Perspective Nr. 2 - 2011

humanitarian and interational affairs magazine #2/2011
op-ed
Rajendra Pachauri
special report
head of the UNs climate change panel on the humanitarian costs of climate change.
Quest for Paradise

profile
the American dream yet again.
Kristalina Georgieva
a popular commissioner
Time To Run
In 2010, more people were displaced by climate-related disasters than by wars and armed conflicts .
Content 0211
PERSPEcTIVE a humaNITaRIaN aNd INTERNaTIONal affaIRS magazINE
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OP-ED
Rajendra K. Pauchauri, Chairman of the UNs Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change sums up the panels conclusions with regard to how humanitarian issues may be influenced by climate change.
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PrOfilE: Kristalina GEOrGiEva

Kristalina Georgieva was appointed an EU commissioner almost by accident, but she has won acclaim in her position as head of the European Unions department for humanitarian aid and crisis response.
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It takes the right ideas to shelter our planet.
Konica Minolta products present concepts and features which make it easy to consider the environment. Eco-friendly innovations can be found throughout the entire lifecycle of every device, including strict production standards, efficient operation and intelligent recycling. Furthermore, the manufacture of consumables, the transport of products and our procurement policy are part of the Konica Minolta mission to save resources and create new value. Theres only one world. We know it takes a great deal of effort to keep it a friendly place.
tHE QuEst fOr ParaDisE

For many Mexicans the US represents their only hope of a better future, and every day thousands of Mexicans attempt to enter the US illegally.
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BlacK marKEt fOr Human OrGans

In recent years, a large black marked for human organs has arisen. Throughout the world, poor people are willing to have their organs removed in return for money.
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HOmE-GrOwn DEmOcracy
Somaliland unilateraly declared itsself independent 20 years ago. No country has, however, recognised Somaliland as a sovereign state.
10 DisPlacED By tHE wEatHEr

In 2010, 42 million people were displaced by natural disasters. This number is set to increase with climate change.
PersPective NO. 02.2011
Konica Minolta Business Solutions Norway AS Nydalsveien 26 0484 Oslo www.konicaminolta.no
Foto: Rune Eraker
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editorial
Am I My Brothers Keeper
PersPective is on sale in the following countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus, France, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Spain, the UK, and the USA. editor in chief Erik Giercksky
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editor Harriet Rudd
ver the last years humanitarian or ganisations all around the world have witnessed how the changing climate is increasing the burden of their work. The Norwegian Refugee Council predominantly works for refugees from armed conflict, but we are experiencing that climate change is adversely affecting the people we try to help. A dramatic example is the 2010 Pakistan floods, which displaced 11 million people, among them 30,000 Afghans living in a refugee camp in one of the regions most seriously devastated by the floods. Their camp was swept away by the floodwater. Without relatives in the immediate area there was little they could do to help themselves and - being aliens - they were the last to receive government aid. As a result this group became extremely vulnerable. It is highly probable that the number of natural disasters and, in consequence, the numbers of displaced people, will continue to rise as the planet becomes warmer, and weather conditions deteriorate as a result of the changing climate. Offering assistance, support and protection to such groups of displaced people will, therefore, constitute a large part of humanitarian work in the decades to come.
this issue of Perspective to the humanitarian aspects of climate change.
Production manager Erik Tresse Writers and contributors Olaf G. Alteren, Christopher Eads, Gunhild Forselv, Grete Gaulin, Linda Jeanette Gresslien, Kaja Haldorsen, Roald Hvring, Ragnhild M.W. Jordheim, Vikram Kolmannskog, Rajendra Pachauri, ystein Mikalsen, Otto von Mnchow, Elisabeth Rasmusson, Andr Savik, Astrid Sehl, Erik R. Selmer, Lisetta Trebbi, Birgit Vartdal, Rolf Vestvik, Tonje M.Viken, Adam Zyglis and Tor vreb circulation services Naweed Ahmed Naweed.Ahmed@nrc.no sales Pineapple Media Limited, 172 Northern Parade, Hilsea, Portsmouth, Hampshire PO2 9LT, UK design Teft Design Printing Gamlebyen Grafiske circulation 15,000 cover Photo Scanpix Publisher The Norwegian Refugee Council Questions regarding the nrc should be directed to: Rolf.Vestvik@nrc.no The views expressed in Perspective do not necessarily reflect the views of the NRC
PeoPle Without Protection In contrast to refugees from war, those displaced by climate change are offered little or no protection in international conventions or by international law. We know full well that such specific guarantees are not always enough to provide actual protection but, if nothing else, they offer a legal, moral, and normative framework for demanding, or arguing for, necessary protection. The NRC is therefore concerned about the future. We feel that this so-called protection gap should be given far more attention than is currently the case. That is why we have decided to dedicate a large section of
resPonsibility The UN High Commissioner for Refugees is very clear that something has to be done to improve protection for those displaced by climate change. He does not, however, recommend re-negotiating the Refugee Convention in order to include this group. He is worried that the end result would not be more protection for those in need but, conversely, reduced protection for refugees from war. This is, perhaps, hardly surprising in light of the recent hostile reaction in some parts of Europe to the influx of people seeking security in the wake of the Arab uprisings. According to the Old Testament, God, addressing Cain, asked, Where is your brother, Abel? and Cain replied, How should I know? Am I my brothers keeper? Cain had killed his brother, and buried him, so, Cain, hoping to divert Gods attention, attempted to do so by rejecting the idea that he could be expected to watch over Abel. Western prosperity could not have been achieved without extensive green-house gas emissions: now the Developing World is suffering from those negative consequences of Western economic expansion. We cannot ignore the misery that we have been instrumental in causing by refusing to face up to our obligations to provide help for those in need. n
Take an international masters degree in International Studies or Peace and Conict Studies
Fridtjof Nansen
nn
In contrast to refugees from war, those displaced by climate change are offered little or no protection in international conventions or by international law.
norWegian refugee council Box 6758 St. Olavs Plass 0130 Oslo Norway
One semester in Norway, courses developed and taught by PRIO (Peace Research Institute Oslo). Remaining semesters taught at Stellenbosch University, South Africa or The Australian National University, Canberra.
The Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) is an independent, humanitarian non-governmental organisation which provides assistance, protection and durable solutions to refugees and internally displaced persons worldwide.
For more information: www.prio.no/education hege@prio.no

cricos code 00120C
OP-ED
The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has, in much greater depth than was possible in previous assessments, dealt with humanitarian issues related to climate change.
The Humanitarian Impact Of Climate Change

he major findings from the report show that if global temperatures increase as projected, this will trigger a range of humanitarian challenges and adverse impacts on water, ecosystems, food production, coastal areas, and human health. Since 1975 the incidence of extreme high sea level and the frequency of heavy precipitation events have increased. Available research points towards a significant future increase in heavy rainfall events in many regions, including some in which the mean rainfall is projected to decrease. The resulting increased flood risk poses challenges to society, physical infrastructure and water quality. It is likely that up to 20 percent of the world population will live in areas where river flood potential could increase by the 2080s. Increases in the frequency and severity of floods and droughts are projected to adversely affect sustainable development. In coastal areas sea level rise will exacerbate water resource constraints due to increased salinisation of groundwater supplies. Overall, hundreds of millions of people would be exposed to increased water stress.
RAjENDRA K PACHAURI is Chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a scientific body established by the United Nations Environment Program and the World Meteorological Organization.
Small Island states and low lying coastal areas are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Projected sea level rise could flood the homes of millions of people living in the low lying areas of South, Southeast and East Asia. It will exacerbate coastal inundation, storm surges, erosion, and other coastal hazards, thus threatening vital infrastructure, settlements and facilities that support the livelihood of island communities.
It is likely that up to 20 per cent of the world population will live in areas where river-flood potential could increase by the 2080s.
nn
FOOD PRODUCTION Climate change and variability would have serious implications for global food security and millions of farmers dependent on rainfed agriculture. Food production and the livelihoods of farmers could face serious issues as a result of complex, localized negative impacts on smallholders, subsistence farmers and fishing communities. There would be tendencies for cereal productivity to decrease in low latitudes and to increase at mid to high latitudes at a 1C global mean annual temperature change relative to the end of the last century. However, in low latitudes at temperature increases of above 3.5 C productivity of all cereals is projected to decrease. HUMAN HEALTH Climate change would have significant impacts on human health as well. There would be an increasing burden on communities from malnutrition, diarrheal, cardio-respiratory and infectious diseases. There would also be increased morbidity and mortality from heat waves, floods and droughts. At temperature increases of even up to 2 degrees Celsius it is projected that a changed distribution of some disease vectors might occur.
MIGRATION The Second Assessment report (SAR) of the IPCC discussed population movement in response to environmental impacts and the attraction of large urban areas. Human populations show significant tendencies to adapt to inter- annual variability of climate via migration, although migration may be the last of a complex set of coping strategies. In some cases, immigration is more permanent and does not involve large areas. For example, after three successive typhoons hit Tau Island in American Samoa in 1987, 1990 and 1991, about one third of the population abandoned their homes and moved to Pago Pago on Tutuila Island, putting more population pressure on the limited economic opportunities and services of that island. ETHICS AND EQUITY The AR4 concludes that neither adaptation nor mitigation alone can avoid all climate change impacts; however, they can complement each other and together significantly reduce the risks of climate change. Mitigation efforts and investments over the next 2 to 3 decades will have a large impact on opportunities to achieve lower stabilization levels. A wide array of adaptation options is available, but more extensive adaptation than is currently occurring is required to reduce vulnerability to climate change. Adaptive capacity is intimately connected to social and economic development, but it is not evenly distributed across and within societies. Unfortunately, several communities and locations most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change are the ones which would find their capacity to adapt most inadequate to deal with projected changes. This raises several issues of ethics and equity, which would be explored in detail in the Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC. n
ILLUSTRATION bY ADAM ZYGLIS: Zyglis is the staff cartoonist for The Buffalo News. His cartoons are internationally syndicated and have appeared in many publications around the world, including The Washington Post, USA Today, The New York Times and Los Angeles Times.
hot spots
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uganda: crack down on walk-to-work marches syria: security forces shoot demonstrators libya: Gaddafi accused of war crimes yemen: unresolved
99,172
top five contributors to un peace-keeping forces: NIGERIA EGYPT
un TrOOPS Were engaged in PeaCe-KeePing miSSiOnS in 2010. The number of UN troops increased by 2,4 per cent compared with 2009.
SOurCe: GlObal Peace OPeraTiONs, UN (Unama)
increase in the number of un troops deployed in 2010.
2,4%
INDIA
BANGLADESH
PAKISTAN
4,881
5,069
7,727
8,645
Libya
9,602
uganda
CraCk-down
Since mid-April, politicians and activists have staged a series of walk-towork marches in order to demonstrate against rising fuel and food prices. Police have used violent measures to try to stop the protests. Several people have been killed, and opposition leaders have been arrested. On 10 May police sprayed demonstrators with a pink liquid in an attempt to stop a mass-rally. On 12 May, in the midst of the protests, Ugandan President, Museveni, was inaugurated as President for his fourth presidential term. Museveni has ruled Uganda since 1986, and was re-elected President in February 2011 by a clear margin. Several opposition leaders have taken active parts in the protests, including the main opposition leader, Dr. Besigye. Besigye claims the February elections were rigged. The President, on the other hand, has accused Besigye of exploiting the situation and trying to start Egyptianstyle protests in Uganda. Museveni was for years credited with introducing democratic reform and improving human rights in Uganda but, of late, has been criticised for resorting to anti-democratic methods.
stalemate
After months of fighting, the battle for power seems to have reached a stalemate. A number of Gaddafis inner circle have defected, and several members of his family have been killed. Despite these losses, and two months of NATO bombing, opposition troops appear unable to achieve a military breakthrough. At the end of May the International Criminal Courts (ICC) Chief Prosecutor requested the issue of a warrant for the arrest of Colonel Gaddafi. Gaddafi is accused of personally having ordered attacks on unarmed civilians. There is hope that a warrant will further isolate Gaddafi. However, questions have been voiced as to why only Gaddafi is being targeted while the leaders of Syria and Yemen go free. Such a warrant must be approved by three judges of the court before coming into force.
Syria
rising death toll

There are continual reports of security forces killing protesters in Syria. By the end of May, almost 1,000 people had been killed in the ongoing unrest. Since 15 March, protesters have been taking to the streets demanding democratic reform and an end to the Baath partys monopoly of power. In April, Syrian President, Bashar al-Assad, lifted the emergency law that has been in force since 1963, but he has done little else to introduce democratic reform. International pressure is mounting on al-Assad, either to initiate reforms or resign. In late April, the US imposed targeted sanctions against members of the regime. Both the US and the most important regional power, Turkey, have warned Assad that his time is running out.
PhOTO: scanpix
yemen
deteriorating seCurity
The protests in Yemen have been in process since January. The regime has cracked down on protesters, killing some 180 people. The Gulf States have brokered several deals in which President Ali Abdullah Saleh has agreed to step down, but the President has always withdrawn from the agreement at the last moment. The security situation outside of the capital has also deteriorated and - according to the International Crisis Group - an armed group linked to Al Qaida has assumed control over an area in the south.
PhOTO: scanpix
PhOTO: scanpix
PhOTO: scanpix
Climate Change and displaCement
Time To Run
42 million people were displaced by natural disasters last year. 90 per cent of them were victims of so-called climate-related disasters.
The numbers of displaced by natural disasters now exceeds, by far, the numbers displaced by war, armed conflict and political persecution. In 2010, the estimated number of refugees stood at 43 million, but only a fraction of these were newly displaced, many are victims of protracted crises and have been refugees for years, or even decades. Natural-disaster displacement varies greatly from one year to the next but, overall, the number seems to be increasing. This is perhaps not surprising as, over the last 20 years, the number of natural disasters has doubled, from approximately 200 to more than 400 per year. All over the world climate change is forcing people to flee their homes. The poor are worst affected, but people living in the developed world are suffering the consequences as well. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina flooded 80 per cent of New Orleans, displacing 800,000 people. In April and May 2011, violent storms struck the US, flattening houses and killing several hundred people. With all probability the numbers of those killed, injured and displaced by extreme weather will only continue to increase as human-induced climate change comes into full force. It is to be expected, that in the future, more and more people may - for longer or shorter periods- be forced to flee their homes, to escape the violence and turmoil of the inclement weather. These developments are causing great concern among humanitarian agencies. The high number of displaced are putting an enormous strain on resources, but perhaps a more fundamental worry is while refugees from war and persecution are protected by international conventions, it is highly unclear what laws and policies protect those displaced by climate change.
all PhoToS by Rune eRakeR: Eraker works within classical European documentary photography, bordering on art photography. In the past 20 years he has travelled to troubled regions in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
DRoughT anD conflicT: these pastoralists in South Sudan are victims of both drought and armed conflict. Experts disagree whether or not there is a clear correlation between warmer climate and increased levels of conflict. There is no doubt, however, that within South Sudan, as in other parts of Africa, many local conflicts are triggered by disagreements over access to scarce water and grazing resources.
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moRning in Dacca: Bangladesh is one of the countries that has been hardest hit by natural disasters and climate change. They are at risk from both sudden-onset disasters,
such as cyclones and floods, and slow-onset disasters, caused by rising sea-levels and melting ice in the Himalayas.
Escaping Wild Weather

In 2010, Russia suffered its hottest summer in more than a 100 years, bringing about droughts and sparking off wildfires. Recently the US state of Alabama was ravaged by tornados. Worldwide, natural disasters are becoming the new norm, but nowhere is the reality harsher than in the developing world.
by: Vikram Kolmannskog
The wilder weather is accelerating humanitarian problems, and agencies at the front line of disaster response are worried. Through our work we see that climate change has effects here and now, says Lisetta Trebbi, Climate Adviser at the Norwegian Refugee Council. She gives examples from countries where the NRC is active: droughts and floods in Kenya and Somalia triggering competition for resources, in addition to increasing the spread of cholera and diarrhoea. Land erosion in Burundi. Cyclone Nargis, devastating homes in Myanmar. I could go on and on. People are having problems coping, and so are the humanitarian agencies, she says.
millionS DiSPlaceD The projections for the number of people who will migrate or be displaced as a result of climate change vary greatly. For example, the last report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) quotes estimates that 150 million people may be displaced by 2050. In the Stern Review of the Economics of Climate Change, the estimated number is 200 million displaced persons by 2050. These numbers are subject to a high degree of uncertainty, primarily because there has been no baseline information on current levels of disaster-related displacement, explains Trebbi. To address this gap the Internal Displacement Monitoring
Centre (IDMC) started monitoring disaster-related displacement on a yearly basis. Last year alone, 42 million people were displaced by sudden-onset natural disasters. 90 per cent of them were victims of climate-related disasters, such as storms and floods. The numbers displaced by natural disasters are often high. Experts, however, agree that much of the sudden-onset disaster displacement is temporary and victims seldom move more than a short distance. The effectiveness and success of response, recovery and rehabilitation efforts largely determine for how long people are displaced. For example, in the Philippines people may remain displaced
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for months or years as a result of a disaster that would displace people for only a few days, or weeks in Japan. It is often a question of ability and will, explains Trebbi. How quickly can we respond to a disaster by evacuating people, and fulfilling their basic needs for such things as food and shelter? How quickly can we rebuild houses and homes? And, importantly, of what quality are the rebuilt houses? For example, in Myanmar, we are now trying to build houses that are more resistant to storms and extreme weather. about the future of the islands when the sea levels rise. Even the political agreement to limit the rise in global average temperature to 2 degrees Celsius, endangers the existence of some of these small island states. In slow-onset disasters the line between migration and displacement becomes particularly blurred. Dr. Gemenne and most other social scientists recognise that the degree of choice can be considered along a continuum. At the early stages of sea-level rise or of drought, movement is frequently considered as voluntary migration. It is one of several options. In many parts of the world, cyclical and seasonal migration to obtain an additional income is normal during difficult times. It is now increasingly recognised that migration can also be an adaptation strategy, says Dr. Gemenne. While it is hard to determine when the movement becomes forced displacement, it nevertheless remains important, says Trebbi at the NRC. The reason is that migrants are considered to have different needs and are treated differently in law and policy from [involuntary] displaced people. An average of more than 75 million people were annually affected by droughts between 2000 and 2009, but the problems of ascribing causation and determining the element of force, means that no global estimates for displacement are available. Another challenge is that even a relatively small number of displaced people, might be a proportionately large part of the population of some of the island nations. With less than 12, 000 inhabitants, migration and displacement from Tuvalu could in itself threaten the existence of the nation.
ecuaDoR:
A Two-yearDisaster
Most migration in Ecuador used to be been internal. Heads of households have traditionally found short-term employment in the cities or other wealthy regions of the country in order to earn additional income. Since the late 1990s this has changed. The El Nio event of 19971998 was unusual in both strength and duration. The El Nio Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a cyclical variation of the atmospheric general circulation that leads to droughts or floods. It has occurred for millennia and the effect of the climate change is uncertain, but there are concerns that extreme events associated with it might become more frequent and more intense. Agriculture is an important part of the Ecuadorian economy, and the 1997-1998 floods damaged more than 100,000 hectares of first-class agricultural areas. Roads, telecommunication and water supply networks were also heavily damaged, or, in most cases, totally destroyed. Thousands lost their properties and jobs. In addition, there was a wider economic crisis related to a collapse of international oil prices. This combination weakened the Ecuadorian economy, and there were fewer opportunities for temporary internal movement. Migration abroad increased dramatically with Spain and the EU as the main destinations.
main SouRce: Alvarez Gila, O., Lpez de Maturana Diguez, V., Ugalde Zaratiegui, A., 2009. Ecuador. EACH-FOR.
many cauSeS of migRaTion There is rarely a simple and direct correlation between natural disasters and human mobility. This becomes particularly clear in slow-onset disasters such as rising sea-levels or drought. People have many reasons for moving. These are often inextricably linked. Environmental migration is part of larger migration dynamics, explains Dr. Francois Gemenne at the Institute of Sustainable Development and International Relations at Sciences Po in Paris. While conducting research on the small island state of Tuvalu, he found that people gave many reasons for leaving, including family, school, work and uncertainties
The WhoS Who of climaTe change

naTional goveRnmenTS perform their most important task at the negotiations arena. Ultimately, national governments bear the responsibility for reaching agreements to all these questions and to take political action before the consequences of climate change become too catastrophic. National governments in highly affected areas also play an important role defining national needs for adaptation measures through their National adaptation programmes of action (NAPAs). National policies for reducing emissions, integration of climate change adaptation into development policies and initiatives for mitigation in affected areas, are other areas of responsibility of the national governments. The uniTeD naTionS is the keeper of the negotiation process. The Climate Change Secretariat, on one hand, drives the negotiations by making all the practical arrangement for the various meetings, preparing the official documents, and coordinating with the secretariat of other relevant international bodies and conventions. On the other hand, the secretariat is monitoring the implementation of commitments under the Convention and the Protocol. The secretariat is situated in Bonn and employs some 400 staff. The civil SocieTy, United Nation programmes and the international multilateral system play a crucial role trough thousands of organizations and individuals, offering opinions, suggestions, and both political and scientific/technical advice. These actors come together, or individually, to the negotiation arena, where they are allowed access to the negotiators and where they can share their views and expertise without having any formal role at the negotiation table. Outside the negotiating arena, the climate change issue has been promoted as the one defining development issue of our time. This has led to all development actors scrambling to find ways where their contribution can make a difference on the ground. This agenda is dominated by UN agencies, multilateral finance institutions (notably the World Bank and regional development banks), large International Non- Governmental Organisations and local civil society organisations. Adaptation- and local mitigation programmes form important parts of this work.
noWheRe To go In one way or another, all countries will be affected by climate change, but some will be more immediately and particularly affected. The IPCC highlights the Small Island Developing States, Africa, mega-deltas such as the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh, and the Polar Regions. Migration and displacement means that effects in one country may influence other countries and regions as well, says Trebbi. However, I am very critical of those drawing a picture of floods of refugees arriving in Western countries. Migration and displacement may be internal or cross-border, or temporary or permanent movements, but experts agree that it is likely that the majority of people will remain within their own country now and in the near future. They also agree that it is important not to overlook those who do not move during disasters. While some remain because they are, at least to some degree, able to cope, others may in fact be forced to stay. Often the most vulnerable people do not have the resources to move, explains Dr. Gemenne. Clearly, climate change has many effects on human movement. The nature and the extent of movements will be greatly determined by policy responses, not only by environmental changes, says Dr. Gemenne. These policy responses include mitigation policies to deal with the reduction of climate change; adaptation policies so people can cope with environmental changes, and of course migration and displacement policies.
PeoPle of The aRcTic: indigenous way of life in the Arctic is is seriously threatened by climate change.
Ice Melting Under their Feet

In Alaska, temperatures have increased by between 2 and 3,5 degrees Celsius over a period of 35 years, and sea ice is decreasing and permafrost is thawing. These changes frequently lead to erosion. As a result several indigenous communities have been forced to relocate. Environmental studies indicate that they might submerge them within the next 15 years. One of the communities that have been forced to relocate is Shishmaref. Tony A. Weyiouanna, one of the inhabitants of the island says that since the time of his grandfather the water level has increasingly risen, seasons have become shorter, summers and winters warmer, with a resulting thinning of the ice. The loss of land through erosive action with an increasing risk to property and lives has caused a dangerous situation, he explains. The only viable solution is to relocate the island community to a nearby mainland location that has access to the sea, thereby making possible the continued subsistence lifestyle of the community, preserving the culture and integrity of the community. The 2006 Alaska Village Erosion Technical Assistance Program established by the US Congress evaluated the different costs associated with erosion control as opposed to relocation. It also identified a number of governance issues that need to be addressed, including establishing a government agency with authority to relocate communities, and designated funding and criteria for choosing relocation sites. The humanitarian crisis in Alaska clearly demonstrates the need to create clear relocation principles and guidelines based on human rights.
main SouRce: Bronen, R., 2008. Alaskan communities rights and resilience. Forced Migration Review 31, pp. 30-32.
alaSka:
The loss of land through erosive action with an increasing risk to property and lives have caused a dangerous situation.
Tony a. Weyiouanna, resident of Shishmaref
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We could be moving toward a future where the majority of displaced people have been forced to leave their homes, without any right to receive protection and support.
No Guarantee of Protection
The refugee definition of the 1951 Refugee Convention does not mention climate change or natural disasters. A refugee is someone outside of his or her country of nationality who is unable or unwilling to return because of a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinions. Some advocates have suggested amending the Refugee Convention definition, but there are major actors opposed to this. The convention was drafted after the Second World War to deal with the refugee crises in Europe. Today, there is a different situation and political climate for refugees. According to their 2009 policy paper, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) considers that any initiative to modify this definition would risk a renegotiation of the 1951 Refugee Convention, which [] could result in a lowering of protection standards for refugees and even undermine the international refugee protection regime altogether.
This is not an 'over the horizon' issue. There is a growing consensus that the effects of climate change are already being felt.
DR. volkeR TRk, Director of International Protection at UNHCR
gument: There are weighty humanitarian reasons for establishing a protective framework for external displacement resulting from sudden-onset natural disasters, including where climate change plays a part. They are not refugees in the legal sense, but they are nonetheless in need of help.
in neeD of PRoTecTion However, the agency is very clear that something must be done. This is not an 'over the horizon' issue. There is a growing consensus that the effects of climate change are already being felt, says Dr. Volker Trk, Director of International Protection at UNHCR. One of UNHCRs mandated responsibilities is to assist in the progressive development of international law related to forced displacement. We feel that it is our responsibility to draw attention to this legal gap and to
spur reflection about how to fill it. National legislation, policies and institutions are absolutely central. Regional cooperation frameworks should buttress action at national level. There is also a need to develop a global guiding framework or instrument, recommends Dr. Trk. To tackle the myriad of problems created by climate change, international solidarity and responsibility-sharing will be needed more than ever. In order to encourage high-level international discussion on displacement and climate change, the UNHCR is both initiating and participating in several discussions on the topic, one of which will take place at the Nansen Conference on Climate Change and Displacement in Oslo in early June. The Nansen conference is hosted by the Norwegian Minister of Development and Environment and the Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Foreign Minister, Jonas Gahr Stre, supports Dr. Trks ar-
Some aRe RefugeeS Some commentators and scholars have been quick to conclude that those displaced in the context of climate change are not refugees according to the Convention. This is a too hasty conclusion, claims Lisetta Trebbi, Climate Adviser of the Norwegian Refugee Council. We believe that a dynamic and contextual interpretation of existing law shows that some people are, indeed, refugees. This is important because we dont know how much more we can hope to achieve in terms of protection for this group of people. In their 2009 policy paper on climate change and natural disasters, the UNHCR clarifies that some situations are covered by the Convention, including when the victims of natural disasters flee from their homeland because their Government has consciously withheld or obstructed assistance in order to punish or marginalize them on one of the five grounds set out in the refugee definition. For example, it is not unusual for a member of a marginalised ethnic group, or a political dissident, to be denied crucial assistance during a disaster. If they flee the country as a consequence, they could possibly be considered as refugees. In addition, there are often several rea-
RefugeeS: these Inuits, in Greenland, will perhaps number among the first people who will have to relocate as a result of climate change. It is unclear what legal rights of protection and support people displaced by climate change can claim under international law.
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sons why a person moves. In the case of Somalia, several refugees mention both persecution and drought as reasons for leaving. If drought and conflict coincide, we will not split hairs, informs a senior UNHCR staff member, responsible for the refugees in Kenya. Moreover, in the Somali case, many countries recognise the displaced persons as prima facie refugees because of the severe humanitarian crisis in the country. UNHCR also clarifies that there are regional refugee conventions with broader definitions that may more easily include those fleeing natural disasters. Clearly, the situation for those displaced is not as black or white as some portray it.
SPecial STaTuS However, there is still agreement that many, if not most, of the cross-border displaced will not be considered refugees, and there have been calls to strengthen their protection. But why should we give special protection to them as opposed to others in need, such as those fleeing general poverty? It may be arbitrary to single out the environment as a driver of migration and displacement, rather than focusing on the needs and rights of all those who are forcibly displaced, admits Professor Jane McAdam, of the University of New South Wales, Australia. However, I also appreciate that getting states to agree to expanded protection obligations towards a wider class of forced migrant, would constitute an enormous political challenge. Some experts highlight that we have a special responsibility towards those displaced because of the environmental disruptions that we have induced. Others go further and argue that we should have special conventions for those displaced by the effects of climate change, separating them from the wider group of environmentally displaced persons. Professor McAdam and most other humanitarian experts disagree with this approach insofar as it relates to rights for the migrant or displaced person. From the viewpoint of the migrant or displaced person, it doesnt make any difference
ScenaRioS foR The fuTuRe: so far, poor and undeveloped countries are those that have suffered the most as a result from natural disasters and climate change, but in the course of the past year natural disaster has also caused enormous damage and human suffering in the industrialised world. By the end of May 2011, the hurricanes had brought about at least 300 deaths in the US.
From the viewpoint of the migrant or displaced person, it doesnt make any difference whether the environmental disruption is climate - related or not.
PRofeSSoR Jane mcaDan
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whether the environmental disruption is climate-related or not. One approach that has been discussed is expanding so-called complementary protection. Complementary forms of protection have been granted to people who do not fit so well into the refugee definition, but nonetheless are considered to be in need of protection. Often this protection is based on human rights. In the case of environmental displacement, academics have focused on the prohibition to return anyone to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment, also known as non-refoulement. NRC has taken this line, says Trebbi. Persons with particular vulnerabilities should be protected against return to the very difficult circumstances that exist during and after a major disaster. Finnish and Swedish immigration laws even contain explicit provisions to extend either temporary or permanent protection to foreign nationals who cannot return safely to their home country because of an environmental disaster. In some cases, correct implementation is not a matter of will, but of ability. With more than 11 million people displaced as a result of floods last summer, the Pakistani authorities were overwhelmed by the extent of the disaster. The international humanitarian agencies were of crucial help, says Trebbi of the NRC. The organisation played a role in distributing tents and other emergency equipment. some normative force if agreed upon by several states and important actors. The Norwegian Foreign Minister, Jonas Gahr Stre, sees potential in this approach: It is quite possible that the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement could be used as a basis for addressing sudden-onset environmental displacement across borders. UNHCR is pinning high hopes on the Nansen Conference. They would also like to see the development of some guiding principles. It would be an important contribution if the conference were to recommend some basic principles, especially regarding the protection of those displaced across international borders, says Dr Trk. Clearly, the question of protection for people migrating or displaced in the context of climate change is a complex one. Some people should be protected as refugees or internally displaced persons, according to existing law. For others, legal innovations may be needed. Perhaps this year will see the development of some Nansen Principles.
banglaDeSh:
Between sealevel rise and melting glaciers

PRoTecTion fRom youR oWn STaTe While much of the focus is on the normative gap for cross-border displaced persons, most people want to, or have to, remain within their own country. This includes people moving because of climate change and natural disasters. In their case there is already a normative framework in place. The Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement already provide a sound framework to protect those displaced within their own country, clarifies Dr. Trk. Experts are quick to admit that the existence of a normative framework does not in itself solve all problems. Among the Guiding Principles we find participation and non-discrimination. Yet, when the Asian Tsunami hit Sri Lanka in 2004, certain fisher folk were permanently relocated inland with no means of survival allegedly, for their own safety. However, the danger of living so close to the sea was not so great that tourist resorts could not be built on their former land. In connection with Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the US authorities were criticised for discriminating against poor Afro-Americans. For example, the evacuation plan was to take your car and drive as fast as you could out of there, but not everyone had a car.
NO. 02.2011 20 PersPective
migRaTion aS a SoluTion We are working with the assumption that the displacement dimension will in all probability be dwarfed by the migration dimension, says Dr. Trk at UNHCR. While most experts and humanitarians seem to agree on this, the debate has largely focused on sudden-onset disasters, and displacement. So how should we address slow-onset disasters such as drought and the grey area between voluntary migration and forced displacement? Dr. Trk shares some reflections. Migration will be both a rational and inevitable adaptation strategy to climate change processes. Migration-management systems should be more sensitive to the migration needs of those impacted by the environment. Professor McAdam believes that this has both an internal and an external dimension. First, affected states need to identify vulnerable areas and determine whether or not adaptation will enable people to continue living in them. If not, they need to consider internal migration strategies. Secondly, other countries should consider expanding migration opportunities to facilitate international movement by those who desire it. There is agreement that some of the most vulnerable people do not have the resources to move at all. A particular facilitation of their migration may be needed. global guiDing PRinciPleS While there may be little political appetite for a new convention at this time, there has been some talk of taking an approach similar to the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement and trying to come up with global guiding principles on environmental displacement. Guiding principles would have an informative and guiding value for states and humanitarian actors as well as
main SouRceS: Climate change and displacement, Forced Migration Review 31, 2008. Informal Group on Migration/Displacement and Climate Change of the IASC, 2008. Climate Change, Migration and Displacement: Who will be affected?: Working paper submitted by the informal group on Migration/ Displacement and Climate Change of the IASC. UNFCCC. Kolmannskog, V., 2009. Climate Changed: People Displaced. Oslo: NRC. Ramesh, R., 2008. Paradise almost lost: Maldives seek to buy a new homeland. Guardian, 10 November 2008, available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/ nov/10/maldives-climate-change [accessed 29 April 2011] UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Climate Change, Natural Disasters and Human Displacement: A UNHCR Perspective, 14 August 2009, available at: http://www.unhcr. org/refworld/docid/4a8e4f8b2.html [accessed 27 April 2011] CRED (Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters), 2010. 2010 Disasters in Numbers. IDMC, 2011. Preliminary figures for 2010. IPCC, 2007. The Fourth Assessment Report. Kolmannskog, V., 2009. Climate Changed: People Displaced. Oslo: NRC. Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator, 2008. Opening Remarks. Dubai International Humanitarian Aid and Development Conference and Exhibition. Dubai 8 April 2008.
As citizens of a delta-nation, Bangladeshis are used to living with and benefiting from flooding, but now climate change is contributing to an increase in floods, riverbank erosion, cyclones and other disasters. The country is faced with sea-level rise from one side and melting Himalayan glaciers affecting the rivers on the other side. A sealevel rise of one metre would threaten to put 50 per cent of the country under water. A high number of Bangladeshis have already lost their livelihoods as a result of natural disasters, and have been forced to look for work elsewhere. Today, most Bangladeshi migration is internal, and predominantly from rural to urban areas. In some cases heads of households migrate temporarily to find work, in others, entire families move and settle permanently. Many people also settle illegally in India in search of a better life. Often they end up in prostitution, or in sweatshops under slave-like conditions, or are deported. The massive movements that are likely in 20 or 30 years could also pose a threat to regional security. Others do not have the means to migrate. Trafficking, particularly of women and children, has been reinforced by recent disasters and increased vulnerability. Bangladesh is often highlighted as a country that has managed to reduce casualties and economic loss by good disaster-risk management. The official death tolls in recent disasters are far lower than in previous ones. One important measure has been the building ofstorm shelters in villages at risk. This saves human lives, and livestock, and resources. As a result people in these villages feel less and are therefore less inclined to move.
main SouRce: Poncelet, A., 2009, Bangladesh. EACH-FOR.
SeRiouS PRoblem: while a sinking island-state scenario is a serious one, the number of people affected will be relatively small. Elsewhere, millions may be threatened. The man pictured here is just one of the 11 million people displaced by the floods in Pakistan.
Sinking Island State

Sinking Island States are often used as an example of how difficult a persons legal position may become as a result of climate change. These states are threatened by sea-level rises, and there is a danger that they may become inhabitable, leaving their citizens literally stateless. Whether it would in fact also render them stateless in a legal sense is not clear. With an average elevation of one meter above sea level, the island nation of Tuvalu is extremely vulnerable to sea-level rise. There are also other environmental problems relating to water shortage, waste disposal, and overpopulation. Frequent saltwater flooding and accelerated coastal erosion are consequences of a changing environment. Some people still believe, that with international support, it will be possible for the country to survive. However, more and more people are leaving for other countries out of fear that the islands will be flooded. I dont want to wake up one morning with the island washed away I prefer to leave now, before I have no other choice, says Nofoalofa Petero. There are approximately 3,000 Tuvaluans in New Zealand. Uncertainties about the future, rather than immediate environmental concerns, seem to be the main migration drivers. In most cases, environmental factors are mixed with economic and social factors, such as family, school and work opportunities. Contrary to rumours in the media, there is no environmental migration agreement between Tuvalu and New Zealand. The Pacific Access Category is a scheme that allows an annual quota of Pacific islanders to settle in New Zealand. They are required to meet stringent conditions, including a good command of English and the offer of a job. A seasonal migration scheme has also been implemented to allow the islanders to come and work, predominantly in the agricultural sector, for six or nine months. Neither New Zealand nor Australia has planned for any proactive migration policy.
main SouRce: Gemenne, F., and Shen, S., 2009. Tuvalu and New Zealand. EACH-FOR.
Tuvalu:
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The worlds leaders are locked in a battle over future global power, causing the worst possible environment for reaching the consensus needed to reduce climate change.
Deadlocked
by: Linda Jeanette Gresslien
Everyone agrees that climate change must be addressed now, before the consequences become unmanageable. Even so, there is little or no progress in international negotiations on emission reductions. Why are global leaders so incapable of reaching consensus? The answer to that is complex, but a fundamental aspect is the geopolitical rivalry between China and the US. Neither country wants to be the first to commit to reductions in green house gas emissions that may jeopardize economic expansion. As long as US domestic concerns make it impossible to win Senate approval for emission restrictions, little progress will be forthcoming on the international scene. Their fixation on each other necessarily paralyses international cooperation, given that the US is unable to implement effective climate policies due to its domestic political situation, says Professor Sebastian Oberthr, Academic Director of the Institute for European Studies at the Vrije Universiteit in Brussels.
The uS, china anD eu Over the past three decades, nine environmental treaties have been negotiated and signed by the US, including the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. None received enough votes to enable Senate ratification, and it now seems clear that within the US administra-
tion there is no wish for a new agreement because they are themselves unable to commit to much action. When no pre-existing domestic regulation exists, powerful interest groups, like the oil, coal, utility and manufacturing industries, fear environmental legislation will hurt them economically. Senators from regions highly dependent on these industries, therefore, consistently vote against the introduction of mandatory climate- policy measures. A more useful approach to unlocking the situation would be to establish a coalition between China and the other advanced developed countries, Oberthr believes. He thinks such an agreement would have vital influence on the US domestic climate debate, thereby creating possibilities for the US to implement measures linked to the agreement. Such an agreement would also make it possible for the EU to regain a leading position in the global climate debate. Ever since the negotiations on the Climate Change Convention in 1991, the EU has been a driving force in the shaping of international climate policies. With a target of a 30 per cent emission reduction, the EU is still trying to push emission reductions internationally, but in Copenhagen the EU learned the lesson that, as a medium-sized power in climate politics - when compared to the two biggest emit-
SoluTionS: adaptation measures might reduce displacement caused by climate-change. However, only an international agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions can significantly reduce the risk of widespread future displacement. The photo shows a group of displaced people from southern Ethiopia. The woman on the stretcher is pregnant, and too weak to walk.
Over the three past decades, nine environmental treaties were negotiated and signed by the US, including the 1997 Kyoto protocol, but did not receive enough votes for Senate ratification.
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aDaPTing: the changing weather and climate is forcing people to take measures to adapt to new circumstances. Many move to large, urban centres where they end up among the urban poor.
ters, the US and China - it cannot determine neither the agenda or the outcome of negotiations
PReScRiTPTion foR DiSaSTeR During the Copenhagen Climate conference in 2009, several issues proved impossible to resolve, including the number of international agreements to be negotiated, the future of the Kyoto Protocol; i.e. the targets for maximum global temperature increase, carbon concentrations and aggregate emission reductions, the method of determining country targets, and the role of agricultural and forestry policies. Only two main outcomes were produced; the tentative political declara-
tion and the continuation of UN negotiations. The Copenhagen Accord is an agreement among heads of governments alluding to limiting temperature rise to 2 degrees Celsius. Targets for industrialized countries and actions for developing countries were set to be defined voluntarily; an outcome that WAS - according to James Hansen, head of the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City - grossly unfair to the next generation, and a prescription for disaster. We cannot seem to find a nation that is willing to stand up and tell the truth. If we allow warming of 2 degrees Celsius, we will have set the planet on an unstoppable course back toward Pliocene con-
ditions, when sea level was 15-25 meters higher than today, Hansen says.
abDicaTionS of ReSPonSibiliTieS According to Bjrn Samset, senior research fellow at the Center for International Climate and Environmental Research, global leaders acknowledge human-induced climate change, and its consequences. He underlines, however, that one important challenge is the abdication of responsibilities. Frustration at the lack of results in global negotiations has led politicians and environmental activists, such as, for example, former California Governor, Arnold Swarzenegger, to initiate talks at a sub-
The coPenhagen accoRD non binDing commiTmenT

TemPeRaTuReS - Governments will work to combat climate change "recognizing the scientific view that the increase in global temperature should be below 2 degrees Celsius" gReenhouSe gaS emiSSionS - The Accord does not set targets for greenhouse gas emissions except to urge "deep cuts in global emissions". aDaPTaTion - The Accord promises to help countries adapt to the damaging impacts of climate
change such as droughts, storms or rising sea levels. 2020 TaRgeTS - In an annex, rich nations list national goals for cuts in greenhouse gas emissions, and developing nations set measures to slow the rise of emissions by 2020. veRificaTion - Developed nations will submit emissions goals for UN review. Developing nations' actions will be under domestic review if funded by their own budgets but "subject to international measurement, reporting and verification" when funded by foreign aid. DefoReSTaTion - The text sees a "crucial role" for slowing deforest-
ation trees store carbon dioxide as they grow. maRkeTS - The accord says countries will "pursue various approaches, including opportunities to use markets" to curb emissions. aiD - Developed nations promise new and additional funds "approaching $ 30 billion for 201012" to help developing countries. In the longer term, "developed countries commit to a goal of mobilizing jointly $100 billion a year by 2020". Sources of finance are not settled. gReen funD - Countries will set up a "Copenhagen Green Climate Fund" to help channel aid. The deal will also set up a "Technology
Mechanism" to accelerate use of green technologies. RevieW - The accord will be reviewed in 2015.
kyoTo PRoTocol
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. These amount to an average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012.
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Climate Change and displaCement aDaPTaTion To climaTe change

examPleS of aDaPTion meThoDS: human healTh Moderate temperature increases by planting trees Prepare grain storages for emergency feeding stations WaTeR Promote shore protection techniques Improve early warning systems and flood hazard maps for storms Protect water supplies from contamination by saltwater agRiculTuRe anD foReSTRy Alter the timing of planting dates to adapt to changing growing conditions Alter cropping mix and forest species that are better suited climate change Breed new plant species and crops that are more tolerant to climate change.
uniTeD naTionS fRameWoRk convenTion on climaTe change (unfccc)

The parties to the convention have met annually since 1995 in a Conferences of the Parties (COP) to assess progress in dealing with climate change. 1997 - coP 3: Kyoto, Japan. Most industrialized countries and some central European economies in transition agreed to legally binding reductions in greenhouse gas emissions for the period 2008-2012. The protocol was rejected by the US in 2001. 2009 coP 15: Copenhagen, Denmark. The overall goal was to establish a new global climate commitment from the period from 2012 onward. The negotiations had unresolved issues and resulted only in a non-binding agreement The Copenhagen Accord. 2010 - coP 16: Cancun, Mexico. The conference failed to achieve a second commitment period for the Kyoto Protocol, but reassured a continued process under the UN framework. It agreed a "Green Climate Fund", a "Climate Technology Centre" and the need for international coordination and cooperation with regard to climate change induced displacement, migration and planned relocation. The Cancun agreements are criticized for not providing concrete proposals for how the climate fund will be financed. 2011- coP 17: Durban, South Africa. A primary focus of the next conference will be to secure a global climate agreement as the Kyoto Protocols first commitment period (2008-2012) is about to end.
national level. While such talks may have a more realistic chance of reaching agreement on emission reductions, other experts stress the importance of continuing the process towards an effective legally binding multilateral framework, because ultimately - that is what is needed for fair, sustained and effective global action. James Hansen, however, stresses that the only way of going global is to impose an across-the-board fee on all fossil fuels. He finds that the Kyoto protocol has proved to be inefficient; emissions were increasing by 1.5 per cent annually prior to the protocol; since then they have increased 2.5 per cent per year. In order to have a chance of stabilizing the climate, he claims, emissions would need to decrease by 5 per cent annually. Instead fossil fuels are currently subsidized, both directly and indirectly. Since countries like China and India never will accept a (n emission) cap, a carbon fee is the only approach to a rapid decrease in emissions.
Our parents honestly did not know that their actions could harm future generations, we, the current generation, can only pretend that we did not know.
JameS hanSen, NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies
noRTh SouTh inJuSTice In fact, a majority of developing countries reject any limitation of their future emissions in order to solve a problem that, so far, has largely been created elsewhere. Powerful industrial nations, on the other hand, fear losing comparative advantages and refuse to curtail their own excesses unless developing countries make similar sacrifices. At the Cancun conference, the West accepted voluntary actions by developing countries and agreed to provide partial finance. Nevertheless, the money and concessions had little impact on negotiations; China, Brazil and India never reciprocated with any compromises. Thus negotiations of these reforms remain ambiguous. A possible solution is for the North to provide large-scale financial and technical support, but there exists a trust issue. The South fear that if it were to accept its fair share of the climate burden, the North would take unfair advantages of its flexibility, holding it hostage to its newlymade commitments while continuing to dodge their own. The North doubts that the South is committed to solving the climate problem, and fear being locked to a system in which the North are obliged to finance climate measures, whilst the South are allowed to free ride forever. inTeRgenaTaTonal inJuSTice Bjrn Samseth states that there is no long-
er an issue of whether or not we will exceed global 2C target; it will most certainly happen, but we can delay the process, giving us time to adjust. It is highly unlikely that the November 2011 Climate Conference in South Africa will provide any tangible results. One of the major issues will most certainly be the question of the international legal framework for cooperation, and in particular the future of the Kyoto Protocol. The EU is likely to face considerable pressure to agree to a second commitment period under the Protocol, thereby securing its continuation beyond 2012. However, among the negotiating parties, financial interests still seem to outweigh climate-change concerns, and experts and activists do not hold high hopes that an agreement will be reached. According to Hansen the basic issue should not be economics, but inter-generational justice.Our parents honestly did not know that their actions could harm future generations, we, the current generation, can only pretend that we did not know.
SouRceS: EU Leadership on Climate Change: Living up to the Challenges - Article by Prof. Dr. Sebastian Oberthr. Global Climate Governance after Cancun: Options for EU Leadership - Article by Prof.Dr. Sebastian Oberthr. Signed but Not Ratified: Limits to U.S. Participation in International Environmental Agreements Article by Guri Bang (CICERO). Innside Copenhagen: The State of Climate Governance - Article by Radoslav S. Dimitrov. The Case for Young People and Nature: A Path to a Healthy, Natural, Prosperous Future - Article by James Hansen ( Columbia University Earth Institute, New York Reuters- Factbox: The Copenhagen Accord and global warming. http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/03/31/ us-climate-accord-factbox-idUSTRE62U1B120100331
DRoughT: drought and soil erosion present a serious problem in many parts of the world. This photograph is of a dried-out river bed in Tigray, Ethiopia. In Somalia, droughts are an important cause of displacement, whilst Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua have suffered several seasons of severe drought.
Somalia: Secondary Displacement

Most Somalis are pastoralists, and they have always moved to greener pastures during droughts. A difference now is that the droughts affect even the traditional areas they migrated to in times of hardship. Some resort to erratic and abnormal migration. Others settle in the cities where they often become part of the urban poor. There are also massive movements to areas with rain. Today, mobile phones enable people to inform each other about areas of rainfall, and as a result wealthier pastoralists transport large numbers of livestock by trucks to these areas, thereby creating a sudden and massive pressure on pasture land. This, in turn, often makes the area more prone
In war-torn South and Central Somalia, some people first escape the violence in Mogadishu and go to the countryside, or another Somalian town, but drought and environmental degradation in these areas, force to move further.
to environmental degradation; which increases competition for scarce resources, causes conflict, and triggers further displacement. Drought also contributes to another form of secondary and long-distance displacement. In war-torn South and Central Somalia, some people first escape the violence in Mogadishu and go to the countryside, or another Somalian town, but drought and environmental degradation in these areas, force them to move further. Some end up in Kenya or other countries.
main SouRce: Kolmannskog, V., 2010. Climate change, human mobility, and protection: Initial evidence from Africa. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 29, pp. 103-119.
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ORDINARY PEOPLE DOING ORDINARY WORK
DiSPlaceD by naTuRal DiSaSTeRS
The forced displacement of men, women and children from their homes by natural disasters is a large-scale, global phenomenon. A report newly released by the Norwegian Refugee Councils Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, highlights the magnitude of the problem: At least 42.3 million people were newly displaced by sudden-onset natural disasters in 2010. Climate related hazards, such as floods and storms, were responsible for most of the displacement each year, and as such the most important driver of displacement. With climate change accelerating, this is a challenge that is expected to grow.
43 MILLION DISPLACED
numbeR of PeoPle DiSPlaceD (millionS)

cauSe of DiSPlacemenT climaTe-RelaTeD DiSaSTeRS geoPhySical DiSaSTeRS ToTal 2008 20.3 15.8 36.1 % 56% 44% 2009 15.2 1.5 16.7 % 91% 9% 2010 38.3 4.0 42.3 % 90% 10%
figuRe 1: 2008-2010 Countries with the highest levels of displacement 50 000 000 45 000 000 40 000 000 35 000 000 30 000 000 25 000 000 20 000 000 15 000 000 10 000 000 5 000 000 0 2008 2009 2010 Europe and Oceania Asia Americas Africa Asia was consistently the continent most affected in terms of the absolute number and percentage of people displaced. It was also the continent where the events with the highest number of people displaced took place. The Americas and then Africa tend to follow Asia as the second and third most affected continents. From a global perspective, large-scale disasters dominated the figures and the worlds attention, and caused more than 90 per cent of total displacement reported each year. The most dramatic difference between each year can be understood by the size and number of the largest events or mega-disasters.
figuRe 2: The scale of disasters triggering displacement relative to the global estimate for each year 100 000 000 90 000 000 80 000 000 70 000 000 60 000 000 50 000 000 40 000 000 30 000 000 20 000 000 10 000 000 0 2008 2009 2010 all yeaRS While the global estimates highlight the role of the largest disasters and their impact on the scale of displacement globally, smaller scale disasters are far less visible. It is more difficult to find data for some countries and regions than for others. Improved data collection and increased sharing of information should be promoted to strengthen the monitoring and response to displacement. Displacement by medium-small disasters (Less than 100,000 displaced per event) Displacement by large disasters (100,000 - 999,999 displaced per event) Displacement by mega-disasters (1 million and over displaced per event)
ORDINARY PEOPLE DOING EXTRAORDINARY WORK

NORCAP (Norwegian Capacity) is the worlds most frequently used emergency standby roster. Since 1991 we have seconded personnel to more than 6000 assignments globally. NORCAP consists of 850 ordinary women and men who are ready to deploy to international operations within 72 hours.
www.norcapweb.no
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profile Kristalina Georgieva
She became EU commissioner almost by accident, but Kristalina Georgievas leadership of the European Unions department for humanitarian aid and crisis response has brought her both praise and popularity.
Preparing for Dangerous Times

By: Birgit Vartdal
I often say that I have the best job in the Commission, because it is about helping people in their most dire moment of need. But it is also the worst job, because there are so many people who need help, and unfortunately these numbers are not declining, Georgieva explains.
PASSIONATE TRAVELLER My interview with Georgieva takes place in her spacious office in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. It is the end of a busy day, in particular for Georgieva, who had spent the previous night travelling back from Washington. Nonetheless she shows no sign of jet lag. I was well trained in my previous job in the World Bank, she says, that position also required a lot of travelling, and I have a very good team that provides the help I need to be able to maintain the energy my job requires. Travelling takes up a lot of her time. In addition she also has to travel to Sofia in order to spend time with her family. Her husband and daughter live in the Bulgarian capital, Sofia. Fortunately she claims to be a passionate traveller. CONFLICT AND DISASTER In recent months, much of Georgievas time has been dedicated to forming and implementing EU policies designed to alleviate the grim consequences of the Arab uprisings. In early March, as part of this effort, she travelled to Tunisia to inspect camps which were being overwhelmed by tens of thousands of migrant workers fleeing the violence in Libya. She has also been deeply involved in the successful evacuation of between 5 and 6,000 European Union citizens from Libya, and the EUs efforts to assist the more than 700,000 third country nationals, that fled Libya, to return home. As events unfolded in North Africa and the Middle East, catastrophe struck on the other side of the world, in Japan. At the end of March, Georgieva was the first high-level international politician to visit Japan to witness the consequences of the earthquake, the subsequent tsunami, and nuclear crisis that struck the country.
INTERNATIONAL CAREER Though still firmly linked to her home country through family ties, Kristalina Georgieva has not worked in Bulgaria since 1991. She left to pursue a career as an environmental economist, first as a visiting professor at a number of universities around the world, later as a consultant to the World Bank, which very soon decided to employ her. In the course of the next 16 years she rose through the World Bank hierarchy, running World Bank programmes in Russia, Asia, China and the Pacific region, before becoming Vice-President of the Bank in 2008. She remained in this position until, quite unexpectedly and it the middle of the night - Bulgarian Prime Minister, Boyko Borisov phoned to ask if she would agree to become Bulgarias nominee to the EU Commission. Only a few days earlier, Borisovs first choice for the position, Bulgarian foreign minister, Rumina Jeleva, had come under strong pressure during a hearing before the European Parliament, when representatives started raising doubts about her qualifications and financial interests. I took the job for two reasons; it was necessary for Bulgaria to nominate a new candidate as quickly as possible and, given the nature of the portfolio, I felt that that I was qualified, Georgieva says. A POPULAR POLITICIAN In the short time she has been in office, Kristalina Georgieva has managed to impress many people, both in Brussels and beyond. 11 months after she became a commissioner, readers of the Brussels based EU-affairs newspaper, European Voice, named her both European Commissioner of the Year and European of the Year. Her success was endorsed by NGO representatives, colleagues and associates in the EU capital. These rewards also triggered praise and enthusiasm in her home country. The Bulgarian media speculated in the possibility that Georgieva might stand as presidential candidate for the ruling centre-right party GERB in the 2011 presidential elections. These rumours have since been denied.
There is a new breed of politicians who support left-wing or right-wing views depending on the issues. I am one of them.
EU COmmISSIONER: Kristalina Georgieva is one of the worlds most influential aid politicians. As head of the EUs department for humanitarian response, she controls the worlds second largest aid budget. Photo: European Parliament
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profile Kristalina Georgieva KRISTALINA GEORGIEVA

BORN: Sofia, Bulgaria, 1953 EDUCATION: M.A in Political Economy Sociology (1976). Ph.D in Environmental Economics (1986. CAREER: currently serving as European commissioner for international co-operation, humanitarian aid and crisis response. She started her career as assistant, then professor at the University of National and World Economy, Sofia (1977-93). Later she held positions as visiting professor at a number of universities around the world. In 1992, she became a consultant to the World Bank on environmental policy. In the course of the next 16 years she rose through the hierarchy, running programmes in Russia, Asia, China and the Pacific region, before becoming Vice-President of the World Bank in 2008.
IN ThE FIELD 1: Georgieva and President Salva Kiir Mayardit discussing the on-going humanitarian problems in South Sudan. Photo: EU/AFP/Katsumi Kasahara
IN ThE FIELD 2: at the end of March 2011, Georgieva travelled to Japan to oversee the delivery of aid from the EU and to discuss civil protection with the Japanese authorities. The EU aid shipment contained 70 tons of relief items, including blankets, mattresses and sleeping bags. Photo: EU/AFP/Katsumi Kasahara
IN ThE FIELD 3: visiting disaster areas in order to assess the situation first hand is an important part of Georgievas job. In August 2010, she visited Pachwar, Pakistan, and talked to people affected by the Pakistan floods. Photo: EU/AFP/Katsumi Kasahara
CONSERVATIVE AND LEFT-WING Georgieva is not member of any political party, and she has been a technocrat all her life. She does, however, have strong links to GERB. Asked to place herself upon the traditional leftwing, right-wing political spectrum, she says: There is a new breed of politicians who support left-wing or right-wing views depending on the issues. I am one of them. When it comes to fiscal matters and economic discipline, I place myself on the conservative side. In issues related to development, human rights and the environment, I belong to the political left. GERB is a centre-right party, but it is also a party that on many domestic issues acts more like a centre-left party, she explains. Kristalina Georgieva does follow Bulgarian politics, but it is EU policy that fills her agenda. I always focus on the job I have. As long as I am in this job it has my full dedication ,and I have three and a half years to go, she laughs. DANGEROUS FUTURE When Georgieva came into office, one of her first policy initiatives was to start preparing the EU for a future that was likely to experience more frequent and more serious disasters. Her communication on strengthening European disaster response was published in October last year.
I always focus on the job I have. As long as I am in this job it has my full dedication.
This is a very pragmatic approach to strengthening Europes ability to deliver support in times of disaster. It has five clear and concrete steps: firstly, introduce more scenario planning; in other words, anticipate what type of disasters that are likely to happen, secondly, appraise the EUs collective humanitarian resources, thirdly, determine what resources we do not have, and decide on the best ways of acquiring them, fourthly, organise our logistics and transport in advance and, finally, establish a European emergency response-centre to coordinate our actions, she explains. The new European emergency response centre is scheduled to be operational at the end of 2011.
AID IN TImES OF CRISIS Another topic keeping Kristalina Georgieva busy, is the ongoing debate over the EUs multi-annual financial framework. Her aim is to secure an annual outlay of 1 billion euro for humanitarian aid, an objective she thinks it should be possible to achieve even in times of financial crisis. I think we have a strong case. We need to relate this funding request to events that have taken place over the last years. Needs are increasing, and EU spending on humanitarian measures has already reached a level of a billion euro or more. We have made a commitment to the UN to spend 0.7 per cent of our GDP for development purposes, including humanitarian aid, Georgieva argues.
AID AND INDEPENDENCy The debate over the new long term EU budget has also created concerns about the independent standing of humanitarian aid. Reports earlier this year suggested that the humanitarian aid dossier could fall under the purview of the blocs new external action service led by Catherine Ashton. Over my dead body! Kristalina Georgieva exclaimed (according to the EUobserver) when, in February, she was confronted with these rumours in front of a Brussels audience. Now, a few months later, her response is more relaxed. She says she is confident that EU aid will never become a foreign policy tool, as it is, for example, in the United States. I am very confident that Europe has made the right choice to keep humanitarian aid impartial, independent and neutral. In 2009, for the first time, Europe also established a commissionaire of humanitarian aid, and it is my duty to protect this independence, she says, characterising the uncertainty still voiced among humanitarian aid workers as a natural reaction to the ongoing changes in the EU administration. When change takes place, there is of course uncertainty, as well as a risk of wrong decisions being made. But we are now beyond that stage; firstly, it is now clear that the humanitarian funding instrument will be independent from the foreign policy instrument. Secondly, it has been decided that my service will stay outside the external action service. And thirdly,
we have -via precedence established a working partnership, in which we collaborate without sacrificing the independence that is so important for humanitarian workers, the EU aid chief adds.
I am very confident that Europe has made the right choice to keep humanitarian aid impartial.
SOLIDARITy In her recent visits to Japan and Libya, Kristalina Georgieva was impressed by the resilience shown by ordinary people living under difficult circumstances. In her blog she chronicles her personal impressions from the field, and reflects upon what lessons can be learned from these tragedies. While Libya and the Ivory Coast are marked by conflicts grounded in suppression of some people by others. In Japan it was a force of nature that brought the country to its knees. This taught us that even the best prepared [for tackling disasters] are no longer safe. My counterpart on disasters in the US said something very important when we met recently. He said: while we have a tradition to prepare for the disasters we can imagine, we now have to prepare for the unthinkable - for the disasters we dont have the skills to address. I would add that in the face of disasters we all have to be humble and accept that we need to build global solidarity, because in the future it will no longer be a question of developed countries helping developing countries, it will be about human race, everyone helping each other, says Kristalina Georgieva.
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Special report On the Mexican-US Border
hoPe: for many Latin-Americans, the US represents the golden dream, and they are willing to tackle almost any obstacle in order to achieve that dream.
The Quest for Paradise

American authorities are desperately trying to plug all loopholes along the Mexican border. Every day, thousands of people try to enter the United States illegally.
By ystein Mikalsen PhotograPhs Otto von Mnchow
Mexico is not a place for children to grow up in.

Margarita
NO. 02.2011 34 PersPective PersPective NO. 02.2011
35

I have to get across, and I will get over, says 35-year-old Margarita, scanning the high wall in front of her. My whole family - my whole life - is on the other side, and I am here, she continues, making no attempt to hold back her tears. We are in Nogales, Sonora. On the other side of the wall lies Nogales, Arizona. Margarita is still wearing the orange T-shirt she was given when she was arrested in the US last night. She had followed the border eastwards, all the way to where the wall is replaced by barbed wire. There, she climbed through the first hole she could find in the fence, only to be immediately picked up by border -patrol agents from the US Department of Homeland Security. They questioned her and made her sign a statement that she would leave the US voluntarily. Margarita knows that the statement she signed will be used against her if she is ever caught crossing the border again. She may then face prosecution and a long prison sentence in Arizonas infamous womens prison. I know what I am risking but I will try again. What else can I do? My husband, and our children, aged 4 and 14, have managed to cross the border. There is no life for me in Mexico, she says, shaking her head. that those who cross the border might be drug traffickers or terrorists. In a nation populated by people who, originating from all corners of the world, and whose forefathers came in search of a better life, may have both sympathy and understanding for honest, poor people who want to come to America to work. Terrorists and drug traffickers, however, are not treated with the same respect. According to Cantu, Mexican drug cartels often use couriers to smuggle narcotics across the border. Carrying drugs in backpacks the couriers cross into the US on foot. Among the large number of illegal immigrants, however, Cantu is unable to estimate how many of them are actual criminals and how many are simply seeking a better future. The United States Government Accountability Office estimates that, since 1992 "Between 400,000 and 700,000 illegal immigrants have entered the country each year". In addition, approximately one million people immigrate legally to the United States each year. In 2009, American authorities estimated that there were 11.5 million people residing illegally in the US.
BorDer FeNCe: on the US side of the border, a fence has been erected to deter would-be migrants from entering the United States. US authorities argue that many of these illegal migrants are in fact drug couriers.
aN eNDLess FLoW A few miles further north, at the office of the Department of Homeland Security in Tucson, Arizona, Sergeant Eric Cantu welcomes us with a firm handshake. Homeland Security has been given the ungrateful task of stopping the flow of illegal immigrants coming over the border. In the US towns along the Mexican border, high walls prevent people from crossing the border. In desolate desert stretches, however, the border is only marked by a fence. In urban areas, Cantu explains, once a person has crossed the border it only takes him or her seconds to disappear in the crowd. Out in the desert, there is more time in which to act, and US law enforcers use thermal imaging cameras and a wide range of sophisticated surveillance equipment to stop the immigrants. We can arrest thousands of "illegal aliens" in a day, says Cantu. Cantus choice of words is hardly coincidental. The government department he represents consistently emphasises
the eXoDUs Margarita insists that she is neither a terrorist nor a cocaine courier - merely a woman with a dream, a dream that is starting to appear more and more like a nightmare. Margaritas husband has been living in Phoenix, Arizona for a year and a half already, and the rest of the family attempted to join him as soon as he had wired them enough money to pay their way across. We knew that they are less diligent about checking small children. So I obtained fake ID for my four-year-old and got someone I knew in the US to come over and take little Donovan back with him. Everything went according to plan, says Margarita. Shortly afterwards Margarita and her elder son also attempted to cross the border. Her husband had told her on the phone what she and Miguel Angel must do. They were to contact the people-smugglers along the border and pay them to guide them safely through the desert. For this they would be charged 2,800 US dollars. People-smuggling is big business and
KeePiNg WatCh: soldiers from the Federal Reserve Army patrolling the border with Mexico. The US authorities spend vast resources, both in terms of manpower and sophisticated surveillance equipment, in order to prevent illegal immigrants entering the US.
Us BorDer PatroL: officer Eric Cantu (left) with a fellow officer.
We were crammed into a car and driven far out into the wilderness, to an abandoned house on the Mexican side of the border.
Margarita, 35
smugglers, or coyotes as they often are called, charge substantial fees. Since border security is tightest in urban areas, smugglers often choose to travel through remote desert areas, making the journey across the border extra perilous. The routes through the Sonora Desert and the Baboquivari Mountain Range in Arizona run through inaccessible and uninhabited terrains. The illegal immigrants have to walk almost eighty kilometres before reaching the nearest drivable road. We were crammed into a car and driven far out into the wilderness, to an
abandoned house on the Mexican side of the border. We stayed there for a few days until we suddenly, in the middle of the night, were told that we had to leave. Crossing the border into the US was easy; the fence was down and we could just stroll across. However, the desert was freezing cold at night and our clothes were not adequate. Miguel Angel was terribly scared. We had to wrap blankets around our feet so as not to leave any footprints behind. Every time we heard the sound of patrolling helicopters in the distance, we had to run for cover. When
daylight emerged, we went into hiding and waited for nightfall to come again. Margarita sits slumped at the table as she tells her story. The table is situated in a centre, established by Father Shawn, an American Jesuit priest which offers food and assistance to emigrants who have been deported from the U.S.
a treaCheroUs JoUrNey Exactly how difficult it can be to enter the US illegally is borne out by statistics showing the number of people killed while trying to cross the Mexico-US border.
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staNDiNg oN the BorDer: Gustavo Lozano of the Border Action Network, a US organisation working to improve the human rights of illegal immigrants.
the sheriFF: Tony Estrada, sheriff of Santa Cruz County, US, is himself a Mexican immigrant.
heLPiNg oUt: Father Pete works at a Jesuit Centre, which offers food and shelter to Mexicans who have been deported by US authorities.
soUP KitCheN: deported Mexicans are given a meal in a soup kitchen run by Kino Border Initiative and the Jesuits. Many of the deported try again and again to cross the border into the US.
the toWN oF NogaLes: part Mexican, part American.
Over the last 13 years, according to the Human Rights National Commission of Mexico, around five thousand people have lost their lives trying to cross the border. The most common causes of death are dehydration and heat strokes as a result of walking through the desert. Many drown trying to cross the river Rio Grande, or are killed in car accidents related to human trafficking and/or trying to outdrive border-patrolagents. Quite a few have also been shot dead by border guards. For many of those who do make it across the border, success is short lived. Every year several hundred thousand people are caught in the border areas and sent back to where they came from. We kept going for eight days. I have no idea how we managed, or how close to our final destination we were when we were finally caught. We had run out of water and food and had to quench our thirst drinking water from muddy puddles. Suddenly, we heard the sound of
engines, only this time the helicopter was practically straight over our heads. My son and I were separated from the others, and we ran for shelter, hiding in a deserted car somebody had just left in the middle of nowhere. We sat there for hours, and daybreak came. All through the day the temperature inside the car wreckage kept rising, Miguel Angel kept crying, and I was just hoping for darkness to return so we could get going again. But their luck had run out. The helicopter had reported that there was movement in the area, and armed border-patrolagents on motorcycles were dispatched to conduct further investigations. The armed law officers ordered them out of the car, exhausted and distraught, with their hands over their heads. Their 2,800 dollars was gone. The only thing they had left was the dream of getting to America.
gooD PeoPLe There are many sad stories, many fates,
Tony Estrada sighs, running his fingers through his silvery mane. The government talks a lot about drug traffickers and terrorists, but the vast majority of immigrants come here because they think they have greater chances of a better life in the US than in Mexico - or wherever they might be coming from, Estrada says. His shiny sheriff s badge evokes images of the Wild West, where the sheriff would put his hand on his gun and proclaim, I am the law". Estrada, and his colleges, however, represent only one of many law agencies involved in enforcing immigration legislation. The Department of Homeland Security, local law enforcement agencies (that operate alongside the sheriff and his staff ), and the armed forces - all have a finger in the pie. If we catch someone entering the US without the proper papers , we must, of course, arrest them and hand them over
to the Border Patrol (an agency run by Homeland Security), Estrada says. However it does hurt him to see that his actions cause many to lose all hope of a better future, many of which he says would be valuable additions to the work force if allowed to stay. The 67-year-old was born and raised in Nogales Sonora, a few hundred meters and a high wall away from his current office. Back in the day, we would go back and forth over the border as we pleased. Eventually, I realised that there were more opportunities in the US, so when I was 21, I decided to apply for US citizenship. Since then I have been on the police force or with the Sheriff s department, Estrada says. However, he does not give the legislation he is enforcing much credit. While emphasising that he will do everything in his power to stop drug traffickers and terrorists before they enter the US, he also says that he thinks that most
We kept going for eight days. I have no idea how we managed, or how close to our final destination we were when we were finally caught.
Margarita
If the current laws had existed when I was young, I would never have been given a chance to use my efforts for the best of the community on the American side of the border, says Tony Estrada.
people who try to cross the border are good, hardworking people. A system allowing labour immigration would make it possible for everyone with honest intentions to cross the border passport in hand, and a smile on their face, he argues, and then it would also be clear that those who do choose to cross the border illegally are up to no good.
VaNishiNg hoPes After two days in a detention centre, Margarita and her son were taken across the border and dropped off not far from where we are sitting. We would not and could not give up. So we borrowed some more money from an acquaintance and paid someone to make us fake ID papers. We went to the border crossing and queued up for passport control; Miguel Angel first, and I a bit farther behind. I could not believe my eyes when I saw my boy being waved through. Finally, it was our turn, Margarita says, smiling resignedly. Their luck, however, would turn out to be short-lived. I was not as lucky. The border-patrolPersPective NO. 02.2011
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serted, and no one moves farther than absolutely necessary without a car. The streets are properly paved and there is no litter to be seen. There are few conversations, and even less laughs, to be heard. The picture changes radically once we have crossed the border. In Nogales, Sonora, there is a constant scent of freshly made tortillas. The pavements are crowded, but the highway is practically empty. Taxi and shop signs are in decay. On this side of the border, people are talking and laughing loudly, and people sitting in the pavement cafes discuss the worlds major and minor problems.
Make sure you write this; I will never give up. No law, no fence and no threats can separate me and my family.
Margarita
LeFt BehiND: Margarita has once again been deported from the US. Earlier, her husband and two sons successfully gained entrance to the US. They are now living illegally on the other side of the border.
agent noticed there was something wrong with my papers and refused to let me pass. It was the worst experience of my life standing there helplessly, watching my son disappear into the crowd on the other side. Only a few days have passed since mother and son were separated, but Margarita has been told that her boy is safe with his father and younger brother in Phoenix. Margarita knows that her own hopes of ever being able to return to the US are fading. I am sure they will be OK, but if I do not manage to get over, I think I will
lose my mind, she says. It is nice and cool under the corrugated iron roof at the Jesuit centre, but outside the desert sun is roasting. The fences and barriers along the border cast long shadows in the morning sun. Margarita can barely believe that all her dreams are just a few hundred meters away. Nonetheless, they are as good as unattainable. For the photographer, Otto von Mncow, and I, negotiating all the checkpoints was over in a matter of minutes. The walk from north to south is an odd experience. On the American side of the border, the pavements are almost de-
soMethiNg has to Be DoNe Otto and I came across the border in the company of Gustavo Lozano of the Border Action Network - one of the many organisations working to improve the rights of illegal immigrants. It is totally unacceptable that Margarita, and hundreds of other immigrants along with her, are degraded in this manner, Lozano says. But the US does have laws restricting immigration, is it not reasonable to expect the authorities to do whatever is in their power to enforce these laws? That is a fair point, but the problem is that the legislation makes it virtually impossible to distinguish between smugglers, and other criminals on the one hand, and regular job-seekers, such as Margarita and her husband, on the other the human rights activist says. Lozano is of Mexican descent, but holds an American passport. He says that even though everyone knows that both the agricultural and construction industries in the southern parts of the United States are heavily dependent on labour from Latin America it is virtually impossible to legally obtain a work-permit. The situation today is that people and drugs are being smuggled along the same routes. It is impossible to distinguish the bandits from the good guys. The authorities are using their drugs and terror rhetoric for all it is worth. By defining illegal immigration as a terror issue, tomato pickers and domestic workers, and other ordinary people, are being treated as terrorists, Gustavo says. The human rights activist is also very concerned about the dangers immigrants face en route to the United States. The coyotes, who specialise in getting people
across the border, profit hugely on those who have entrusted them with their lives and life savings. Margaritas fourth and, for the time being, last attempt to cross the border, ended abruptly a few hours ago. I had not taken many steps on US soil before I was picked up, she says. This time they had my fingerprints on record from the time I was caught with Miguel Angel. They told me that I had broken US law and was at risk of being detained for a long time, unless I signed a statement that I would leave the US voluntarily, and was aware that new attempts at illegal immigration would have serious implications for me. They even gave me this orange T-shirt so that everyone can see that I have been to prison. Gustavo Lozano listens and shakes his head bitterly. Its the same every time. They practically force people to sign the form for voluntary return, and use the same form against you if you are caught again. I ask Margarita why she decided to immigrate to the US. There were other options, I say. You did not have to put your family through this. You could have stayed, like the vast majority of Mexicans do? Mexico is not a place for children to grow up in. Just look at all the problems with the drug cartels. Besides, the economy is doing very badly. I will not do anything wrong when I get to the US, I will not be taking anybodys job. Everyone knows that illegal immigrants do much of the necessary work that the gringos cannot be bothered to do, she says, and starts walking towards the town centre of Nogales. After a few steps, she stops and turns: Make sure you write this; I will never give up. No law, no fence and no threats can separate me and my family.
traNsLateD By: Tor verb
FiLM DireCor: Luis Carlos Davis the young film director behind the acclaimed documentary 289 Miles Living the Border".
Groundbreaking documentary
In the course of the last year the young film director, Luis Carlos Davis, has won both awards and fame for his documentary film 389 Miles "Living the Border. The film title refers to the 389 miles of walls and fences that the US authorities have erected along the border in order to prevent illegal immigration. In the film Davis portrays the people who live on both sides of the border. Davies, himself, grew up so close to the border that he could smell freshly-made tortillas in the mornings. It all began the day I realised that my immigrant Mexican mother could not afford to pay tuition fees for the film school I wanted to attend," Luis Carlos Davis says, surveying the five- meter high metal wall constructed to keep immigrants out. On the other side lies his mother's native Mexico. She and my father were lucky enough to move to the States before the border controls became as crazy as they are today," Davis says, before telling the story about a film project that started as a hobby and ended with him winning acclaim as a documentary film maker. The house I grew up in is so close to the border that I could feel the smell of freshly-made tortillas in the mornings, says Davis. I wanted to interview everyone involved; illegal immigrants, the soldiers who patrol the border, and the people-smugglers the "coyotes", who benefit substantially from the trafficking. It took me four and a half years to complete it, and I dont think I have left any stone unturned, he says. Luis Carlos Davis wanted to focus on all those who, in one way or another, are affected by US border regulations. Why do you think the film has created such a stir? I think it is because I am conveying the human aspects of it all. I do not delve deep into statistical facts on how many people are caught crossing, or how many may be carrying drugs among their belongings. I simply present a lot of honest people. I think the film's power lies in its ability to show people as human beings, not merely as figures in the crime statistics.
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Global Review
AFGHANISTAN
Winning Hearts and Minds

Over a two year period (2006-2008) the Feinstein International Center conducted a field study in Afghanistan. The study examined the use of aid as a means of creating stability. The report concludes that this strategy, and the attempt to win the hearts and minds of the population in order to undermine terrorist activity, has had little effect outside the main towns. The fear of the Taliban reduced peoples willingness to engage in the projects, and the report concludes that the strategy focused on the wrong aspects of the conflict i.e. on the lack of development and government presence, rather than on poor governance and insecurity.
In 2010, the number of people seekIng asylum to the IndustrIalIzed world sank by 5 per cent compared to 2009.
358,800
5%
EURopE: 269,900 asylum applications in 2010, down 6 per cent
6%
NoRTH AMERIcA: 78,700 applications in 2010, down 4 per cent
4%
EU
Strong When United

A recently published analysis of European Union foreign policy concludes that the efforts to rescue the Greek and Irish economies, and to save the euro have overshadowed foreign-affairs ambitions.
The European Council of Foreign Relations has graded the EUs ability to project influence abroad. The scorecard shows that the union performed well when it stood united, but had less success when devided. According to the analysis, the union was able to present a united front re: stabilization and state building in Iraq, relations with the US on climate change, stabilization of the Georgian border, and negotiations with China on standards, norms and consumer protection, as well as policy towards Iran. More difficult issues were dealings with the US over NATO, the Millennium Development Goals, policy towards Afghanistan, the planned Balkan gas pipeline, and human rights in Turkey and China.
FAIR TRADE
Record Growth in the US

According to Fair Trade USAs 2010 Almanac, in 2010 the overall sale of fair-trade products grew by 24 per cent.
The largest growth was in coffee. To date, the fair-trade market has resulted in over 44 million US dollars in revenue to coffee farmers around the world. Fair Trade USA, the leading certifier of fair-trade products in the US, reports of accelerating sales in the mainstream supermarket segment. More and more companies are broadening their product range, and in 2010, more than 9,500 consumer products were on sale at some 60,000 retail locations. Fair-trade certification allows farmers, industry partners and consumers alike to contribute to the long-term sustainability of farming communities in all parts of the world. The US fair- trade retail sales market was 1.4 billion US dollars last year. Europe started its fair-trade market 30 years ago, and generated 3 billion US dollars last year. Nevertheless, Fair Trade USA experiences a faster growth than the European market.
GREEcE: On 11 May 2011, thousands of people took to the streets in Athens protesting against a government plan to cut back on public spending. The Greek and Irish economic crises have pushed other policy matters off the EU agenda.
A common foreign policy has been one of the most controversial issues within the union, and it has proved very difficult for the EU to speak with one voice on international affairs. Opinion in favor of a stronger common approach gained momentum with the ap-
pointment of a High Commissioner for Foreign Affairs and Security, and the creating of the External Action Service in late 2009, and stimulated hope that 2010 would prove to be a breakthrough for a more united foreign policy response.
coFFEE: Coffee storage of the Cafe Bom Dia roaster in Brazil. The US fair-trade marked is growing rapidly, and the number of fair-trade products are increasing as well. Coffee, however, is still the main product.
AFGHANISTAN THE WoRST coUNTRy IN WHIcH To bE A MoTHER

The 2011 Mothers Index Ranking, conducted by Save the Children, ranks Afghanistan the worst country in which to be a mother. Here, one in eleven women dies in childbirth. In comparison, the maternal mortality rate in Norway, ranked number one in the survey, is seven in 7600 births. Access to health care is a major factor in how well a country is ranked on the list. In many countries, only very few women have access to vaccines, antibiotics, and care during pregnancy, and as a result, child and maternal mortality rates are very high.
Top 10 best places to be a mother 1: Norway 2: Australia 3: Iceland 4: Sweden 5: Denmark 6: New Zealand 7: Finland 8: Belgium 9: Netherlands 10: France
Bottom 10 worst places to be a mother 155: Central African Republic 156: Sudan 157: Mali 158: Eritrea 159: DR Congo 160: Chad 161: Yemen 162: Guinea-Bissau 163: Niger 164: Afghanistan
US cENSUS 2010
Population: 308,745,538 (a growth of 9.7 % compared with the2000 census). There is a census of population in the US every 10 years. This is because the allocation of seats in the House of Representatives to each state is in proportion to the size of the states population. This is the first decade in Americas history where the west is more populous than the Midwest.
Gaining seats Losing seats
GAINING SEATS: Arizona (+1: 9 repr.), Florida ( +2:27 repr.), Georgia (+1:14 repr.), Nevada (+1: 4repr.), South Carolina (+1: 7 repr.), Texas (+4:38 repr.), Utah (+1:4 repr.) and Washington (+1:10 repr.). LoSING SEATS: Illinois ( -1:18 repr.), Iowa (-1:4 repr.), Louisiana (-1: 6repr.), Massachusetts (-1:9 repr.), Michigan (-1: 14 repr.), Missouri ( -1: 8 repr.), New Jersey (-1:12 repr.), New York (-2:27 repr.), Ohio( -2:16 repr.) and Pennsylvania ( -1: 18 repr.). For 32 states there are no changes. There are 435 seats in the House of Representatives.
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43
ivory coast Crisis Not Over
The security situation in Ivory Coast remains unpredictable. Fighting continues in some areas, with a resultant displacement of population.
Rough Road Ahead

BY: Astrid Sehl
After five months of fighting, the armed struggle for presidential power in Ivory Coast finally came to an end, and Alessane Quattara was able to take office. Almost half the electorate, however, are opposed to the new President, and restoring and maintaining the peace will be a serious challenge to the authorities. The road towards reconciliation is expected to be long and hard.
A HIGH PRICE Thousands of civilians were killed or injured during the fighting. Because there are still pockets of violence, civilians continue to flee their homes. The Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) has a strong presence in Liberia and it has been responsible for registration, camp management, shelter, provision of food, and protection monitoring for Ivorian refugees in Liberia. I am concerned that in the critical period ahead, the fragile situation in Ivory Coast will be even further down on the international radar screen. The world seems to believe that the crisis is over since the new President has taken his seat. Although Quattara enjoys more international legitimacy than his predecessor, the international community should not turn their backs on the country. There are substantial needs for humanitarian protection and assistance that needs to be responded to before the displaced can return in high numbers, says Elisabeth Rasmusson, Secretary General of the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC). LONG TERM SUPPORT NEEDED Before the unrest, Ivory Coast was the most prosperous country in West Africa, but months of fierce fighting has set back both economic and civil-society development by several years. Considerable economic support, as well as long-term political engagement by the internationNO. 02.2011 44 PersPective
al community, will be needed to help the country in getting back on its feet. Despite the fact that the election had been postponed for five years, the international community was caught off guard when fierce violence broke out in December last year. An easy victory had been predicted for the incumbent, President Gbagbo. Surprisingly, his opponent, Alassane Ouattara, received 54.1 per cent of the votes. Gbagbo claimed that Quattaras victory was the result of election fraud, but the international community almost universally came out in support of Ouattara. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the African Union (AU), the UN, US and the EU all recognized Ouattara as the duly elected President. The support, however, was not entirely consistent. Both Angola and Lebanon sent their ambassadors to Gbagbo's inauguration. Many WestAfrican countries, such as Nigeria, were in the throes of preparations for their own elections, and were unable to formulate a political or military response concerning Ivory Coast. Meanwhile Russia continued to block attempts by the UN Security Council to substantially increase the UN peacekeeping mission in the country, thereby leaving the international community with very little power with which to back up their endorsement of Quattara. At the same time, the worlds attention was focused on the unexpected and astonishing uprisings in North Africa and the Middle East.
DESPERATELY FLEEING The stream of Ivorian refugees did not subside, and by late May, some 250 refugees a day were crossing into Liberia. The total number of registered Ivorian refugees in Liberia had by that time reached 200,000. Inside Ivory Coast, at the peak of the crisis, one million people were internally displaced, and in mid-May the number still stood at 200,000. The local communities have been extremely generous, hosting the refugees when the international community initially failed to provide necessary response. Even though these communities themselves are poor; the villagers have opened their homes and shared the little food they had. Now, their capacities have by far been exhausted. An important part of the continued humanitarian response is to include the Liberian villagers as far as funding allows, says NRCs country director Astrid Sletten. Among humanitarian organisations working in Ivory Coast and Liberia there is still great fear that the international community will not provide the necessary support for humanitarian aid and reconstruction. Less than a quarter of the 160 million US dollar appeal made by the UN in order to provide help for Ivory Coast had been committed. In comparison, international donors have contributed 48 per cent of the 310 million dollar appeal for Libya made by the UN. As for Liberia, the 146 million dollar emergency request had been met by 40 per cent.
TOUGH TIMES: in the course of the last decade, the people of Ivory Coast have endured many hardships. In 2002, internal strife evolved into a full-fledged civil war that resulted in the country being divided in two. Since then, peace followed by renewed violence, has been the order of the day. The 2010 election was seen as an important step towards lasting stability. Instead violence erupted yet again. Photo: Sven Torfinn / Panos Pictures/Felix Features
Gbagbos Downfall
BY: Erik R. Selmer
FACTS
The long-awaited presidential election in Ivory Coast was held on 31 October and 28 November 2010 after having been postponed six times since 2005. The conflict began after Laurent Gbagbo, who had been in office since 2000, refused to step down when his opponent, Alassane Quattara, was declared the victor. After five months of political deadlock and intense fighting, Gbagbo was arrested on 11 April by pro-Ouattara forces, backed by the French military, in the presidential residence in Abidjan. Gbagbo, together with nearly 200 persons from the former regime, have been placed under house arrest, for a six month, renewable period, and are being held in towns situated in different areas of the country. President Ouattara has called for the establishment of a Truth and Reconciliation Committee. The UN Human Rights Council has established an international commission of inquiry to investigate the various killings and human rights abuses. Their report is expected in June. The fighting still continues in some parts of the country
An important part of the continued humanitarian response is to include the Liberian villagers as far as funding allows.
ASTRID SLETTEN, NRCs country director
Ironically, in the days prior to his arrest, and after weeks of military setbacks, President Gbagbo had turned the tide, and was on the offensive. Then he made one fatal mistake. His supporters attacked the Golf Hotel, which served as the headquarters for his opponent, Alassane Quattara, and for the UN and French forces stationed in Ivory Coast. Although no French soldiers took part in the storming of the presidential palace, there is little doubt that French fighter-helicopters and special forces played a crucial role in the outcome. With Gbagbos capture, the massacres of innocent civilians almost came to an end, but the involvement of French military forces has brought back memories of colonial times, when the French, unchecked, could further their interests in any way they found convenient.
Gbagbo and his inner circle are now under investigation for human-rights violations committed during the conflict. They will be brought to trial, Quattara promised. Charges will be brought, both at a national and international level. There can be no reconciliation without justice, he said. A Truth and Reconciliation Commission, is to be established. The chairman has already been appointed. Gbagbo may now regret both not accepting Quattaras election victory, and rejecting the many offers he was given of a free passage out of Ivory Coast, but the peace is still fragile and Gbagbos presence can still be felt. Three weeks after he was captured more than two dozen people were killed in Abidjan, allegedly killed by Liberian mercenaries recruited by Gbagbo.
45
organ trafficking
A KIDNEy foR SALE

Ten per cent of all the transplants in the world are carried out with human organs acquired on the black market. Poor people in need are willing to donate kidneys and livers in return for ready money.
By Grete Gaulin Photo Scanpix
The first rumours began to emerge during the mid 1980s. Someone was killing the street children of Brazil's socalled favelas, cutting out and removing their vital organs, thereafter dumping the lifeless and mangled bodies on the nearest tip. In the slums, hearsay had it that wealthy Americans were behind the bestiality. The stories, however, turned out to be unsubstantiated. In fact, there was not one single piece of evidence to bear out these horror stories. So, when a different type of organ trafficking emerged, the international community at first took no notice. Today, we know that not only is illegal organ-trading taking place, the industry is growing rapidly - and in the framework of this global supermarket of body parts there are kidnappings and involuntary organ removals, and at the extreme end of this murky market area disappearances and murders. 2010 saw the disclosure of several serious cases of illegal organ trading. In December, The Council of Europe published a dossier which corroborates the old allegations that Kosovo's prime minister, along with his guerrilla affiliates, had removed organs from Serbian prisoners-ofwar, and had promised poor people mon-
ey in return for flying to Kosovo to donate organs. At about the same time, charges were pressed against eight people involved in an illegal organ-trade network providing affluent Israelis with kidneys from poor Brazilians at several hospitals in South Africa during 2003-2004.
DEMAND CREAtES SUPPLy The main problem with the black market for human organs is not that people are murdered for their body parts, but that so many people live in such desperate states of poverty that they voluntarily end up selling their kidneys or other organs. The World Health Organization (WHO), aided by journalists and NGOs, has slowly, but surely revealed the nature of the industry, The clear picture that emerges shows that organ trade and transplant tourism are replacing an earlier practice where patients would be operated on at home and receive organs from friends, family, or deceased donors. The illicit market has emerged in the discrepancy between demand and sup-
In the Nepalese village of Shikharpur, one in five residents has donated a kidney.
ply; on one hand, there is a fast-growing queue of patients waiting for new organs. On the other hand, the number of donors can only cover about ten per cent of the current demand. At any given time in the US, 100,000 patients are waiting for a transplant. But the annual number of donors stays put at about 5,000-8,000 (either alive or deceased). The same disparity can be found in Europe, where 120,000 patients are dependent on dialysis and 40, 000 are waiting for a kidney. In the U S the waiting period for new organs is ten years or more. Most dialysis patients die long before that. This paves the way for a large group of desperate patients who will do almost anything for a kidney or a slice of a liver. And wherever there is demand, there will be suppliers and brokers who cash in.
ENtIRE VILLAGES DoNAtE Not unexpectedly, buyer typically lives in a richer part of the world, while the seller resides in a poorer area. The de-
47
organ trafficking fACtS

ILLEGAL oRGAN tRADE: hUMAN-oRGAN SELLERS ARE PREDoMINANtLy foUND IN: Argentina, Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Colombia, Egypt, India, Israel, Iraq (before the war), Mexico, Moldova, Pakistan, Palestine, Peru, the Philippines, Romania, Russia, US and Turkey. oRGAN RECIPIENtS ARE PREDoMINANtLy foUND IN: Australia, Canada, The Gulf States, Iran, Israel, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, USA, Taiwan and Europe. CoUNtRIES WERE tRANSPLANtS tAKE PLACE: China, India, Iran, Iraq (before the war), Israel, the Philippines, Russia, South Africa and Turkey. PRICE of oNE KIDNEy: Iraq (before the war): $ 1,000 The Philippines: $ 1,500 India: $1,500-2,000 Moldova: $ 2,700 Brazil / Turkey: $ 6,000 Israel: 15,000-20,000 US: $ 30,000 thE CASE of MoLDoVA: The poorest country in Europe. Extensive corruption. Over five thousand people leave the country every month. Emigrants need money for travel and necessary documents. More than 400 people have sold a kidney (the actual numbers are probably much higher). Average price for a kidney: $ 2,500. The illegal transplant operations are performed in Russia, the Ukraine and Turkey.
100,800
Organ transplants happen all over the world and kidney transplants occur in more than 90 countries. Approximately 100,800 organ transplants are performed each year. Of these, there are 69,400 kidney transplants and 20,200 liver transplants.
LAhoRE: Pakistani men at a police station reveal their scars after having had their kidneys removed. The men were brought in after police raided a clinic involved in organ trafficking.
SELLING thEIR oRGANS: India is one of the largest organ-selling countries in the world. The two labourers in this photograph are just two of thousands of poor Indians who, each year, have their organs removed in return for money. Ten per cent of all transplants occur on the illegal human organ market. 46 per cent of all transplanted kidneys, and 14.6 per cent of transplanted livers, come from living donors. The majority of people selling organs are motivated by extreme poverty.
tails below illustrate the many ways organ trafficking is being organised, and how organ trade has virtually become the standard source of income in some places.
In the Nepalese village of Shikharpur,
In Brazil, Moldova and some African
one in five residents has donated a kidney. Most had their surgery in Punjab, Pakistan, and were sent back home without any medical supervision, and with only half of the money they were promised. In India, poor people are sometimes willing to offer their own body parts as security for loans. A few years ago, in southern areas of the country, the number of poor people selling human organs to wealthy Bangladeshi and Sri Lankans was so extensive that the region was nicknamed "The Kidney Belt" .Every year according to the Voluntary Health Association of India - around two thousand Indians sell a kidney. In South Africa, there were reports at the end of the 1990s that the eyes of poor, deceased black people were removed and sold at a local medical facility. In China, vital organs from about 12,000 executed prisoners are removed every year. In both Brazil and South Africa, everything from eyes to heart valves are removed from deceased poor people. In Brazil, contracts stipulating that workers donate an organ in return for the promise of a secure job, housing and coverage of other basic needs, have been revealed.
countries, between 60 and 70 per cent of all transplants are conducted within what is known as transplant tourism, where the donors are residents, and the recipients come from rich countries. In the Philippines, there are slums where the poor have practically made a profession of selling their body parts. In villages outside the Moldovan capital of Chisinau, it is common to meet women with large, crescent-shaped scars - a result of illegal operations in which a kidney has been removed. In the same country, every year, an unknown number of people disappear. It is widely thought they are victims of the local organ mafia. Some of the victims are probably murdered by criminals who are after their kidneys, while others die on the operating table. Moldova is one of the largest exporters of kidneys in the world, along with countries such as Brazil and India. So far, it has been established that more than four hundred young Moldovans have sold a kidney, but the numbers of unrecorded cases are high, and even the government is accused of being part of the illicit network.
fRoM RAGS to RIChES Many of the figures and facts regarding illegal organ trading are disputed - or unclear. But the WHO is in no doubt that the bigger picture is correct; their estimates show that between ten and 15 per cent of all kidney transplants worldwide occur on the illicit market. This means
that approximately 15,000 kidneys are illegally removed from donors every year. The general picture is that poor people in the South provide body parts for rich patients in the North. However, in a local context, lower classes provide organs for the upper classes, black people donate to white people, and women donate to men. According to the European Society for Organ Transplantation, it is primarily the poor, the unemployed, the socially marginalized, the debt-ridden, and refugees who are the victims of the illicit organ trade. Most of these people are living, geographically and socially, on the fringes of society, in slums and small villages in the Third World. The majority are men age between 18 and 30. The director of Organ Watch, Nancy Scheper-Hughes, calls the phenomenon the new cannibalism. The WHO refers to it as a major ethical dilemma within global health tourism and wants measures to ensure that poor people from the geographic South are not exploited for the benefit of the rich. However, no one is quite sure how to prevent the practice in which poor people, voluntarily, donate kidneys and other vital body parts. Things are not made easier by Western transplant surgeons who depend on illicit organs in order to save patients lives. It may seem as if the different developments and trends have conspired to create a large black market for organs. New drugs make it increasingly easier for human bodies to receive vital body parts from people without genetic connection to the patient.
Every country in the world is in need of organ donors.
SoURCE: United Nations Office on Drug and Crime, 2010
More and more people dislike the idea of surgically implanting organs from cadavers, and globalisation makes it easy for donors and recipients to meet in a country with a reasonably high level of medical expertise. Human organs are even put up for sale on well-known websites. The WHO has no illusions that illegal organ trafficking will cease to exist in the near future. Medical tourism is booming everywhere, and hospitals in South Africa, Pakistan, the Philippines, the Middle East and Brazil offer Western patients quick access to kidneys and livers, for which they would have to wait several years at home.
JUSt AS PooR AS BEfoRE Statistics from Egypt show that nine out of ten poor donors, regretted having had harvesting surgery. Many said they had experienced complications that restricted their ability to work, or that they had been victims of stigma in the community.
Almost all black-market donors are left with less than half the remuneration they were promised, and absolutely no one has managed to escape out of poverty or debt as a result of donating an organ. In the wake of surgery (according to figures from the European Society for Organ Transplantation) patients generally suffer from poor health and depression, resulting in a heightened risk of suicide. The price for a kidney varies between 1-2,000 US dollars and 20,000 dollars provided that the kidney is harvested from the right (preferably white) person. The brokers, on the other hand, can sometimes cash in 200, 000 dollars per body part. This has lead to some British surgeons initiating a campaign to legalise the selling of private organs. Legalisation would put an end to a regime where the poor are being ripped off while risking their lives in kitchen clinics in dodgy countries, British doctor, Sally Satel, writes in her book When Altruism
Is not Enough: The Case for Compensating Kidney Donors. The WHO is moving in the opposite direction and wants to ban the sale of human organs. Or, more precisely, their aim is to bring medical realities in alignment with the law, since organ trading is already illegal in most countries. The last few years have shown some progress in this field as a number of illegal networks have been revealed. Today, Organ Watch works together with the WHO, The European Parliament, The Council of Europe, and others to put an end to organ trafficking. Nancy Scheper-Hughes told Newsweek; If we regard the current legislation to be good; that it is not a good thing for medicine or our society that we allow poor people to mutilate themselves then we must simply ensure that the laws are adhered to.
tRANSLAtED By: Tor verb
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Somaliland
There is a corner of Africa that receives little international assistance, resolved its own civil war without outside help and has held four multi-party elections, including the transfer of power from a ruling party to the opposition. There is only one problem: Somaliland does not officially exist though it did once.
Home-Grown Democracy
BY: Christopher Eads
SOMALILAND
Somaliland declared its unilateral independence from Somalia in 1991. POPULATION: 3.5 4 million. 55 per cent of the population are nomads or semi-pastoralists, 45 per cent live in urban centres and rural towns. AREA: 137,600 sq km (roughly the size of England and Wales) CAPITAL: Hargeisa BORDERS: Djibouti (to the north), Ethiopia (to the west) and Somalia (to the south).
The north-western region of Somalia was the British Protectorate of Somaliland until June 1960, when it became an independent state for all of five days. It was a time of strong pan-Somalism, and when the former Italian Somaliland became independent a few days after British Somaliland, the two joined together to form the Somali Republic. Although there was, from the outset, some resentment at the dominance of southerners in the new countrys government, this marriage between the two states was fairly amicable until the early 1980s, when Somalilands dominant Isaaq clan, frustrated by its lack of representation within the government, formed a rebel group called the Somali National Movement (SNM). The SNM was originally focused on the ousting of the military dictator, Siad Barre, who had come to power in a 1969 military coup. In the course of the mid1980s, the SNM slowly gained control over wider areas of Somaliland, thereby provoking a ruthless crackdown by the Barre regime in 1988, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 50,000 people and the displacement of 500,000. In May 1991, the pressure of rival clan militias brought about the downfall of Said Barres regime, and, Somaliland declared unilateral independence from Somalia.
an end by a series of inter-clan dialogues resulting in the Boorama Conference of 1993, which saw the creation of Somalias current mix of Western and traditional forms of government. A unique aspect of Somalilands government system is the incorporation of the traditional Somali Council of Elders into parliament as the House of Elders (Upper House). Members of the House of Elders are nominated by local clans, whilst members of the House of Representatives (Lower House) are directly elected by the people. Both houses have 82 members. Somalilands president is directly elected by the people for a period of up to two five years terms. Initially, however, before any elections took place, both houses of parliament were nominated by clan elders at the 1993 Boorama Conference, and at a second large peace conference in 1997. In 1993, Muhammad Ibrahim Egal was nominated as Somalilands president and re-appointed at the 1997 conference. Mr Egal served until his death in 2002, when he was succeeded by the then vice-president, Dahir Riyale Kahin.
FORGING OF A DEMOCRACY Inter-clan conflicts in Somaliland did not cease immediately, but were brought to
MULTI-PARTY ELECTIONS Somalilands first multi-party elections in 2002 - were for local district councils, which laid the groundwork for Somalilands current political landscape. The 2002 elections took place in stages, with a requirement that any party not receiving at least 20 per-cent of the vote in four
UNIqUE SYSTEM: Somaliland has one of Africas better-functioning governments. The governmental system combines traditional clan structures with parliamentary procedures. Here we see supporters of the Peace, Unity and Development Party (KULMIYE) taking part in a rally held in connection with the 2010 presidential elections. The opposing KULMIYE went on to win the election. Photo: Sven Torfinn / Panos Pictures/Felix Features
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Somaliland
of the countrys six regions would not be recognized. Following two rounds of voting, Somaliland officially recognised three parties: the United Peoples Democratic Party (UDUB), the Justice and Development Party (UCID), and the Peace, Unity and Development Party (Kulmiye). The remaining seven parties were invited to merge with any of the three largest parties. At present, Somalilands Constitution only recognises these three parties, though there are signs that this may be changed in the not-so-distant future. The 2003 presidential election saw Mr Kahin of the UDUB party elected as president, narrowly beating Ahmed Silanyo of the Kulmiye party. In 2005 the country held its first direct elections for the House of Representatives, which saw the Kulmiye party defeating Mr Kahins UDUB party for control of the Lower House. A second presidential election was planned for 2008, but suffered from successive delays and did not take place until July 2010. The repeated delay of the election threatened Somalilands fragile stability and was seen as potentially causing the collapse of the countrys government. Opposition leaders, however, showed restraint, and were rewarded when the election finally did take place, as opposition candidate, Mr Silanyo of the Kulmiye party, defeated the incumbent Mr Kahin. Somalilands string of largely peaceful and fair elections gives it one of the best elections records in Africa, placing it alongside countries such as Botswana, Mauritius and Ghana.
BACkGROUND
BORDER DISPUTE wITH PUNTLAND Somaliland is mostly free of armed conflict, but there are occasional skirmishes between government forces and armed groups in the south along the border with the semi-autonomous Somali state of Puntland. The tribes in this area are divided in their allegiances between Somaliland, Puntland, and the Transitional Government of Somalia. In 2010 several thousand people in the southern part of Somaliland were displaced because of such fighting. ECONOMY Somalia is one of the poorest countries in the world. In comparison with South Central Somalia, Somaliland experiences more stable socio-economic conditions, but poverty and unemployment is still widespread. Livestock accounts for between 60-65 per cent of the national economy. Somaliland relies heavily on livestock export to the Gulf NO RECOGNITION: this statue holding a map of Somaliland can be found in the capital, Hargeisa. Despite 20 years of self-rule, no country has yet recognised Somaliland as an independent country. Photo: Scanpix THE DANGERS OF SUCCESS: in their efforts to find a bulwark against Islamic extremism in Somalia, Western powers and international institutions are increasingly engaging in various development projects in Somaliland. Some fear that all the new-found attention will only increase corruption and internal rivalry, and make the country a target for Al Shabaab. Photo: Scanpix States, and duties from Berbera, a port used by landlocked Ethiopia, for revenue. Remittances from the Somali Diaspora are also crucial to the economy. PIRACY Piracy in the Gulf of Aden is costing the global economy an estimated seven to twelve billion US dollars a year, and an escalating number of attacks have provoked an extensive international response. Somalilands small, but effective coastguard has been quite successful in capturing pirates along the Somaliland coast, and only a small number of pirates and pirate attacks originate in Somaliland. Somaliland also has a judicial system capable of trying and imprisoning convicted pirates. This has made Somaliland a sought-after partner in the efforts to combat piracy. In May 2011 a new prison, funded by international donors, opened in the capital, Hargeisa. The prison will accommodate pirates arrested by the international forces operating in the Gulf of Aden. INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS Somaliland is host to around 67,000 Somalis who have been displaced either because of armed conflict or drought. A majority of the refugees belong to minority clans and consequently also lack clan support and have fewer opportunities of earning a livelihood. SOURCES: BBC, CIA World Factbook, Somalilandgov. com, Norwegian Refugee Council and the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre.
INTERNATIONAL RECOGNITION REMAINS ELUSIVE Despite its promising governance record, Somaliland has failed to gain recognition as an independent state by the international community. Following the successful referendum on the independence of South Sudan in January 2011, there have been renewed hopes for Somaliland independence within the country - Somaliland held its own referendum on independence back in 2001, with the vast majority voting in favour. However, the United Nations (UN) and the African Union (AU) have indicated that the process in South Sudan has no bearing on the situation in Somaliland, and there is still a preference for a united Somalia. There are many theories as to why Somaliland cannot gain international recog-
nition, ranging from the practical - a fear of repeating the Ethiopia/Eritrea debacle to the conspiratorial: Egypts dependence on the Nile, which flows from Ethiopia, means that Egypt wants a united Somalia to act as a counter to Ethiopian power in the region. The Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Conference are also opposed to Somaliland independence. Regional neighbours Ethiopia and Djibouti both accept Somaliland passports, but are the only two countries to do so. There is a strong sense that no country wants to recognise Somaliland until either the UN or a major Western power does so. However, Somaliland does maintain representatives in the UK, US, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Italy issuing visas to visitors and lobbying governments. Somalilands president and other government officials are often seen travelling to the UK, US and other countries. Although the truth behind the countrys failure to be recognised as an independent state is most likely a mixture of the practical and
conspiratorial the consequence is that Somaliland remains a territory which has all the trappings of a democratic state, but lacks Statehood.
RISING INTEREST COULD THREATEN STABILITY For most of the past 20 years Somalilands political development has probably benefitted from the neglect of the international community. Its home-grown peace process and system of government were truly local developments, free of interference from outside forces. However, the arrival of global jihadists and organisations like Al Qaeda in Somalia in the last few years has put Somalia back on the international radar and the West has decided it is too dangerous to continue to ignore the Somalia problem. Although no government officially recognises Somalilands independence, the Wests interest in Somaliland has been growing as the chaos in Somalia shows no signs of abating, and the Al Qaeda-linked Somali Islamist group, Al Shabaab, now
controls much of central and southern Somalia. Over the last several months there has been a growing trend among Western governments to adopt a two-track approach in Somalia, seeking to boost cooperation with stable regional administrations in Somalia, as they remain desperate for viable cooperation partners. Naturally, Somaliland is often mentioned at the top of the list of possible regional administrations to be worked with. This process is already underway, as evidenced by announcements from the UKs Department for International Development (DfID) that 40 per cent of aid to Somalia will go to Somaliland, and by visits of delegations from Denmark, France and UN agencies; as well as World Bank and US funding for projects to improve the efficiency of Somalilands taxsystem. Although the increased flow of aid to the country may be welcomed by the government, there is a risk that these increased flows could threaten Somalilands fragile democracy in two ways.
DELICATE BALANCES Firstly, the delicate balance between clans within the governance system could be disturbed if the central government were seen as becoming too powerful vis--vis local clan leaders. Analysts have warned of the dangers of undermining Somalilands fragile peace by upsetting the balance of power within the country. In addition, the risks of corruption within the government will increase as resources are boosted. To date, Somalilands government has not been considered overly corrupt, a situation that is often attributed to the fact that there has not been that much to steal. If over-zealous donors flood Somaliland with aid beyond the the authorities capacity to absorb and monitor corruption will almost inevitably increase. Secondly, closer ties with Western countries increases the risk of Somaliland being perceived as a client of Western interests, making it a possible target for anti-Western Islamist groups such as Al Shabaab. Somaliland is not without Al Shabaab
sympathisers, and any cracks in the relationships between clan and regional leaders and the central government will be seized upon and exploited. Somaliland has been largely free of large scale attacks by anti-government groups, but a suicide bombing in 2008, which targeted the Ethiopian consulate and UNDP offices in Hargeisa,- killing an estimated 25 people is a stark reminder that Somaliland is vulnerable. Overall the government of Somaliland will welcome greater donor interest and funding. However, donors and governments will need to be mindful of Somalilands unique political environment. There is a significant risk that - in the rush to find a viable cooperation partner in Somalia, especially in establishing a bulwark against Islamist extremism in the Horn of Africa-region donors will undermine a complex and rare democracy, developed largely in isolation, and thereby more vulnerable to the potential missteps of international assistance providers.
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53
new book Thomas Hammarberg
In his new book, Thomas Hammarberg, Commissioner for Human Rights at the Council of Europe, confronts what he calls the complacency of European countries, and warns that current policies regarding refugee policies diminish the continents credibility in international forums.
ministry of foreign affairs, assuming that human-rights violations only take place in other countries, not in their own.
result of the United Nations Convention on the rights of the child. About half of the countries have introduced laws that ban corporal punishment of children.
Europe Losing Credibility on Human Rights

The moral credibility of Europe, when we go to discuss human right issues in the United Nations for instance, will be questioned by other governments who have seen how little respect we pay to human rights principles when it comes to dealing with desperate people trying to enter Europe, says Hammarberg. matic of growing problems in todays Europe; racism, xenophobia, Islamophobia, anti-Semitism, homophobia and other phobias directed against those considered different by the majority group.
impaTienT Over the last five years, the Human Rights Commissioner has visited the 47 member countries of the Council of Europe. He says the impressions have left him deeply impatient but not pessimistic. I am an optimistic person by nature, and there are also signs of progress, he says. The non-governmental organisations are becoming more professional, and they are able to mobilise people. This applies, not least, in those countries where human-rights problems are more acute. Another positive sign is that, today, all European countries have a system of ombudsmen, which I think will protect human rights better in the future. When it comes to childrens rights there has been important progress, partly as a
Co-operaTion Asked about how Europe best can improve its work on human rights, Hammarberg has numerous suggestions. More co-operation between the EU, the UN and the European Council is one of them. Sometimes we overlap and focus on the same things, instead of combining our resources. The EU has also, at times, neglected to refer to the Council of Europes standards and conventions when they would have been more relevant than the EU directives, he says. As an example, he mentions the recent discussions about the new Hungarian media law, where Hammarberg feels that the Council of Europe was outmanoeuvred in a way that had a negative impact on
the freedom of expression. Instead of giving the impression that they had no major objections to the law, other than the three points they raised, the EU should have taken onboard the Council of Europe and given the law a thorough review, he argues. Hammarberg feels that politicians should dedicate more time to working on issues related to human rights. This requires more than saying positive things now and then. They also need a plan for systematic identification of problems, and they should not, as is currently the case in some countries, allow cuts in the funding for ombudsmen and other monitoring bodies, he says.
The Commissioner of human righTs is an independent and impartial, non-judicial institution established in 1999 by the Council of Europe to promote awareness of and respect for human rights in the member states.
Thomas hammarbergs book, released in mid May, gives an account of the present situation for human rights in Europe. There is a worrying gap between legislation and reality, Hammarberg says.
Tunisia To illustrate his argument, the Swede, who has spent his career promoting human rights, points to how differently Tunisia and Europe have handled the stream of people seeking refuge in the wake of the Arab uprisings. Tunisia, which has already received more than a quarter of a million people from Libya, continues to welcome and take care of refugees, despite its own difficulties following the Jasmine revolution, in January. In Europe, on the other hand, the arrival of some 30,000 migrants, sparked suggestions of reintroducing borders within the Schengen-area. A panic reaction, Hammarberg maintains. We also know that some boats have sunk - according to the UNs High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) - almost 1,200 people have disappeared in recent weeks. Yet there is no empathy. Hardly any leading politician is prepared to raise that issue, I think, that at the moment, we have a very sad situation in Europe, where basic human-rights values are no longer seen as important, the Human Rights Commissioner adds. Hammarberg thinks the lack of political response to these tragedies is sympto-
ComplaCenCy In the first chapter of his new book, entitled Human rights in Europe: no grounds for complacency he elaborates on the spread of xenophobic tendencies in Europe and the fact that extreme right-wing parties are presently represented in several national parliaments. What really worries me is that politicians are not defending the principles agreed upon within Europe. Instead, several of the established mainstream political parties have begun to steal the quotes of extremists, in order not to be outflanked by them. This legitimises their [the extremists] existence, Hammarberg says. The title of the book clearly indicates his thoughts on the human-rights situation in Europe today: People feel that human-rights problems have been more or less resolved, but there are still a number of problems. For example there is the discrimination of the Roma population, we still have problems when it comes to womens rights and the rights of children, and in the former communist countries, the justice systems are still not functioning well. According to Hammarberg, one illustrative example of European complacency is the fact that most countries have placed their human-rights departments in the
Internal displacement:
Global overview of trends and developments in 2010
the gures and trends
Turkey FYR Macedonia 954,000 1,201,000 650 Serbia About 225,000 Kosovo 18,300 Croatia 2,300 Russian Federation Armenia 6,500 78,000 At least 8,000 Azerbaijan Up to 593,000 Uzbekistan About 3,400 Turkmenistan Undetermined Kyrgyzstan About 75,000 Afghanistan At least 352,000
the countries
Georgia Up to 258,000
and regions
Bosnia and Herzegovina 113,400

Cyprus Up to 208,000 Israel Undetermined Occupied Palestinian Territory At least 160,000 Chad 171,000 Mexico About 120,000 Algeria Undetermined Iraq 2,800,000 Sri Lanka Syria At least At least 327,000 433,000 Lebanon At least 76,000 Yemen About 250,000 Indonesia Eritrea About 200,000 About 10,000 Ethiopia About 300,000 Somalia About 1,500,000 Kenya About 250,000 Uganda At least 166,000 Rwanda Undetermined Pakistan At least 980,000 Nepal About 50,000 India At least 650,000
Bangladesh Undetermined
Internal Displacement
the analysis
Global Overview of Trends and Developments in 2010
Senegal 10,00040,000 Liberia Undetermined Cte dIvoire Undetermined Togo Undetermined Niger Undetermined Nigeria Undetermined Sudan 4,500,000 5,200,000 CAR 192,000 Republic of the Congo Up to 7,800 DRC About 1,700,000
Laos Undetermined The Philippines At least 15,000 Myanmar At least 446,000

Timor-Leste Undetermined
Guatemala Undetermined Colombia 3,600,0005,200,000 Peru About 150,000
Burundi Angola Undetermined Up to 100,000 Zimbabwe 570,0001,000,000
www.internal-displacement.org
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Global Review
QUIZ
FACEBOOK MEMBERS : More than 600 million people, worldwide,now use Facebook. Source: Facebook
EgyptS MOSt FtEd nOvEliSt, AlAA Al-ASwAny in an interview with The Guardian, 20 May 2011
BOOKS tO REAd
Marvin Kalb and Deborah Kalb

Photo: www.understandingrace.org
Haunting Legacy Vietnam and the american Presidency from Ford to Obama
Published: May 2011, Brooking Institution Ever since the US lost the war in Vietnam, which culminated with the humiliating withdrawal from Saigon in 1975, the ghosts of the Vietnam War have played an important role in American politics. The fatherdaughter journalist team of Marvin and Deborah Kalb presents an important history of how the Vietnam failure has strongly influenced presidential decision-making on when to go to war.
Photo: Scanpix
pEOplE: This man works with issues related to human rights what position does he hold?
pEOplE
1. The man depicted above is Thomas Hammarberg, what position does he hold? 2. Who is Rajendra Pauchauri? 3. Which international official has requested a warrant for the arrest of Colonel Gadaffi? 4. What is the name of the President of Ivory Coast? 5. Who heads the EUs aid and humanitarian response department?
Differences among people have been the basis for discrimination, but are we so different? RACE is an exhibition revealing the reality-and unreality of race.
CliMAtE ChAngE
1. How many people were displaced by natural disasters in 2010? 2. And how many are estimated to have been displaced by drought between 2000 and 2009? 3. What are the two main causes of displacement in Somalia? 4. How many international climate agreements have the US senate refused to ratify? 5. Where will the next climate talks take place, and when ?
wAShingtOn - nAtuRAl hiStORy MuSEuM
RACE: Are We So Different?

at the end of May, the travelling exhibition , Race: are We so Different?, opened at the national History Museum in Washington, uS. the exhibition looks at race and racism in the united States through biological, cultural and historical points, exploring three themes: the everyday experience of race, the contemporary science that challenges common ideas about race, and the history of this idea in the united States. One of the aims of the project is to give visitors the tools needed to be able to identify racial ideas and practices in contemporary life. you can read more about the exhibition and touring dates at www.understandingrace.org
hiStORy
1. 2. 3. 4.
pOlitiCS And huMAnitARiAn AFFAiRS
Photo: Scanpix
Somaliland was formerly a colony of which country? What about present day Somalia (South Central)? Why has there been unrest in Uganda? The President of Uganda was newly re-elected. When did he gain office for the first time? 5. Which two African countries features in the top three of the list of the worst countries to be a mother? 1. How many humanitarian charities have been closed down by US authorities on the grounds of their alleged connection to terrorist organizations? 2. What is material support? 3. Did the number of those seeking asylum in the industrialized countries fall or rise in 2010? 4. Which countries are the top three recipients of asylum applications? 5. Which two EU foreign policy institutions were established in late 2009?
pEOplE: 1. He is the European Councils Human Rights Commissioner. 2. Chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 3. The Chief Prosecutor at the International Criminal Court (ICC) 4. Alassane Ouattara 5. Kristalina Georgieva CliMAtE ChAngE: 1. 42 million, of which 38 million were displaced by climate-related natural disasters. 2. More than 75 million. 3. Armed conflict and drought. 4. Nine. 5. South Africa, December 2011. hiStORy: 1. United Kingdom 2. Italy 3. There have been a series of protests over spiralling food and fuel prices. 4.1986 5. Niger and Guinea Bissau pOlitiCS And huMAnitARiAn AFFAiRS: 1. Nine 2. Material support to designated groups is defined as including any service, training, expert advice or assistance, or personnel. 3. It fell by 5 per cent 4. The US, France, and Germany 5. The High Commissioner for Foreign Affairs and Security (Catherine Ashton), and the External Action Service
Leila Ahmed
tHe Quiet ReVOLutiOn the Veils Resurgence, from the Middle east to america
tzipi MAiMOn: Bokris was injured escaping the school building, and was carried to safty by her own brother. Tzipi is one of a half-dozen, now middle-aged, survivors of the school massacre who, for the first time, agreed to tell their story on camera. Published: April 2011, Yale University Press Ahmed, a Harvard University professor, was the first professor of Womens studies in Religion at Harvard. She has studied why, for the last 60 years, Muslim women throughout the Islamic world, have started to wear the veil again. At the start of the study she assumed that this development mirrored declining freedom for women within Islamic cultures. To her surprise she frequently found that Islamists, to a larger degree than secular Muslims, are leading the struggle for civil and womens rights in the Muslim world.
indigEnOuS pERSpECtivE
Conversations with the Earth

By means of photographs, videos and talking portraits featuring tribal communities from the arctic to Brazil, this exhibition provides a native perspective on ecological and cultural global change, including climate change. it reveals the environmental impacts of pollution, and its consequences on local livelihoods. the exhibition which is the first of its kind devoted to indigenous science will be held at the national Museum of the american indian in Washington D.c. from 22 July until 22 January 2012.
dOCuMEntARy dRAMA
Director: Brandon Assanti

tHeiR eyeS WeRe DRy
this powerful documentary, released 9 May 2011, was shot on location in israel and brings to light the Maalot Massacre, a historic event that took place on 15 May 1974. it presents the attack where three Palestinian, disguised as israeli soldiers, stormed into an israeli elementary school in Maalot. 115 people were held hostage, including 105 children. During the rescue operation 25 hostages were killed, including 22 students. the main objective of the infiltration was to use the young hostages in order to demand the release of imprisoned Palestinian held by the State of israel. their eyes Were Dry celebrates the lives of heroic children whose innocence was held hostage by Palestinian extremists.
56
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Photo: Scanpix
600000000
To justify the invasion of Iraq the Americans said it was the only way to liberate the country from a terrible dictator. We proved in our revolution that you could really oblige a dictator to step down peacefully.
Norwegian University of Life Sciences

Bachelor`s degree programmes
International Environment and Development Studies
Master`s degree programmes

Agroecology Animal Breeding and Genetics Aquaculture Bioinformatics and Applied Statistics Development and Natural Resource Economics Ecology - Tropical Ecology and Management of Natural Resources Ecology - General Feed Manufacturing Technology International Development Studies International Environmental Studies International Relations Microbiology Plant Science Radioecology
We offer: High quality, frequent teacher-student interaction and a pleasant

social and physical environment characterise education at UMB. Note: Public universities in Norway do not charge tuition fees, this also applies to international students.
UMBs Main Objectives are:

to be a major player in the field of life sciences, focusing on the core disciplines: biology, food and environmental science, land use and natural resource management, as well as associated and technical subjects; to actively contribute to business development and continue to strengthen the scientific basis for agriculture, aquaculture and other industries based on the utilisation of natural resources.
More information: www.umb.no

Perspective Nr. 2 - 2011

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Perspective Nr. 2 - 2011

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humanitarian and interational affairs magazine #2/2011

Quest for Paradise

the American dream yet again.

PrOfilE: Kristalina GEOrGiEva

tHE QuEst fOr ParaDisE

BlacK marKEt fOr Human OrGans

10 DisPlacED By tHE wEatHEr

Konica Minolta Business Solutions Norway AS Nydalsveien 26 0484 Oslo www.konicaminolta.no

Foto: Rune Eraker

editor Harriet Rudd

this issue of Perspective to the humanitarian aspects of climate change.

For more information: www.prio.no/education hege@prio.no

PersPective NO. 02.2011

The Humanitarian Impact Of Climate Change

PersPective NO. 02.2011

PersPective NO. 02.2011

increase in the number of un troops deployed in 2010.

rising death toll

PersPective NO. 02.2011

Climate Change and displaCement

PersPective NO. 02.2011

Climate Change and displaCement

Escaping Wild Weather

PersPective NO. 02.2011

Climate Change and displaCement

The WhoS Who of climaTe change

Ice Melting Under their Feet

PersPective NO. 02.2011

PersPective NO. 02.2011

Climate Change and displaCement

PersPective NO. 02.2011

PersPective NO. 02.2011

Climate Change and displaCement

PersPective NO. 02.2011

PersPective NO. 02.2011

Climate Change and displaCement

Between sealevel rise and melting glaciers

Sinking Island State

PersPective NO. 02.2011

Climate Change and displaCement

PersPective NO. 02.2011

Climate Change and displaCement

The coPenhagen accoRD non binDing commiTmenT

PersPective NO. 02.2011

PersPective NO. 02.2011

Climate Change and displaCement aDaPTaTion To climaTe change

uniTeD naTionS fRameWoRk convenTion on climaTe change (unfccc)

Somalia: Secondary Displacement

NO. 02.2011 26 PersPective

PersPective NO. 02.2011

Climate Change and displaCement

ORDINARY PEOPLE DOING ORDINARY WORK

DiSPlaceD by naTuRal DiSaSTeRS

numbeR of PeoPle DiSPlaceD (millionS)

ORDINARY PEOPLE DOING EXTRAORDINARY WORK

PersPective NO. 02.2011

profile Kristalina Georgieva

Preparing for Dangerous Times

PersPective NO. 02.2011

profile Kristalina Georgieva KRISTALINA GEORGIEVA

PersPective NO. 02.2011

Special report On the Mexican-US Border

The Quest for Paradise

Mexico is not a place for children to grow up in.