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Abstract: The active power injection requirements are calculated for discussed for controllers using energy storage as well as for
a series voltage controller (or DVR) under various system and load series controllers obtaining the active power from an
conditions, for different fault types, for three-phase load and for additional shunt-connected controller.
single-phase load. It is shown that the power requirement depends
on the sag magnitude and phase-angle jump as well as on the power
factor of the load. For controllers with an energy reservoir the
voltage-tolerance curve of the load-controller combination is II. ACTIVE POWER REQUIREMENTS
obtained. For a combined shunt-series controller the current rating
of the shunt controller is found. Finally the voltage rating of the A. Controller model
series controller is assessed.
Keywords: power quality, voltage sag, custom power. Throughout this paper an “ideal controller” will be consider
in accordance with Fig. 1. For the series controller, the load-
side voltage equals the system-side voltage plus the voltage
I. INTRODUCTION injected by the controller. Using complex phasors instead of
time domain voltages, this gives:
Several methods are available to prevent equipment mal-
operation due to voltage sags. The two obvious solutions, at
first sight, are a reduction of the number of faults and
improvement of equipment immunity. However, experience
has shown that in many practical cases neither of these
methods is suitable. The most common mitigation method + ,-@LT+
remains the installation of additional equipment between the
power system and the equipment, either directly with the
equipment terminals or at the customer-utility interface. The
uninterruptable power supply (UPS) has traditionally been -I
the method of choice for small power, single-phase
Fig. 1, Circuit diagram model of power system, controller and load.
equipment. For large equipment several methods are in use
and under development, one of which is the series voltage The voltage at the load-side of the controller remains
controller, also known under the name “dynamic voltage constant, and equal to 1 pu. The voltage does not show any
restorer” or DVR [1,2]. phase-angle jump.
The series voltage controller injects a voltage in series with
the supply voltage. This voltage is chosen such that the load-
side voltage remains constant during faults in the system. To The voltage at the system-side of the controller (i.e. the
maintain the voltage at the load-side, the series controller has during-sag voltage) is characterized through a magnitude V
to inject a certain amount of active power. In this paper, and a phase-anglejump K,I
expressions are derived for the active power requirements as -
a function of the sag characteristics (magnitude and phase Vsog = V cosy + j V sin y . (3)
angle jump). Expressions are derived for balanced sags, for The load current is equal to 1 pu, with a lagging power factor
unbalanced sags, for three-phase controllers and for single- cos@:
phase controllers.
I;oad =cos@-jsin@, (4)
The active power injection requirements are an important part
in the design of a series voltage controller. The consequences So that the active power taken by the load is:
of the active power injection requirements for the design are 4wd = cos$ (5)
From (1) and (2), the voltage injected by the controller is
found:
(9)
Sag magn. in pu
Fig. 3, Phasor diagram with (dashed) and without (solid) phase-angle jump. For single-phase controllers, the voltages in the individual
phases need to be considered, according to (1 3) through (1 5).
Like before, complex characteristic voltage has been
D. Unbalanced sags, three-phase controllers calculated from (12), after which the voltages in the three
individual phases are obtained from (13) through (1 5). These
For an unbalanced sag (type C or type D), expressions (8) voltages are inserted in (9) to get the injected power for each
and (9) need to be applied to each phase separately, where it phase. This results in five curves: three for type D sags, two
is important to consider that the load-side voltage and current for type C. The third phase for a type C sag is not affected so
are also shifted over 120" compared to each other. The total that the injected power is zero. A three-phase fault (sag type
injected power is found by adding the injected powers in the A) will give the same result as one of the phases for a type D
three phases: sag. Some of the results are shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, where
solid lines are due to sags of type D, and dashed lines due to
gco", +sb +&, (16) sags of type C. Note that the single-phase controller cannot
distinguish between sags of type C or type D. This
where classification has only been used to represent the origin of the
-
S, = (I-c k e j @, sags as experienced by the single-phase equipment.
and
areanot :
, protected i
range of
possible sags ~
voltage tolerance of
equipment +controller
------..--* 4
--.--___
4.2t . ---._
---._
0 0.5
Sag magnitude
Fig. 5, Injected power for single-phasecontrollers, for load power factor 1.0
(left) and 0.7 (right), for an impedance angle equal to -30". Solid lines
Fig. 6, protected part of the complex voltage plane, for a given Qoltagerating
correspond to a sag of type D, dashed lines to a sag of type C. of the controller.
The voltage injected by the series controller is not equal to The more classical voltage-tolerance curve is shown in Fig. 7.
the drop in voltage magnitude, but to the complex difference Magnitude of the sag is plotted against the duration of the
between the system-side voltage and the load-side voltage. sag. The voltage-tolerance curve divides the sags into those
For a sag with zero phase-angle jump this is still equal to the that lead to mal-operation of the equipment and those that do
drop in voltage magnitude. This problem has been discussed not. The voltage-tolerance curve for many devices has a
in several other publications [1,2,3]. By using a voltage rating rectangular shape as indicated by the dashed line in the figure
i
4nax = (1 - vo )TOpl,Cld - (22)
The minimum sag magnitude for a given sag duration T is
found from combining (21) and (22), leading to the following
expression for the voltage-tolerancecurve:
T
v = l - ( l - v o )A -3
T
6
This is the curve from the design point to the right in Fig. 7. 2
The voltage-tolerance curve of the load-controller
combination obtains its final shape by realizing that any sag OO
1
tolerated without controller can also be tolerated with
controller. The area between the curves is the gain in voltage
tolerance due to the controller.
It is shown that the active power requirements of a series [I] N.H. Woodley, L. Morgan, A. Sundaram, Experience with an inverter-
voltage controller depend on magnitude and phase-angle based dynamic voltage restorer, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
Vo1.14,NO.3, July 1999,pp.1181-1186.
jump of the sag as well as on the power factor of the load. [2] S,W. Middlekauf, E.R. Collins, System and customer impact:
The general trend is that the injected power increases with considerations for series custom power devices, IEEE Transactions on Power
decreasing sag magnitude. A negative phase-angle jump with Delivery, Vo1.13, No. 1, January 1998, pp.278-282.
[3] M.H.J. Bollen, Understanding power quality problems: voltage sags and
a lagging load power factor reduces the injected power. interruptions, New York, IEEE Press, 1999
[4] IEEE Recommended practice for the design of reliable industrial and
It is shown that the active power requirement for a three- commercial power systems, IEEE Std.493-1997. Chapter 9: Voltage sag
phase controller only depends on the positive-sequence analysis.
[5] M.H.J. Bollen, Characterization of voltage sags experienced by three-
voltage. For unbalanced sags, the injected power is half the phase adjustable-speed drives, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
injected power during a balanced sag with the same Vo1.12, No.4, October 1997, pp.1666-1671.
characteristic magnitude and phase-angle jump. [6] L.D. Zhang, M.H.J. Bollen, A method for characterizing unbalanced dips
(sags) with symmetrical components, Power Engineering Review, Vol. 18,
N0.7, July 1998, pp.50-52.
For single-phase controllers, the sag magnitude is no longer a [7] L.D. Zhang, M.H.J. Bollen, Characteristics of voltage dips (sags) in
good indication of the injected power. For low load power power systems, IEEE Int. Conf. On Harmonics and Quality of Power
factor, the worst case occurs for a magnitude around 50% of (ICHQP), October 1998, Athens, Greece.
nominal. For some shallow sags the controller has to be able
to absorb active power.
VII. BIOGRAPHY
It is shown that the voltage tolerance of the load-controller
combination depends on the voltage rating and the amount of Math Bollen (M’94, SM’96) is an associate professor in
stored energy of the controller. For combined shunt-series the department of electric power engineering, Chalmers
controllers also the current rating of the shunt controller university of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden. He
obtained the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from Eindhoven
affects the voltage tolerance. University of Technology in The Netherlands. Before
joining Chalmers in 1996 he was research associate in
Eindhoven and lecturer in UMIST, Manchester, UK.
His research interest includes power system reliability
and various aspects of power quality. Math is co-chair
of the IEEE-IAS power system reliability subcommittee.