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The model is used in developing products and understanding networks. Also see the notes below the figure.
OSI divides telecommunication into seven layers. The layers are in two groups. The upper four layers are used whenever a message passes from or to a user. The lower three layers are used when any message passes through the host computer. Messages intended for this computer pass to the upper layers. Messages destined for some other host are not passed up to the upper layers but are forwarded to another host. The seven layers are: Layer 7: The application layer ...This is the layer at which communication partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any
constraints on data syntax are identified. (This layer is not the application itself, although some applications may perform application layer functions.) Layer 6: The presentation layer ...This is a layer, usually part of an operating system, that converts incoming and outgoing data from one presentation format to another (for example, from a text stream into a popup window with the newly arrived text). Sometimes called the syntax layer. Layer 5: The session layer ...This layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogs between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination. Layer 4: The transport layer ...This layer manages the end-to-end control (for example, determining whether all packets have arrived) and error-checking. It ensures complete data transfer. Layer 3: The network layer ...This layer handles the routing of the data (sending it in the right direction to the right destination on outgoing transmissions and receiving incoming transmissions at the packet level). The network layer does routing and forwarding. Layer 2: The data-link layer ...This layer provides synchronization for the physical level and does bit-stuffing for strings of 1's in excess of 5. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management. Layer 1: The physical layer ...This layer conveys the bit stream through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier.
When designing this model, taking the heterogeneity of the equipment into account was a fundamental issue. Indeed, this model was designed to allow the interconnection of heterogeneous systems for historical and economic reasons. Besides, it should not support a particular provider. Lastly, it should make it possible to adapt to the evolution of data to process without calling into question the investments. Thus, all this led the adoption of common communication and co-operation rules between the equipment, i.e. this model should logically carry out to an international standardization of protocols. The OSI model is not a real network architecture, because it does not really specify the services and protocols each layer should use. It rather describes what the layers must do. Nevertheless, the ISO has developed its own standards for each layer, and this independently of the OSI model, i.e. as does any manufacturer. The first works related to the OSI model date from 1977. They were based on the experience gained in the area of wide area networks and local private networks; the OSI model was indeed supposed to be valid for any type of network. In 1978, the ISO proposed this model as the standard ISO IS7498. In 1984, 12 European manufacturers, joined in 1985 by the main American manufacturers, adopted this standard.
A layer must be created every time a new level of abstraction is necessary, every layer has well defined functions, the functions of each layer must be chosen in the objective of the international standardization of protocols, boundaries between layers must be chosen so as to minimize the flows of data through interfaces, the number of layers must be such as there is no cohabitation of completely different functions within the same layer and such as it is not too difficult to control the architecture.
The low layers (1, 2, 3 and 4) are necessary to the routing of information between the two concerned ends and depend on the physical medium. The higher layers (5, 6 and 7) are responsible for the data processing relative to the management of exchanges between information processing systems. In addition, layers 1 to 3 intervene between close machines, but not between ending machines that can be separated by several routers. On the contrary, layers 4 to 7 intervene only between distant hosts.
This layer is in charge of the raw transmission of bits over a communication channel. This layer must guarantee the perfect transmission of the data (a bit set to 1 must be received as a bit set to 1). Concretely, this layer must standardize the electrical characteristics (for instance, a bit set to 1 is represented by a voltage of 5V), the mechanical characteristics (the shape of the connectors, topology...), the functional characteristics of the circuits of data and the procedures of establishment, maintenance and release of the circuit of data. The typical information unit for this layer is the bit, represented by a given voltage.
session layer, but it is able to create several network connections by session layer's process, for example to improve the bit rate. Conversely, this layer can use one network connection to transport several messages at the same time, using multiplexing. In any case, all this must transparent for the session layer. This layer is also responsible for the type of service to provide to the session layer, any finaly to the users of the network: connection-oriented or connectionless service, with or without guarantee of the delivery order, broadcast... Thus, this layer is also responsible for opening and closing network connections. One of its latest role is flow control. It is one of the most important layers, because it provides the basic service to the user and controls the whole connection process, with all the related constraints. The information unit for this layer is the message.
The presentation layer then transforms this message and adds (or not) a new header (possibly empty). The presentation layer does not know and does not have to know the possible existence of AH; actually, for the presentation layer, AH is part of the user data. Once the data processing is finished, the presentation layer sends the new "message" to the session layer and the same process starts again. The data then reach the physical layer which will indeed transmit the data to the recipient. Once received, the message will go up the layers and the headers are gradually removed until it reaches the receiving process:
The most important concept is as follows: it should be considered that each layer is programmed as if it were really horizontal, i.e. as if it dialogued directly with its receiving peer layer. When dialoguing with its peer layer, each layer adds a header and sends it (virtually, thanks to the subjacent layer) to its peer layer.
Broadcast networks are characterized the following way: all machines share the same transmission (logical) channel. Therefore when a machine sends a message on such a network, all machines without exception receive it. This is why we speak about broadcast. Machines on such a network are identified using what we call addresses. A variant to this kind of network is multicast network: only designated machines can receive the sent message. To get the message, machines must subscribe to a multicast group. On the other hand, point-to-point (peer-to-peer) networks are characterized by communication channels that link only 2 specific machine, that is to say that a message must jump from one machine to another to reach its destination. Thus, in a general way, we can consider that networks with limited dimensions (among others local networks, see below) use preferably broadcast, though wide networks preferably use a point-to-point structure.
< 1.000km Wide Area Networks (WAN) > 1.000km interconnection of wide networks (Internet)
This classification highlights also a technical classification. Technical solutions involved to make use of them are indeed quite distinct to each other. For instance, connections on a local network are realized with coaxial cables or twisted pair cables, though connections on a WAN are realized with optical fibres.
restricted geographical expanse (less than 200m), high bit rate (commonly between 10 and 100 Mbps, but it can be greater), global integration: it is managed by a unique organization.
This kind of networks is usually used to connect computers of a company. Such networks depend on a private authority. Because of the small size of this kind of networks, transmission periods are short, with few errors. All this make it easy to administrate.
middle-size geographical expanse (diameter shorter than 10km), high bit rate (between 10 and 100 Mbps), interconnection capabilities with local networks.
This time, such networks depends on a public authority. We can use this kind of networks to transmit voice and data. These networks are usually built with 1 or 2 transmission cables (bus) without routing devices. It is a very simple structure, as all computers are indeed directly connected to the bus:
DQDB architecture
We then use the DQDB standard (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) for transmissions.
WAN: subnetwork/host relation Routers are often connected to each other with other routers. In this case, a packet received by a router is forwarded to the next router only when it has been xompletely received and the first router is able to reach the second one. This working characterize what we call a point-to-point, packet switching or store-and-forward subnetwork. Apart from satellite networks, all WAN are of this type. As they are wide, these networks are subjects to some reliability (the background noise grows with the length of lines) and performance (transmission times also grow with the length of lines) constraints and problems. This generate a non negligible increase of costs when we want to improve the quality. Fortunately, the appearance of efficient and cheap synthetic optic fibres can help reducing installation costs. Examples of WAN: Arpanet (the very first wide network that initiated the Internet), Internet, Transpac...
Other classification
The improvement of technologies, and therefore bit rates, suggests a new classification based on their bit rate (a more "logical" classification). We then have 3 categories:
low and medium bit rate networks (< 200 kbps), high bit rate networks (200 kbps < bit rate < 20 Mbps), very high bit rate networks (> 20 Mbps).
Local networks are getting faster and faster, especially with the coming of Fast Ethernet, that has become cheap and very reliable.