnetic resonance,
Knight shift, Skyrmions etc, but never managed to find the time.)
[An apology: In spite of all my good intentions, this part is completely unreadable
for nonphysicists and perhaps even for many physicists.]
The attentive reader will have noticed that in the `simple theories' the
combination of disorder and Coulomb interactions has been carefully avoided.
The reason is that there is nothing simple about this combination. It is, in fact, a
notoriously difficult problem. The Coulomb interactions prevent you from using
the singleparticle wave functions with which you can attack the disorder, while
the disorder breaks the symmetry that would help you tackle the interaction
problem.
The only hope left is quantum field theory. Write down an action that contains all
the ingredients: 2D electrons in a magnetic field, a random potential, Coulomb
interaction and a ChernSimons gauge field that will generate flux attachment.
Put the action in an imaginary time path integral. Then perform the "shake and
stir" of field theory: Take the disorder average by integrating over the random
potential. Identify the massive modes and integrate them out in order to obtain an
effective action for the physically interesting massless modes. Finally, do a
renormalisation group analysis that tells you how observables will depend on
length scale.
Each of these steps introduces its own problems, which are, in principle,
solvable. The solutions are sometimes quite peculiar. The presence of disorder,
for example, requires you to average the logarithm of the partition sum, not the
partition sum itself. This forces you to perform, on top of everything else, the so
called replica trick, taking N identical copies of the system and then sending N to
zero. Somewhere in the derivation of the effective action, you are forced to put a
cutoff on frequency space, destroying the gauge invariance of the theory. Only by
sending this cutoff to infinity at the end of all calculations is the gauge invariance
restored.
AND WHY DO YOU THINK I DIRECTED YOU TO THE STABLES? THINK CAREFULLY, NOW. Mort
hesitated. He had been thinking carefully, in between counting wheel barrows. He'd wondered if it had
been to coordinate his hand and eye, or teach him the importance, on the human scale, of small tasks,
or make him realise that even great men must start on the bottom. None of these explanations
sounded exactly right. "I think", he began. YES? "Well, I think it was because you were up to your
knees in horseshit, to tell you the truth." Death looked at him for a long time. Mort shifted uneasily from
one foot to the other. ABSOLUTELY CORRECT, snapped Death. CLARITY OF THOUGHT.
REALISTIC APPROACH. VERY IMPORTANT IN A JOB LIKE OURS.
— Terry Pratchett, Mort
Between 1995 and 1999 I did my PhD research on the quantum Hall effect. My
PhD supervisor was Aad Pruisken. Other members of the condensed matter
theory club at that time were prof. Kareljan Schoutens, Mischa Baranov, Sathya
Guruswamy, Ronald van Elburg and Eddy Ardonne.
My research in a nutshell
The starting point of my research can be roughly summarised in one sentence by
saying that we have discovered a new symmetry in Finkelstein's theory for
interacting electrons in a disordered medium and that we have extended it in
such a way that the electrons can be coupled to gauge fields. The rest of my
activities has basically consisted of capitalising on this to obtain new results for
both the bulk and edge of quantum Hall systems.
The coupling is by no means a simple procedure. Simple attempts give rise to
infinities and problems with the U(1) gauge invariance. The way we did it was by
first noting that the Finkelstein theory has a hidden symmetry (which we dubbed
"Finvariance"). In the presence of longrange interactions, the theory is invariant
under a spatially constant shift of the plasmon field. (The plasmon field is roughly
speaking defined as the Coulomb potential at a certain point in the sample due to
all the other charges elsewhere in the sample). What is required for the
invariance to hold is a very special way of treating frequency cutoffs. The shift of
the plasmon field is reminiscent of a gauge transformation of the electromagnetic
scalar potential; this fact, together with the cutoff prescription, made it possible to
include U(1) gauge fields in the theory.
Having gauge fields at your disposal is obviously a great advantage. It allows you
to do linear response calculations and to perform the ChernSimons flux
attachment trick, which is exactly what we have done. Apart from that, the F
invariance enabled us to do renormalisation group calculations to twoloop order.
My last QHE work was on edge states. In the limit of zero bulk density of states,
our 2+1 dimensional theory becomes a 1+1 dimensional theory of chiral
"relativistic" edge bosons that has the same structure as phenomenological edge
models, but yields new insights.
For more information I refer to the publications listed below and references
therein. I decided to highlight one of our results here, because we believe it
settles a controversy alive among people working on quantum Hall edges.
One of the nice things about the work I've been doing is that, although it may look
like a lot of arcane formalism, it can actually be directly related to experiments. In
our approach to tunneling processes we found that there is an important
difference between a tunneling experiment and a measurement of the Hall
conductance. The Hall conductance is a nonequilibrium property (electrons are
injected into an edge channel and don't get time to equilibrate with the localised
bulk states), while by tunneling one probes the equilibrium energy eigenstates.
Due to the presence of localised bulk states and the Coulomb interactions
between all states, the many body eigenfunctions are not restricted to the edge.
A tunneling experiment therefore feels the bulk as well as the edge.
We have done a calculation that shows that the Coulomb interactions can be
effectively taken care of by writing down a theory that lives only on the edge but
has modified constants. To be more precise, if we are sitting at filling fraction nu =
nu0 + delta, with nu0 the center of a plateau, then the noninteracting theory would
contain a constant nu0 and the interactions would modify this to nu0 + delta = nu.
Another effect of the interactions turns out to be that the socalled "neutral
modes", which are degrees of freedom that are not related to the charge of the
electrons, get strongly suppressed. As a result of all this we find a currentvoltage
relation of the form I ~ V1/nu, in agreement with the experiments.
happens when Ey = vxBz .The Hall coefficient is defined as RH = Ey /Bzjx and since the
current density is jx = vxNq , RH =1/Nq in the case of a single species of charge carrier. RH
can thus be measured to find N the density of carriers in the material. Often this
transverse voltage is measured at fixed current and the Hall resistance recorded. It can
easily be seen that this Hall resistance increases linearly with magnetic field.
In a two-dimensional metal or semiconductor the Hall effect is also observed, but at low
temperatures a series of steps appear in the Hall resistance as a function of magnetic field
instead of the monotonic increase. What is more, these steps occur at incredibly precise
values of resistance which are the same no matter what sample is investigated. The
resistance is quantised in units of h/e2 divided by an integer. This is the QUANTUM
HALL EFFECT.
The
figure
shows
the
integer
quantum Hall effect in a GaAs-GaAlAs heterojunction, recorded at 30mK. The QHE can
be seen at liquid helium temperatures, but in the millikelvin regime the plateaux are much
wider. Also included is the diagonal component of resistivity, which shows regions of
zero resistance corresponding to each QHE plateau. In this figure the plateau index is,
from top right, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8.... Odd integers correspond to the Fermi energy being in a
spin gap and even integers to an orbital LL gap. As the spin splitting is small compared to
LL gaps, the odd integer plateaux are only seen at the highest magnetic fields. Important
points to note are:
When the Fermi energy lies in a gap between LLs electrons can not move to new states
and so there is no scattering. Thus the transport is dissipationless and the resistance falls
to zero.
The classical Hall resistance was just given by B/Ne. However, the number of current
carrying states in each LL is eB/h, so when there are i LLs at energies below the Fermi
energy completely filled with ieB/h electrons, the Hall resistance is h/ie2. At integer
filling factor this is exactly the same as the classical case.
The difference in the QHE is that the Hall resistance can not change from the quantised
value for the whole time the Fermi energy is in a gap, i.e between the fields (a) and (b) in
the diagram, and so a plateau results. Only when case (c) is reached, with the Fermi
energy in the Landau level, can the Hall voltage change and a finite value of resistance
appear.
This picture has assumed a fixed Fermi energy, i.e fixed carrier density, and a changing
magnetic field. The QHE can also be observed by fixing the magnetic field and varying
the carrier density, for instance by sweeping a surface gate.
In some materials there are more than one species of charge carrier. These may be
elecrons in different conduction band minima, different spatially confined subbands or
electrons and holes simultaneously present. The numbers and mobilities of all the species
have to be considered to find the transport coefficients.
If there are electrons and holes the total filling factor is the difference between the filling
factors for electrons and holes. At certain fields this can be zero, at which point the Hall
resistance itself becomes zero!
Introduction
The resistivity measurements of semiconductors can not reveal whether one or two types
of carriers are present; nor distinguish between them. However, this information can be
obtained from Hall Coefficient measurements, which are also basic tools for the
determination of carrier density and mobilities in conjuction with resistivity
measurement.
Theory
As you are undoubtedly aware, a static magnetic field has no effect on charges unless
they are in motion. When the charges flow, a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the
direction of flow produces a mutually perpendicular force on the charges. When this
happens, electrons and holes will be separated by opposite forces. They will in turn
produce an electric field ( h) which depends on the cross product of the magnetic
intensity, , and the current density, J.
h =R x
Where Vh is the Hall voltage appearing between the two surfaces perpendicular to y and I
= yz
Hall Probe
Intersil 3½ digit single chip A/D Converter This power supply, specially designed for
ICL 7107 have been used. It has high Hall Probe, provides 100% protection
accuracy like, auto zero to less than 10µV, against crystal burn-out due to excessive
zero drift of less than 1µV/°C, input bias current. The supply is a highly
current of 10pA max. and roll over error of
less than one count. Since the use of
internal reference causes the degradation in
performance due to internal heating, an
external reference has been used. Digital
voltmeter is much more convenient to use
in Hall experiment, because the input
voltage of either polarity can be measured.
Specifications
The figure shows the fractional quantum Hall effect in a GaAs-GaAlAs heterojunction,
recorded at 30mK. Also included is the diagonal component of resistivity, which shows
regions of zero resistance corresponding to each FQHE plateau.
The principle series of fractions that have been seen are listed below. They generally get
weaker going from left to right and down the page:
o 1/3, 2/5, 3/7, 4/9, 5/11, 6/13, 7/15...
o 2/3, 3/5, 4/7, 5/9, 6/11, 7/13...
o 5/3, 8/5, 11/7, 14/9...
o 4/3, 7/5, 10/7, 13/9...
o 1/5, 2/9, 3/13...
o 2/7, 3/11...
o 1/7....
(The fractional quantum Hall effect (FQHE) is concerned centrally with filling factor.
This is usually writen as the greek letter nu, or v due to the limitations of HTML.)
For the state at filling factor 1/3 Laughlin found a many body wavefunction with a lower
energy than the single particle energy. This can also be adopted at any fraction
v=1/(2m+1), but the energy difference is smaller at higher m and hence the fractions
become weaker along the series 1/3, 1/5, 1/7....
All tests of Laughlin's wavefunction have shown it to be correct. The difficulty that arises
is in accounting for all the other fractions at v=p/q where p>1 and simple wavefunctions
can not be written down. It is also necessary to explain why q is always odd.
The original explanation, developed by Haldane and Halperin, used a hierarchical model.
Quasi-electrons or quasi-holes excited out of the Laughlin ground state would condense
into higher order fractions, known as daughter states e.g. starting from the 1/3 parent state
addition of quasi-electrons leads to 2/5 and quasi-holes leads to 2/7. Then quasi-particles
are excited out of these daughter states which condense again into still more daughter
states..... and so on down the hierarchy.
There are several problems or unsatisfactory features within the hierarchical model:
• it does not explain which daughter state (quasi-electron or -hole) should be the
stronger
• after a few layers of the hierarchy there will be more quasi-particles than there
were electrons in the original system
• between fractions the system is not well defined
• the quasi-particles carry fractional charge
More recently a model of composite fermions (CFs) has been introduced. A composite
fermion consists of an electron (or hole) bound to an even number of magnetic flux
quanta. Formation of these CFs accounts for all the many body interactions, so only
single particle effects remain. The model exploits the similarities observed in
measurements of the IQHE and FQHE to map the latter onto the former. Thus the
fractional QHE of electrons in an external magnetic field now becomes the integer QHE
of the new composite fermions in an effective magnetic field. The CFs have integer
charge, just like electrons, but because they move in an effective magnetic field they
appear to have a fractional topological charge.
The composite fermion picture correctly predicts all the observed fractions including
their relative intensities and the order they appear in as sample quality increases or
temperature decreases. It also shows v=1/2, where the effective field for the CFs is zero,
to be a special state with metallic characteristics.