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ablation:occurs when more glacier ice is lost by melting and evaporation each
year than is added by snowfall.
(or)
loss of ice in a glacier or ice sheet from melting, sublimation, or calving of
bergs into a body of water.
accretion:a process that adds part of one tectonic plate to a larger plate along a
convergent (collisional) plate boundary.
active volcano:a volcano that has erupted within historical time and is likely
to do so again in the future.
acid rain: rain that contains such acidic compounds as sulfuric acid and nitric
acid, which are produced by the combination of atmospheric water with oxides
released when hydrocarbons are burned. acid rain is widely considered responsible
for damaging forests, crops, and human-made structures, and for killing aqua-tic
life.
acidic rock: an igneous rock that has a relatively high silica content. examples
are granite and rhyolite. also see entries for basic, intermediate and ultrabasic
rocks.
acre-foot: the volume of water needed to flood one acre of land to a depth of
one foot. equivalent to 43,560 cubic feet, 1,233 cubic meters or 325,851 gallons. one
of the most common units of measure used for reservoir capacity. also used in
mineral resource calculations (an acre-foot of coal is a block of coal one acre in area
and one foot thick - it weighs approximately 1,800 tons).
a horizon: the top layer of soil. plant and other organic debris builds up in this
layer. this is the part of the soil generally referred to as 'top soil'.
alkali: used in reference to materials that are rich in sodium and/or potassium.
alloy: a metal that is manufactured by combining two or more molten metals. an
alloy is always harder than its component metals. bronze is an alloy of copper and
tin.
(or)
a fan-shaped pile of sediment that forms
where a rapidly flowing mountain stream enters a relatively flat valley. as water
slows down, it deposits sediment (alluvium) that gradually builds a fan.
(or)
a triangular deposit of sediment left by a stream that has lost velocity upon
entering a broad, relatively flat valley.
alluvial valley: river or stream valley flanked by floodplains that are
frequently inundated by seasonal floods and underlain by alluvium.
anion: negatively charged ion in solution. when minerals dissolve in water, they
form ions that have a tiny positive or negative electrical charge.
annular seal: cement or bentonite clay pumped into the space between the
borehole wall and well casing to seal out water and contaminants.
annular space: the space between a well casing pipe and the drilled borehole
into which the casing is inserted.
anthracite: the highest rank of coal. by definition, a coal with a fixed carbon
content of over 91% on a dry ash-free basis. anthracite coals have a bright luster,
break with a conchoidal fracture, a semi-metallic luster and are difficult to ignite.
frequently referred to by the layman as "hard coal".
(or)
a hard, jet-black coal that develops from lignite and bituminous coal through
metamorphism, has a carbon content of 92% to 98%, and contains little or no gas.
anthracite burns with an extremely hot, blue flame and very little smoke, but it is
difficult to ignite and both difficult and dangerous to mine.
aphanitic: an igneous rock texture in which individual mineral grains are too
small to be distinguished with the naked eye.
aquiclude: a subsurface rock, soil or sediment unit that does not yield useful
quanties of water.
(or)
an impermeable body of rock that may absorb water slowly but does not
transmit it.
aquitard: a layer of rock having low permeability that stores groundwater but
delays its flow.
(or)
slowly permeable stratum that retards water movement into and out of
adjacent or underlying aquifers .
archean eon: the time interval between 3800-2500 million years ago. the
archean is one of the precambrian time intervals.
argillite: name used for unusually hard, fine-grained sedimentary rocks, such as
shale, mudstone, siltstone, and claystone. commonly black.
arroyo: a flat-bottom gully with steep sides that is a channel for an intermittent
stream.
(or)
a small, deep, usually dry channel eroded by a short-lived or intermittent desert
stream.
artesian: of, being, or concerning an aquifer in which water rises to the surface
due to pressure from overlying water.
atoll: a ring-shaped group of coral islands that are surrounded by deep ocean
water and that enclose a shallow lagoon. (or) a circular reef
that encloses a relatively shallow lagoon and extends from a very great depth to the
sea surface. an atoll forms when an oceanic island ringed by a barrier reef sinks
below sea level.
atom: the smallest particle that retains all the chemical properties of a given
element.
atomic mass: the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus. 2. the
combined mass of all the particles in a given atom.
augen: augen are relatively large, eye-shaped mineral grains in certain types of
metamorphic rocks, especially schist and gneiss. (augen = eyes in german)
avalanche: masses of rock or ice that fall or slide suddenly under the force of
gravity.
backslope: the hillslope profile position that forms the steepest and generally
linear, middle portion of the slope.
backwash: the seaward rush of water down a beach that occurs with a
receding wave.
bankfull stage: a height of water in a stream that completely fills the natural
channel. if the water rises any higher a flood will occur.
bank storage: water that seeps into the ground along the banks of a stream
during a time of high flow. this loss of water into the ground slightly reduces the
height that the stream will attain and then slowly seeps into the stream as the high
water level subsides - hence the term "bank storage".
bar: an underwater ridge, usually of sand and/or gravel, that forms from the
deposition and reworking of sediments by currents and/or waves. bars occur in
rivers, river mouths and in offshore waters.
(or)
a generic term for any of various elongate offshore ridges, banks, or mounds
of sand, gravel, or other unconsolidated material submerged or built up by the
action of waves or currents.
barchan: a sand dune that is crescent-shaped in map view. barchan dunes form
in areas of limited sand supply. they move across the desert floor with their gently
sloping convex sides facing upwind and their steeply sloping concave sides facing
downwind.
basal till: glacial till deposited by melting of ice at the base of a glacier and little
reworked by meltwater or mass movement.
base flow: water that seeps into a stream through a permeable rock or
sediment unit that outcrops in the bottom or banks of the stream.
base level: the lower limit of erosion by a stream. sea level is the ultimate base
level. however, lakes can serve as a temporary base level in upstream areas. (or)
basement: the igneous and metamorphic rocks that exist below the oldest
sedimentary cover. in some areas such as shields the basement rocks may be exposed
at the surface.
basic rock: an igneous rock that has a relatively low silica content. examples
are gabbro and basalt. also see entries for acid, intermediate and ultrabasic rocks.
batholith: a very large intrusive igneous rock mass that has been exposed by
erosion and with an exposed surface area of over 100 square kilometers. a batholith
has no known floor.
(or) very large mass of intrusive (plutonic) igneous rock that forms
when magma solidifies at depth. a batholith must have greater than 100 square
kilometers (40 square miles) of exposed area. see pluton, stock.
bed-load: the larger heavier particles that are being transported by a stream.
instead of being dissolved or suspended, these are being rolled or bounced along,
spending at least part of their time in contact with the stream bottom. see also: load,
suspended load, dissolved load.
bedrock: solid rock present beneath any soil, sediment or other surface cover.
in some locations it may be exposed at earth's surface.
(or)
the solid rock that lies beneath soil and other
loose surface materials.
(or)
a general term for the solid rock that underlies the soil and other
unconsolidated material or that is exposed at the surface.
(or)
consolidated rock composed of cemented or lithified sediments (such as
sandstone, shale, limestone) or crystalline rock such as granite or slate. underlies all
surfical soil, sand, gravel, clay, etc.
bentonite: type of clay derived from weathered volcanic ash that expands when
wet; commonly used as well drilling mud and annular seal.
beta-particle: an electron emitted with high energy and velocity from the
nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay.
b-horizon: a layer in the soil, below the a-horizon, where materials leached
from above accumulate. typically enriched in clay and oxides.
bituminous coal: a rank of coal that falls between anthracite and semi-
bituminous. the most abundant rank of coal. frequently referred to by the layman as
"soft coal".
bivalve: any mollusk having a shell in two parts, hinged together so it will open
and close like a book.
blow count: the unit of measure for the standard penetration test and
representing the number of blows required to drive a 2-inch diameter core sampler
one foot through unconsolidated material by dropping a 140-pound hammer from a
distance of 30 inches.
boulder: any loose rock (sediment) larger than 256 millimeters (10 inches).
brachiopod: a group of sea animals with hinged half shells and a soft body.
brackish: containing salt, brine.
breccia: rock made up of angular fragments of other rocks held together by
mineral cement or a fine-grained matrix. volcanic breccia is made of volcanic rock
fragments, generally blown from a volcano or eroded from it. fault breccia is made
by breaking and grinding rocks along a fault.
butte: a conspicuous hill with steep sides and a flat top. the top is usually a cap-
rock of resistant material. this structure is frequently an erosional remnant in an
area of flat-lying sedimentary rocks.
calcareous: a descriptive term used for rocks and other earth materials that
have an abundance of calcium carbonate (caco3). for example, a calcareous
sandstone has up to 50% calcium carbonate.
calcic horizon: a soil layer at least 15 cm thick that has been enriched with
calcium carbonate (caco3).
carbonic acid: a weak acid (h co ) that forms from the reaction of water and
2 3
carbon dioxide. most rain water is a very weak carbonic acid solution formed by the
reaction of rain with small amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
(or) a mild acid formed when water and carbon dioxide chemically
combine in the atmosphere and soil.this acid is a very important component in the
development of cave decorations (speleothems).
cave: a natural opening in the ground extending beyond the zone of light and
large enough to permit the entry of an average human.
cement: a solid precipitate of calcium carbonate, silica, iron oxide, clay minerals
or other materials that forms within the pore spaces of a sediment and binds it into
a sedimentary rock.
cenozoic era: the time span between 66.4 million years ago to the present.
chemical sedimentary rock: a rock that forms from the precipitation
of mineral material from solution. examples are chert and rock salt.
(or)
sedimentary rock composed of minerals that were
precipitated from water. this process begins when water traveling through rock
dissolves some of the minerals, carrying them away from their source. eventually
these minerals are redeposited, or precipitated, when the water evaporates away or
when the water becomes over-saturated.
c-horizon: the lowest horizon of a soil profile. it is below the b-horizon and is
made up of weathered bedrock.
cinder: a bubbly (vesicular) volcanic rock fragment that forms when molten,
gas-filled lava is thrown into the air, then solidifies as it falls.
cinder cone: a cone-shaped hill that consists of pyroclastic materials ejected
from a volcanic vent.
(or)
a volcanic cone built almost entirely of loose volcanic fragments, ash, and
pumice (pyroclastics or tephra).
cirque: a bowl-shaped depression with very steep sides that forms at the head of
a mountain glacier. forms from cold-climate weathering processes including frost
wedging and plucking.
clay: a clastic mineral particle of any composition that has a grain size smaller
than 1/256 mm. the term is also used in reference to a broad category of hydrous
silicate minerals in which the silica tetrahedrons are arranged into sheets.
(or)
a family of platy silicate minerals that commonly form as a product of rock
weathering. also, any particle smaller than 1/256 of a millimeter in diameter.
cobble: loose particles of rock or mineral (sediment) that range in size from 64 -
256 millimeters in diameter. cobbles are a size of gravel larger than pebbles, but
smaller than boulders.
compaction: a compression process that reorients and reshapes the grains of a
sediment in response to the weight of overlying deposits.
(or)
occurs when the weight of overlying material compresses more deeply buried
sediment. along with cementation, this process converts sediments to solid rock.
continental crust: the rigid, outer layer of relatively low density rock that
makes up the continents.
contour map: a map that shows the change in value of a variable over a
geographic area through the use of contour lines. for example, a contour map of
elevation has lines that trace points of equal elevation across the map. see also:
contour line and topographic map.
core: the innermost layer of the earth, made up of mostly of iron and nickel. the
core is divided into a liquid outer core and a solid inner core. the core is the most
dense of the earth’s layers.
cordilleran ice sheet: ice cap that grew in western north america during
the pleistocene epoch. it began growing first in canada, eventually covering much of
british columbia, alaska, the northern u.s., and parts of several western states.
data base :a set of words, numbers, locations, or other data put into a
computer program. data bases are set up so that related pieces of information can
be easily retrieved and compiled.
datum: a reference location or elevation which is used as a starting point for
subsequent measurements. sea level is a datum for elevation measurements. datums
can also be arbitrary such as the starting point for stream stage measurements or
based upon a physical feature such as the base of a rock unit.
deflation: the removal of clay- and silt-size particles from a soil by wind
erosion. the term can also be used in reference to the removal by wind of any
unconsolidated material. (or) removal of loose material by wind.
delta: a deposit of sediment that forms where a stream enters a standing body of
water such as a lake or ocean. the name is derived from the greek letter "delta"
because these deposits typically have a triangular shape in map view.
(or)
a fan-shaped deposit that forms where a stream
enters a lake or ocean and drops its load of sediment.
(or)
a body of alluvium, nearly flat and fan-shaped at or near the mouth of a
stream where it enters a body of relatively quiet water, usually a lake.
dendritic drainage: a stream drainage pattern that resembles the veins of
a leaf in map view. occurs mainly where the rocks below have a uniform resistance
to erosion.
depression: any relatively sunken part of the earth's surface, especially a low-
lying area surrounded by higher ground.
desiccate:to dry out, usually by evaporation of water.
desert:a region with an average annual rainfall of 10 inches or less.
desert pavement: a ground cover of granule-size and larger particles that is
typically found in arid areas. this ground cover of coarse particles is a residual
deposit - formed when the wind selectively removes the sand-, silt- and clay-sized
materials. (or) a closely-packed surface layer of coarse pebbles and gravel.
diapir: forceful, upward intrusion of a rock mass into overlying rock. in the case
of an igneous diapir, the intruding rock may be magma or a crystal-rich mush,
either of which is less dense than the surrounding rock.
diatom: a one celled plant that lives in the shallow waters of lakes, streams or
oceans. many of these secrete a shell or internal parts composed of silica. diatoms
can occur in very large numbers and can make significant contributions to sea-floor
or lake sediment.
dip: the angle that a rock unit, fault or other rock structure makes with a
horizontal plane. expressed as the angular difference between the horizontal plane
and the structure. the angle is measured in a plane perpendicular to the strike of the
rock structure.
(or)
a measure of the angle between the flat horizon and the slope of a
sedimentary layer, fault plane, metamorphic foliation, or other geologic structure.
dissolved load: the dissolved material being carried by a stream. see also:
load, suspended load, dissolved load.
drift: a general term for all sedimentary materials deposited directly from the ice
or melt water of a glacier.
(or)
a general term applied to all mineral material (clay, sand, silt, boulders)
transported by a glacier and deposited directly by or from the ice, or by running
water emanating from the glacier. generally applies to pleistocene glacial deposits.
drumlin: a low, smoothly rounded, elongate hill. drumlins are deposits of
compacted till that are sculpted beneath the ice of a flowing glacier. the long axis of
a drumlin parallels the flow direction of the ice.
dune, eolian: a low mound, ridge, bank, or hill of loose, windblown, granular
material (generally sand), either bare or covered by vegetation, that is capable of
movement from place to place but always maintaining its characteristic shape.
durable crust: an outer rind or crust formed on a rock. durable crusts form
when rock chemically reacts with water and possibly atmospheric dust, producing a
hard outer surface that resists weathering.
erratic: a rock fragment carried by glacial ice, or by floating ice, and
subsequently deposited at some distance from the outcrop of which it was derived.
earthflow: a detached mass of soil that moves downslope over a curved failure
surface under the influence of gravity. an earthflow is more complex than a slump;
it has a higher moisture content and the moving mass of soil has some internal
movement or "flow". rates of movement are typically a few inches per year but
faster rates can occur.
ebb tide: a tidal current that generally moves seaward and occurs during the
part of the tide cycle when sea level is falling. (see also: flood tide)
effluent stream: a stream that gains water from ground water flow. these
streams are typical of humid climates where water tables are high. the discharge of
an effluent stream can be sustained by ground water flow for long periods of time
between runoff-producing rainfall or snowmelt. effluent streams generally increase
in discharge downstream and contain water throughout the year. the opposite is an
influent stream.
elastic limit: the maximum stress that can be applied to a body without
resulting in permanent deformation - the rock reverts to its original shape after the
stress is removed. in the case of a fault or a fold the elastic limit is exceeded and the
deformation becomes a permanent structure of the rock.
elevation: the vertical distance between mean sea level and a point or object on,
above or below earth's surface.
eolian: a term used in reference to the wind. eolian materials or structures are
deposited by or created by the wind. (or) term describing the
process of wind erosion, transport, and deposition, and wind-created deposits and
structures such as sand dunes.
eon: the major divisions of the geologic time scale. eons are divided into intervals
know as "eras". two eons of the geologic time scale are the phanerozoic (570 million
years ago to present) and the cryptozoic (4,600 million years ago until 570 million
years ago).
(or)
the largest time unit on the geologic time scale.
ephemeral stream: a stream drainage that is usually dry and fills with
water only during brief episodes of rainfall. many desert streams ephemeral.
epicenter: the point on the earth's surface directly above the focus of an
earthquake.
(or)
the point on the earth’s surface located directly above the focus of an
earthquake.
epoch: a subdivision of geologic time that is longer than an age but shorter than
a period. the tertiary period is divided into five epochs. from most recent to oldest
they are: pliocene, miocene, oligocene, eocene and paleocene.
era: a subdivision of geologic time that is longer than a period but shorter than an
eon. precambrian, paleozoic, mesozoic, and cenozoic are the eras of the time scale
from oldest to youngest.
erosion: a general term applied to the wearing away and movement of earth
materials by gravity, wind, water and ice. (or) removal of
material by water, wind, or ice.
eruption: occurs when solid, liquid, or gaseous volcanic materials are ejected
into the earth’s atmosphere or surface by volcanic activity. eruptions may occur as
quiet lava flows or violent explosive events.
esker: a long winding ridge of sorted sands and gravel. thought to be formed
from sediment deposited by a stream flowing within or beneath a glacier.
eustatic sea level change: a rise or fall in sea level that affects the entire
earth. thought to be caused by an increase/decrease in the amount of available water
or a change in the capacity of ocean basins.
expansive clay (expansive soil): a clay soil that expands when water
is added and contracts when it dries out. this volume change when in contact with
buildings, roadways, or underground utilities can cause severe damage.
extension: in geology, the process of stretching the earth’s crust. usually cracks
(faults) form, and some blocks sink, forming sedimentary basins.
fan: a fan-shaped sedimentary deposit that forms where rapidly flowing water
enters a relatively open, flat area. as water slows down, it deposits sediment and
gradually builds a fan. see alluvial fan.
fault: a fracture or fracture zone in rock along which movement has occurred.
(or)
a fracture in the earth along which one side has moved in relative to the
other. sudden movements on faults cause earthquakes.
fault scarp: a steep slope or cliff formed when movement along a fault exposes
the fault surface.
felsic: a term used to describe an igneous rock that has a large percentage of
light-colored minerals such as quartz, feldspar, and muscovite. also used in
reference to the magmas from which these rocks crystallize. felsic rocks are
generally rich in silicon and aluminum and contain only small amounts of
magnesium and iron. granite and rhyolite are examples of felsic rocks. (see mafic to
contrast.)
(or)
a term used to describe light-colored igneous rocks with an abundance of
light-colored minerals, especially feldspars and quartz.
flood plain: an area of alluvium-covered, relatively level land along the banks
of a stream that is covered with water when the stream leaves its channel during a
time of high flow.
(or)
a relatively flat surface next to a stream. during floods, when the stream
overflows its banks, water flows over the flood plain. streams construct flood plains
that accommodate their maximum flood capacity.
(or)
the nearly level plain that borders a stream and is subject to inundation
under floodstage conditions unless protected artificially.
flood stage: a water height that is reached when the discharge of a stream
exceeds the capacity of the channel.
flood tide: a tidal current that generally moves landward and occurs during
the part of the tide cycle when sea level is rising. (see neap tide for contrast.)
flowing well: a well that taps an aquifer that is under enough pressure to
force water to the surface. caused when the aquifer has a recharge area at a higher
elevation.
fold: a bend or flexure in a rock unit or series of rock units that has been caused
by crustal movements.
footslope: the hillslope position that forms the inner, gently inclined surface at
the base of a hillslope.
formation: a rock formation is a body of rock of considerable extent with
distinctive characteristics that allow geologists to map, describe, and name it.
foraminifer: a group of single-celled organisms, mostly marine, that produce
a calcium carbonate shell. their shells can make up a significant portion of the
carbonate sediment in some areas.
forset beds: the distinctly dipping sediment layers deposited on the front of a
prograding delta or on the lee side of a sand dune.
fossil fuel: a carbon-rich rock material or fluid, of organic origin that can be
produced and burned as a fuel. coal, oil and natural gas are examples of fossil fuels.
(or)
general term for any hydrocarbon used as fuel, including coal, oil, natural
gas, and oil shale.
fracture: any break in rock along which no significant movement has occurred.
freeze-thaw cycle: in colder temperate regions, water trapped in fractures
and between grains of rocks repeatedly freezes, then thaws during the winter
months. in some areas this occurs on a daily basis as water freezes at night, then
melts in warmer daytime temperatures. only in the coldest regions does water
remain frozen throughout the winter.
geyser: a hot spring that intermittently erupts a spray of steam and hot water.
caused by the heating of ground water within a confined opening in hot rock.
glacial valley: a valley with a u-shaped cross section that was cut by an alpine
glacier.
glass: an amorphous (without crystal structure) igneous rock that forms from
very rapid cooling of magma. the rapid cooling does not provide enough time for
crystal growth.
glass (volcanic): natural glass (obsidian) that forms when molten lava cools
too rapidly to permit crystal growth.
graded bed: a sediment layer with a gradation of grain size from large grains
to finer grains.
graded bedding: a rock layer that has a progressive change in particle size
from top to bottom. most common is a sequence with coarse grains at the bottom
and fining upwards, which is typically caused by a declining current velocity within
the depositional environment.
grain size: refers to the size of individual mineral crystals or particles within a
rock or sediment deposit.
granite: a coarse-grained, intrusive igneous rock composed primarily of light
colored minerals such as quartz, orthoclase, sodium plagioclase and muscovite mica.
granite is thought to be one of the main components of continental crust.
(or)
a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock with at least 65% silica. quartz,
plagioclase feldspar and potassium feldspar make up most of the rock and give it a
fairly light color. granite has more potassium feldspar than plagioclase feldspar.
usually with biotite, but also may have hornblende.
granitic: a general term for intrusive igneous rocks that look similar to granite
but may range in composition from quartz-diorite to granite. all granitic rocks are
light colored; feldspar and quartz are visible in hand specimen.
ground water: water that exists below the water table in the zone of
saturation. ground water moves slowly in the same direction that the water table
slopes.
(or)
water found beneath the earth’s surface where all empty space in the rock is
completely filled with water.
grus: coarse sand and gravel that forms from weathering of granitic rocks.
gully: a very small channel formed by running water. gullies hold water for brief
periods of time after a rain storm or snow melt.
headland: headlands are projections of land that stick out into a sea or lake.
headwater(s): the upper portions of a drainage basin where the tributaries of
a stream first begin flow.
heat flow: the movement of heat energy from the core of the earth towards the
surface.
hogback: a narrow ridge with steeply inclined sides of nearly equal slopes.
formed by differential erosion of steeply dipping rock units.
holocene: an epoch of the quaternary period beginning 10,000 years ago and
continuing today.
horst: an elongated block of high topographic relief that is bounded on two sides
by steep normal faults. produced in an area of crustal extension.
(or)
an elongate block of rock uplifted along roughly parallel faults.
hot spring: a natural spring that delivers water to the surface that is of higher
temperature than the human body.
humus: the dark portion of a soil that consists of organic material that is well
enough decayed that the original source material can not be identified.
inner core: the innermost layer of earth. consists of solid iron and nickel.
interior drainage: a system of streams that flow into a land-locked basin
and evaporate.
internal drainage: an area in which surface water cannot reach the ocean.
any water that falls into an area with internal drainage as rain or snow does not
escape out of it; not one of the streams that originate within these basins ever find
an outlet to the ocean. (see drainage basin)
intrusion: a igneous rock body that formed from magma that forced its way
into, through or between subsurface rock units.
(or)
emplacement of magma (molten rock) into preexisting rock. dikes, sills, and
batholiths are intrusions.
isotope: one of several forms of an element. these different forms have the same
number of protons but varying numbers of neutrons.
(or)
different forms of a single element that have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. some radioactive isotopes are unstable
and shed nuclear particles over time until they become stable. for instance, unstable
isotopes of uranium break down to become lead.
jasper: a variety of colored chert, typically red or green and often found in
association with iron ores. jasper is frequently used as a gemstone or in the
production of ornaments.
jet: a variety of coal that is frequently cut and polished for jewelry or ornaments.
jetty: a human made structure built at right angles to a coastline and extending
into the water. jetties are built to protect an area of shoreline from the effects of
currents, erosion or deposition.
joint set: a group of joints that are parallel or nearly parallel. they are
frequently formed at the same time interval from a common process.
jolly balance: a spring balance used in the determination of specific gravity.
juvenile water: water that is new to the hydrologic cycle. brought to earth's
surface through volcanic eruptions.
kettle: a depression formed in glacial deposits when a buried block of ice, left
behind by a retreating glacier, melts. (or) a steep-sided, bowl-
shaped depression commonly without surface drainage; usually formed by a large
detached block of stagnant ice that had been partially or wholly buried in the drift.
kettle lake: a lake that forms in a kettle.
k-feldspar: a potassium feldspar such as orthoclase, microcline, sanidine or
adularia. also referred to as potash feldspar.
kilobar: a unit of pressure equal to 1000 bars (the mean atmospheric pressure
at 100 meters above sea level is one bar).
laccolith: an igneous intrusion that has been forced between two layered rock
units. the top of the intrusion is arched upwards and the bottom of the intrusion is
nearly flat.
lake plain: a nearly level surface marking the floor of an extinct lake filled with
well-sorted generally fine-textured sediments that are commonly stratified.
laminar flow: a state of uniform flow within a fluid in which the moving
particles travel along parallel paths (compare with turbulent flow).
landslide: a downslope movement of rock and soil over a failure surface and
under the influence of gravity. slumps, earthflows, debris flows and debris slides are
examples.
(or)
downslope movement of rock, soil, and mud.
land-use: present and historical uses of land, such as for agriculture, mining,
recreation and grazing.
lapilli: volcanic rock materials which are formed when magma is ejected by a
volcano. typically used for material that ranges between 2 and 64 millimeters in
diameter.
lava tube: a tunnel below the surface of a solidified lava flow, formed when the
exterior portions of the flow solidify and the molten internal material is drained
away.
lawsonite: a metamorphic mineral that forms only under very high pressure. it
is a calcium aluminum silicate and usually forms microscopic crystals.
levee: a long continuous ridge built by people along the banks of a stream to
contain the water during times of high flow. natural levees can also be built along
the banks of a stream. when the flood water decelerates upon leaving the channel,
sediments quickly drop out of suspension and build a ridge over time.
lichenometry: a dating method that uses the growth rate of certain lichen
species as an indicator of the age of the surface the lichen is growing on.
limb: one side of a fold. the dipping rock units between the crest of an anticline
and the trough of a syncline.
lithosphere:
the rigid outer shell of the earth which includes the crust and a portion of the upper
mantle.
(or)
the outer layer of solid rock that includes the crust and uppermost mantle.
this layer, up to 100 kilometers (60 miles) thick, forms the earth’s tectonic plates.
tectonic plates float above the more dense, flowing layer of mantle called the
asthenosphere.
load: the total amount of sediment being carried by a stream or a glacier. includes
suspended materials, dissolved materials and materials moved along earth's surface.
(also see: bed load, dissolved load, suspended load.)
longshore bar: a narrow, elongate, coarse-textured ridge tht once rose near
to, or barely above, a pluvial or glacial lake and extending generally parallel to the
shore.
longshore current: a flow of water parallel to a coastline that is caused by
waves striking the coast at an oblique angle.
luster: the manner in which light reflects from a mineral surface. metallic,
submetallic and non-metallic are the basic types of luster.
(or)
the appearance of the reflection of light from the surface of a mineral. luster
is described as metallic, glassy, dull, etc.
mafic: a term used to describe an igneous rock that has a large percentage of
dark-colored minerals such as amphibole, pyroxene and olivine. also used in
reference to the magmas from which these rocks crystallize. mafic rocks are
generally rich in iron and magnesium. basalt and gabbro are examples of mafic
rocks. (see felsic to contrast.)
(or)
a term used to describe minerals or igneous rocks that are rich in iron and/or
magnesium. mafic igneous rocks have a high percentage of dark-colored (mafic)
minerals.
magma: molten rock material that occurs below earth's surface.
(or)
molten rock. magma may be completely liquid or a mixture of liquid rock,
dissolved gases and crystals. molten rock that flows out onto the earth’s surface is
called lava.
magnetic north: the direction that a compass points. the location where
earth's magnetic field dips vertically into the earth.
magnetite: iron oxide mineral (fe o ). usually tiny black, metallic crystals.
3 4
magnetite will attract a magnet and sometimes, in a rock, a hiker’s compass needle.
mantle plume: a rising mass of hot mantle material that can create an area
of volcanic activity in the center of a lithospheric plate.
mass wasting (also mass movement): a general term used for any
downslope movement of rock, soil, snow or ice under the influence of gravity.
includes: landslides, creep, rock falls and avalanches.
(or)
movement of rock and soil downslope under the influence of gravity.
medial moraine: a streak of till in the center of a glacier. these are found
downslope from the junction of two glaciers and are a merging of their lateral
moraine deposits.
meteoric water: water from the atmosphere, such as rain, snow, hail, or
sleet.
meteorite: a particle of iron or rock that has fallen to earth's surface from
inter-planetary space.
microrelief: slight variations in the height of a land surface that are too small
to delineate on a topographic or soil map; applies to local and slight irregularities in
the land surface.
microseism: a vibration of the earth that is unrelated to earthquake activity -
instead it is caused by wind, moving trees, ocean waves or human activity.
migmatite: "mixed rock". a metamorphic rock that forms in one of two ways.
the metamorphic rock may be heated enough to partially melt, but not completely.
the molten minerals resolidify within the metamorphic rock, producing a rock that
incorporates both metamorphic and igneous features. migmatites can also form
when metamorphic rock experiences multiple injections of igneous rock that solidify
to form a network of cross-cutting dikes.
miocene: an epoch that includes the time interval of about 23.7 to 5.3 million
years ago.
moho: the boundary separating the base of the earth’s crust and the top of the
mantle. the moho occurs at a depth of 5-10 kilometers beneath oceanic crust and
about 35-65 kilometers below continental crust. the term moho is an abbreviation
for mohorovicic discontinuity, named for andrija mohorovicic, a croatian
seismologist.
mohs hardness scale: a collection of minerals ranging from very soft to
very hard. use as a comparison scale during mineral identification. from softest to
hardest, the ten minerals are: talc 1, gypsum 2, calcite 3, fluorite 4, apatite 5,
orthoclase 6, quartz 7, topaz 8, corundum 9, and diamond 10. developed by
friedrich mohs, a german mineralogist in the early 1800's.
nannofossils: a generic term used in reference to very small fossils that are at
the limit of resolution by a light microscope. they are therefore studied with electron
microscopes and are frequently fossil discoasters and coccoliths.
nappe: a large slab of earth's surface that has been moved in a horizontal or
near horizontal direction over a plane of separation. this motion can be produced by
faulting or sliding. the term is generally used for very large slabs which are many
square kilometers or miles in surface area.
normal polarity: a magnetic field produced by the earth that is the same as
exists today.
oblique-slip fault: a fault that has both horizontal and vertical elements of
displacement.
obsidian: a glassy igneous rock with a composition similar to granite. the glassy
texture is a result of cooling so fast that mineral lattices were not developed.
(or)
dark-colored volcanic glass. usually has the same chemical composition as
the extrusive igneous rock, rhyolite.
oceanic crust: the relatively thin, dense crust that forms the ocean basins.
oceanic rocks: rocks formed in the deep ocean. includes sedimentary rocks
deposited on the deep ocean floor as well as the basalt of the oceanic crust.
commonly include some slices of the underlying mantle (ultramafic rocks) as well.
oil field: the geographic area above an underground accumulation of oil and
natural gas.
old age: a stage in the development of a landscape when streams have a low
gradient and meander back and forth across broad floodplains. the landscape is
marked by meander scars and oxbow lakes.
olivine: silicate mineral containing iron and magnesium. a green glassy mineral
formed at high temperature. common in basalt, especially ocean-floor basalt, and in
ultramafic rocks. gem-quality olivine is called peridote. rock made up entirely of
olivine is called dunite.
opaque: an adjective used in reference to a substance that does not allow light of
visible wavelength to enter or pass through. minerals with a metallic or submetallic
luster are normally opaque.
ophiolite suite: the typical sequence of rocks in the oceanic crust: from
bottom to top: ultrabasic rocks, gabbro, sheeted dikes, pillow basalts, and sea-floor
sediments. igneous rocks and deep-sea sediments associated with divergence zones
and the sea-floor environment.
ordovician: a period in the paleozoic era that includes the time interval from
about 505 to 438 million years ago.
ore: a mineral deposit that can be mined at a profit.
ore deposit: a natural accumulation of a metal, gemstone or other valuable
mineral substance, which is rich enough in concentration that it can be mined and
processed at a profit.
outer core: the liquid outer layer of the core that lies directly beneath the
mantle.
outfall: a location where water is discharged. normally used in reference to
where a water treatment facility releases treated water into the environment.
outgassing: the release of juvenile gases and water to the surface from a
magma source.
pahoehoe: a hawaiian term for a lava flow that has a surface flow structure
appearance that looks like coiled rope or cord. see aa for contrast.
(or)
a lava flow with a smooth, ropy surface.
paleomagnetism: the study of earth's magnetic field over time. when rocks
that contain magnetic minerals are deposited, the character (vertical and horizontal
orientation) of earth's magnetic field is locked within the rocks. this information can
be used to study changes in earth's magnetic field as well as the movement of plates
over time.
(or)
the magnetism of an iron-bearing rock imparted to it by the earth’s magnetic
field when the rock formed. literally, early magnetism; meaning magnetism formed
in a past geologic era.
parent rock: the preexisting rock from which a metamorphic rock forms.
passive margin: a tectonically inactive continental margin characterized by
a lack of earthquakes and volcanic activity.
pavement: a bare rock surface that provides a protective rock cover over the
material beneath it.
pebble: loose particles of rock or mineral (sediment) that range in size from 2 -
64 millimeters in diameter. pebbles are the smallest type of gravel.
pediment: a broad, gently sloping erosional surface of low local relief adjacent
to an eroding cliff or mountain range. the area is likely covered with sediments.
(or)
a sloping bedrock surface at the base of a mountain, formed when erosion
removes much of the mountain’s mass.
pelagic sediment: a ocean sediment that accumulates far enough from land
that detrital materials are a minor component. these sediments are largely composed
of the tiny shell debris of radiolarians and foraminifera.
phaneritic: an igneous rock texture in which the mineral grains are large
enough to be seen with the unaided eye and are of approximately equal size.
phanerozoic eon: the eon beginning about 570 million years ago and
continuing to the present. the portion of earth history with rocks containing
abundant fossils.
plate: a slab of rigid lithosphere (crust and uppermost mantle) that moves over
the asthenosphere.
plate tectonics: the theory that the earth’s outer shell is made up of about a
dozen lithospheric plates that move about and interact at their boundaries.
playa: playas are shallow, short-lived lakes that form where water drains into
basins with no outlet to the sea and quickly evaporates. playas are common features
in arid (desert) regions and are among the flattest landforms in the world.
pleistocene: the epoch of the quaternary period of geologic time, followint the
pliocene epoch and preceding the holocene (approximately 2 million to 10 thousand
years ago).
pliocene: the latest epoch of the tertiary period, beginning about 5.3 million
years ago and ending 1.6 million years ago.
pluton: a large body of intrusive igneous rock that solidified within the crust.
batholiths and stocks are types of plutons.
plutonic rock: any igneous rock that cools beneath the surface. (=intrusive
rock).
porosity: the volume of pore space in a rock, sediment or soil. usually expressed
as a percentage. this pore space can include openings between grains, fracture
openings and caverns.
(or)
the percentage of open spaces (pores) in rock or soil. when these spaces are
interconnected, water, air, or other fluids can migrate from space to space.
interconnected spaces make the soil or bedrock permeable.
proterozoic eon: the 'precambrian' time interval from 2.5 billion to 570
million years ago.
proto-sun: an intermediate stage in the development of a star in which a large
cloud of dust and gases gradually condenses through gravitational actions.
p-wave: primary seismic waves. the fastest set of earthquake vibrations. they
move through the earth in compression and expansion motions (much like sound
waves move through air). called primary because they are the first recorded at a
seismograph. primary waves are able to travel through both solids and liquids.
pyrite: iron sulfide mineral (fes). forms silvery to brassy metallic cubes or
masses. common in many rocks. known as fool’s gold. weathered pyrite produces
limonite (iron oxide) that stains rock brown. or yellow.
pyroclastic rock: a rock formed when small particles of magma are blown
from the vent of a volcano by escaping gas.
quaternary: the most recent period of the cenozoic era. encompasses the time
interval of 1.6 million years ago through today.
recharge area: the geographic area where water infiltrates into the ground
and enters an aquifer..
recumbent fold: an overturned fold that has two limbs which are nearly
horizontal.
regression: a retreat of the sea from land areas. possible causes include a drop
in sea level or uplift.
relief: variations in the height and slope of earth's surface. also used in reference
to the vertical difference between the highest and lowest elevations of an area.
(or)
refers to differences in elevation of different points in a region.
relative dating: the process of placing rocks and geologic structures in the
correct chronological order. this process does not yield ages in number of years. see
radiometric dating.
remote sensing: the collection of information about an object or area from a
distance. methods employed include photography, radar, spectroscopy and
magnetism.
reverse fault: a fault with vertical movement and an inclined fault plane. the
block above the fault has moved upwards relative to the block below the fault.
ribbon chert: chert and shale in thin alternating beds. the beds resemble
parallel ribbons stretched over an outcrop.
rift zone: a region of earth’s crust along which divergence is taking place. a
linear zone of volcanic activity and faulting usually associated with diverging plates
or crustal stretching.
right-lateral fault: a fault with horizontal movement. if you are standing
on one side of the fault and look across it, the block on the opposite side of the fault
has moved to the right. (also see left-lateral fault.)
rip current: a strong, narrow current of high velocity and short duration that
flows seaward through the breaker zone. caused when a build up of water pushed
onto the beach by winds and waves returns seaward.
rock: rocks are made of different kinds of minerals, or broken pieces of crystals,
or broken pieces of rocks. some rocks are made of the shells of once-living animals,
or of compressed pieces of plants. rocks are divided into three basic types, igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic, depending upon how they were formed.
rock cycle: all rock at or near earth's surface is being modified by the
processes of metamorphism, melting, crystallization, lithification and weathering.
these processes move rock material through the states of metamorphic rock, igneous
rock, sedimentary rock, melts and sediment. the natural and continuous cycling of
rock materials through these states is known as the rock cycle.
rock glacier: a mass of rock material, cemented together by ice, that flows
down a slope under the force of gravity much like the motion of a glacier.
rockslide: a type of mass wasting in which a large volume of rock debris slides
down a slope under the influence of gravity.
saltation: the transport of sediment in short jumps and bounces above the
stream bed or ground by a current that is not strong enough to hold the sediment in
continuous suspension. (see suspension and traction for comparison.)
sand: loose particles of rock or mineral (sediment) that range in size from 0.0625
- 2.0 millimeters in diameter.
seamount: a mountain on the sea floor that has at least 1000 meters of local
relief. most seamounts are shield volcanoes. (see also guyot.)
sea stack: sea stacks are blocks of erosion-resistant rock isolated from the land
by sea.
seepage: the slow movement of water through the pore spaces of a solid
material. this term is also applied to a loss of water by infiltration through the
bottom of a stream, canal, irrigation ditch, reservoir or other body of water.
seif dune: a large sand dune that forms parallel to the direction of a strong
wind that blows in a consistent direction throughout the year. also called a
longitudinal dune.
settling pond: an open pond where waste or process water is allowed to stand
while suspended materials settle out.
shale: sedimentary rock derived from mud. commonly finely laminated (bedded).
particles in shale are commonly clay minerals mixed with tiny grains of quartz
eroded from pre-existing rocks. shaley means like a shale or having some shale
component, as in shaley sandstone.
silica: silicon dioxide (sio ). one of the most common compounds in the earth’s
2
crust. common window glass is made of silica. the building block of the mineral
quartz and other silicate minerals.
silicate: refers to the chemical unit silicon tetroxide, sio , the fundamental
4
building block of silicate minerals. silicate minerals make up most rocks we see at
the earth’s surface.
slump: a type of landslide in which a mass of rock breaks away along a curved
surface and rotates more or less intact downslope. the sliding mass of rock is called a
slump block.
stitching pluton: plutons of roughly the same age which that intruded
several tectonic terranes after the terranes were faulted together. the plutons do not
really "sew" the terranes together, but they help record when terranes were
assembled.
stope block: stope blocks form when injection of intrusive igneous rock
weakens the solid rock surrounding it, causing blocks to loosen and sink into the
molten mass.
storm sewer: a sewer system that collects surface runoff instead of waste
water. these two types of water are kept separate because they require different
processing before release to the environment.
storm surge: the piling up of water along a shoreline cause by the sustained
winds of a strong storm - usually a hurricane..
stratified: formed, arranged, or laid down in layers. the term refers to geologic
deposits.
stratigraphic sequence: the sequence of sedimentary rock layers found
in a specific geographic area, arranged in the order of their deposition.
streak plate: a piece of unglazed porcelain that is used for determining the
streak of a mineral specimen.
subduction: process of one crustal plate sliding down and below another
crustal plate as the two converge. the subduction zone is the area between the two
plates, somewhat like a giant reverse fault.
subduction zone: an area at a convergent plate boundary where an oceanic
plate is being forced down into the mantle beneath another plate. these can be
identified by a zone of progressively deeper earthquakes.
sublimation: the process through which ice goes directly into a vapor without
passing through the liquid state.
superposed stream: a stream that cuts across resistant bedrock units. this
can occur when the stream's course was determined at a previous time and on a
previous landscape.
superposition: the concept that the oldest rock layers are at the bottom of a
sequence with younger rock layers deposited on top of them. this can be considered
a rule that applies in all situations, except where the rocks are extremely deformed.
surface wave: a type of seismic wave that travels along earth's surface.
surficial deposit: any loose, unconsolidated sedimentary deposit lying on
bedrock.
swale: a slight, open depression which lacks a defined channel that can funnel
overland or subsurface flow into a drainageway.
swash: the rush of a breaking wave up the slope of a beach.
s-wave: secondary seismic waves. a seismic wave with a direction of vibration
that is perpendicular to the direction of travel. s-waves are slower than p-waves and
travel only through solids.
symbiosis: a relationship between two species who live in close association but
do not compete with each other or prey on one another. at least one of the species
derives benefit from this association.
talus: an accumulation of angular rock debris at the base of a cliff or steep slope
that was produced by physical weathering.
tarn: small lake left by the retreat of a glacier. may fill a basin formed by a
moraine dam or eroded by the glacier into bedrock.
terminal moraine: a mound of unsorted glacial till that marks the furthest
advance of a glacier.
terrestrial planet: one of the four rocky planets closest to the sun, which
include mars, venus, earth and mercury.
tertiary period: the earliest period of the cenozoic era, beginning about 66.4
million years ago and ending 1.6 million years ago.
texture: the visible characteristics of a rock which include its grain size, grain
orientation, rounding, angularity or presence of vesicles.
thermal aureole: zone of rock around an igneous intrusion that has been
altered or metamorphosed by heat from the hot magma. the rock in the zone is
baked.
thermal pollution: water quality is not defined by chemistry alone. if
natural waters are withdrawn for use they should be returned to the environment at
approximately the same temperature. an increase or decrease in temperature can
have an adverse effect upon plants, animals and chemical balances. returning water
to a stream at a different temperature than it was withdrawn is known as thermal
pollution. for example, coal-fired power plants use water in the production of steam
that turns turbines. that water is then cooled in the large cooling towers before it is
returned to the environment.
thrust fault: a reverse fault that has a dip of less than 45 degrees.
thrust plate: slab of rock, generally on the scale of a mountain or more,
bounded by two thrust faults.
tidal flat: a broad flat area, very close to sea level that is flooded and drained
with each rise and fall of the tide.
till, ablation: a general term for loose, relatively permeable material deposited
by the downwasting of nearly static glacier ice.
till, melt-out: till derived from slow melting of debris-rich stagnant ice buried
beneath sufficient overburden to inhibit deformation under gravity, thus preserving
structures derived from the parent ice.
transgression: an advance of the sea over land areas. possible causes include
a rise in sea level or subsidence.
transpiration: a process of plants removing water from the soil and releasing
it into the atmosphere through their leaves.
transverse dunes: sand dunes that are oriented at right angles to the
direction of the prevailing wind. these form where vegetation is sparse and the sand
supply is abundant.
(or)
a very asymmetric sand dune elongated perpendicular to the prevailing wind
direction, having a gentle windward slope and a steep leeward slope standing at or
near the angle of repose of sand.
trap: a sedimentary or tectonic structure where oil and/or natural gas has
accumulated. these are structural highs where a porous rock unit is capped by an
impermeable rock unit. oil and gas trapped within the porous rock unit migrate to a
high point in the structure because of their low density.
travertine: calcium carbonate deposits which form in caves and around hot
springs where carbonate-bearing waters are exposed to the air. the water
evaporates, leaving a small deposit of calcium carbonate.
tread: the flat or gently sloping surface of natural step-like landforms, commonly
one of a series, such as successive stream terraces.
trellis drainage: a drainage pattern in which streams intersect at right
angles. this forms in areas of long parallel valleys such as in folded mountain belts.
rivers occupy the valleys and tributary streams join them at right angles.
trench: a long, narrow, deep depression in the ocean floor that parallels a
convergent boundary involving at least one oceanic plate.
(or)
trenches are deep, linear zones that form where an oceanic plate sinks
(subducts) beneath another plate.
triple junction: a point where three lithospheric plates meet. triple junctions
can be areas of unusual tectonic activity due to the differential motions of the three
intersecting plates.
tuff: a rock composed of pyroclastic materials that have been ejected from a
volcano. in many instances these fragments are still hot when they land, producing a
"welded" rock mass.
(or)
volcanic rock made up of rock and mineral fragments in a volcanic ash
matrix. tuffs commonly are composed of much shattered volcanic rock glass--chilled
magma blown into the air and then deposited. if volcanic particles fall to the ground
at a very high temperature, they may fuse together, forming a welded tuff.
turbulent flow: an irregular state of fluid flow in which the particle paths
cross one another and may even travel in opposing directions. (compare with
laminar flow.)
ultrabasic rock: an igneous rock with a very low silica content and rich in
minerals such as hypersthene, augite and olivine. these rocks are also known as
ultramafic rocks.
ultramafic rock: an intrusive igneous rock very rich in iron and magnesium
and with much less silicon and aluminum than most crustal rocks. most come from
the earth’s mantle.
(or)
see "ultrabasic rock".
unconformity: a contact between two rock units of significantly different
ages. an unconformity is a gap in the time record for that location.
(or)
the contact between older rocks and younger sedimentary rocks in which at
least some erosion has removed some of the older rocks before deposition of the
younger. an angular unconformity shows that the older rocks have been deformed
and eroded before the younger sedimentary rocks were deposited; there is an angle
between the beds of the older and the younger.
unconsolidated: a term used when referring to sediment that has not been
lithified into a rock. uncemented.
(or)
loose sediment; lacking cohesion or cement.
unit cell: the smallest sample of a substance that has a complete representation
of its atomic structure. a crystal structure is formed by repetition of the unit cell in
three dimensions.
upland: a general term for the higher ground of a region, in contrast with valley,
plain, or other lower lying adjacent land.
uplift: a structurally high area in earth's crust. formed by movements that bend
the crust into a structure such as a dome or an arch.
upwelling: movement of cold water from the floor of a lake or ocean up into a
shallow area.
u-shaped valley: a deep valley with a flat floor and very steep walls. shaped
in cross-section like the letter "u". valleys with this geometry are frequently cut by a
glacier.
vadose water: water that exists in the pore spaces of a rock or soil, between
the ground surface and the water table.
valley train: a long narrow body of outwash confined within avalley beyond a
glacier.
van der waals bond: a weak chemical bond in which atoms are held
together by weak electrostatic attraction.
varve: a thin layer of fine-grained sediment deposited in the still waters of a lake.
varves are frequently associated with glaciation and represent a yearly
sedimentation cycle - a silty, light-colored layer deposited in summer and a darker,
organic-rich clay layer deposited during winter.
(or)
a sedimentary layer, lamina, or sequence of laminae, deposited in a body of
still water within a period of 1 year; specifically, a thin pair of graded
glaciolacustrine layers seasonally deposited, usually in glacial lakes or meltwater
streams.
vein: a fracture that has been filled with mineral material.
(or)
a mineral-filled fracture or fault in a rock.
(or)
tabular rock or mineral filling of a generally small crack such as a quartz
vein. a product of chemical precipitation from a watery solution, in contrast to a
dike crystallized from magma, although gradations exist.
vesicle: spherical or elongated cavities in an igneous rock that are created when
a melt crystallizes with bubbles of gas trapped inside.
(or)
a small bubble formed in volcanic rock during solidification.
viscosity: the resistance of a fluid to flow. fluids with a high viscosity resist flow.
fluids with a low viscosity flow freely.
vitreous: glassy.
vitrophyre: a volcanic rock with larger crystals (phenocrysts) embedded in a
glassy groundmass.
volcanic bomb: a projectile of hot magma or rock that is blown from the
vent during a volcanic eruption. these solidify in flight and frequently form an
elongated rock of streamlined shape.
volcanic rock: igneous rock that cools and solidifies at or very near the
earth’s surface. volcanoes produce volcanic rock.
volcano: a vent in earth's surface through which molten rock and gases escape.
the term also refers to deposits of ash and lava which accumulate around this vent.
v-shaped valley: a valley with a narrow bottom and a cross section shaped
like the letter "v". valleys of this shape are almost always cut by stream erosion.
wadi: a stream valley in an arid region that is dry except during the rainy season.
weathering: weathering includes two surface or near-surface processes that
work in concert to decompose rocks. both processes occur in place. no movement is
involved in weathering. chemical weathering involves a chemical change in at least
some of the minerals within a rock. mechanical weathering involves physically
breaking rocks into fragments without changing the chemical make-up of the
minerals within it. mechanical weathering includes processes such as water in
cracks freezing and expanding, or changes in temperature that expand and shrink
individual minerals enough to break them apart.
water table: a level beneath the earth's surface, below which all pore spaces
are filled with water and above which the pore spaces are filled with air. the top of
the zone of saturation in a subsurface rock, soil or sediment unit.
xenolith: a preexisting rock that has been incorporated into magma without
melting. when the magma crystallizes the preexisting rock fragment is known as a
xenolith.
(or)
a piece of foriegn rock enclosed within an igneous rock. the foriegn rock is
usually picked up from the walls surrounding the igneous rock and is frozen in place
before it has a chance to melt. (=inclusion)
yazoo stream: a tributary that parallels the main channel for a considerable
distance. joining of these streams is normally blocked by a natural levee along the
larger stream.
yield: the quantity of water, coal, gold or other resource that can be produced
from a deposit.
youth: the earliest stage in the development of a landscape. during this stage
streams are actively downcutting and flowing straight for long distances with
frequent waterfalls and rapids. the valleys are typically steep sided and v-shaped.
zone of aeration: a zone between the land surface and the water table where
pore spaces are filled mainly with air. water that exists in the pore space in this zone
is referred to as "soil moisture".
zone of saturation: the zone beneath the water table where all pore spaces
are completely filled with water. water that exists within this zone is known as
"ground water".