CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study There has been a growing interest in predicting academic performance by educational psychologists since the time that the development of psychometric instruments began from the work of Binet (1908) to Willingham (1974) and even to this day. Individual differences such as personality traits and intelligence have become constructs of both theoretical and practical significance. Psychologists have been interested in the concept of individual difference, in persons of all age groups as it relates to their growth and development, learning styles, personality types etc. Educationists and teachers have equally noted that these individual difference, directly or indirectly have a bearing on the learners academic achievement in the various subjects taught in schools. For instance, psychologists, teachers and educationists are interested in knowing why students perform better in some school subjects than others? But according to Tomas and Furnham (2003), academic performance has been typically associated with intelligence rather than personality. Although there is longstanding empirical evidence indicating that both personality and intelligence are important predictors of academic performance, intelligence seem to be the most recognized and appreciated factor. But both intelligence and personality have been known to be related to learning. But the measure of intelligence has gained such prominence over time because educational institutions use test scores as an indicator of students

academic performance. This is usually because of the undue attribution of cognition to the factor of intelligence as Test Scores are usually obtained from teacher made tests or nationally recognized examinations conducted by such bodies as WAEC, NECO, NABTEB or JAMB. It has been noticed that traits other than intelligence determine performance in specific subject areas. Students who have been taught by the same teacher, using the same curriculum and virtually under the same academic environment in terms of infrastructural and instructional materials usually perform at different levels in terms of scores obtained. While some tend to do well in particular subjects others do so poorly. A varied list of predictors of specialty choice has been studied, including demographic and socioeconomic factors, academic achievement, medical school curricula, and lifestyle plans (Kassebaum & Szenas, 1994; Kassebaum, Szenas & Schuchert, 1996). Tharp (1992) noted that most teachers begin their teaching careers with the idealistic notion that they can stimulate all their students to love their subjects and to learn a lot. But after a year of teaching, their idealism fail when they realized that some students, for reasons unknown, have great difficulty understanding the subject matter presented in their subjects. This inability to reach all students causes much frustration and soul searching as to the cause of students failure. This problem has led educationists to careful reexamination of other factors other than intelligence that might predict academic performance. Hence the explosion in research into the role of personality types in academic performance. Stereotypical personality characteristics are frequently used to portray members of different occupational groups. For instance, Business persons are
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considered entrepreneurial; artists- creative and spontaneous; lawyers- logical and convincing; nurses- as a caring helper; physicians- as bright and knowledgeable etc. Rovelzzi-Carrol & Leavitt (1984) stated that both theoretical support and empirical documentation for stereotyping occupational groups by personality characteristics exists. All careers have their subject combination requirements, personality characteristics and personal abilities which are supposed to be fully assessed before individuals can be deemed to be qualified to go into specific careers. Holland (1981) proposed six personality types and gave the examples of careers that each personality type can fit into. The six personality types include: Realistic, Investigative, Social, Artistic, Enterprising and Conventional personality types. Holland (1981) contended that people are most productive when there is a good fit between their personality types and their career. Fred (1985) investigated the relationship between personality characteristics and vocational choice using Hollands theory. The result from the study shows that: a) 70% of the subjects had personality types that were congruent with their career choice. b) The relationship between career choice and sex membership was not significant. The interest or subject preference of students has been a subject of many studies. Blustein et al (1995); Hotchkiss & Borow (1990); Mitchell & Krumboltz (1990), noted that career development appears to be strongly influenced by social factors like discriminations, societal attitudes, cultural expectations and stereotyping. In Nigeria, Egwuchukwu (1997) investigated the correlates of job
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aspirations of senior secondary school students in Anambra State. The results showed that: A) Students aspired most to Medicine, Accounting, Law, Pharmacy and Engineering in descending order of preference. B) Students aspired least to Artistry, Architecture and Soldering in descending order of preference. C) The subjects aspired to the top five jobs mainly because of their high economic rewards, social value and high prestige. D) The subjects aspired least to those jobs for religious, psychosocial, counselling and of peer influence. Bellamy (1997) carried out a study on career aspiration, expectations and beliefs of African-American, White and Hispanic male adolescents with Hollands Social personality types. The result showed that there were no differences in career aspirations and expectations either by race or by Hollands social personality type. Peng (1996) investigated the impact of career education courses on career beliefs and career decision making among business college students in Taiwan. This study provided a partial support for the assumption that taking a career education course influence students career belief and career decision making. The results underscore the relevance of planning career education course content that reflects how the influence of gender and college years status affect career decision making. Nworah (1997) researched on the factors that influenced career choice among secondary school students in Onitsha zone. The aim of the study was to find out the factors that students considered before picking careers. The study used the
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Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale (MOPS) and analysis of data collected showed that: - 76% of the boys preferred professional courses like Law. Medicine, and Geology. 98% of the girls preferred people-oriented courses such as Banking, Broadcasting and Teaching. - Students chose careers without considering the factors that influenced career choice such as interest, intellectual ability, personality of the individual and aptitudes. The period during and just before going to Senior Secondary school in the Nigerian educational system is marked by important career-selecting decisions whose implications are quite far-reaching. The junior secondary school III (JSS III) student is about to choose a path of study that should lead eventually to a satisfying career (whether in the broad classification of science or arts). Students when confronted with this crossroad, turn to friends, family, teachers and guidance counselors. The majority tend to look outside for unprofessional counsel that does not take into cognizance the important factors that determine individual differences. In most cases only the factor of intelligence is considered. As a matter of fact some of the decisions are imposed by parents who desire to have a medical doctor, lawyer or engineer in the family. It is even more annoying because the Nigerian educational system and the society of course are still struggling to appreciate the unquantifiable input of the guidance counselor. In some schools, the most redundant staff may be the guidance counselor where there are available. Personality comprise salient individual differences which influence performance, intelligence (what a person can do) through specific abilities which
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facilitate understanding and learning, personality (how a person will do it) through certain traits which enhance or handicap the use of these abilities. Evidence in literature has suggested that the personality traits of students have a significant relationship with their academic performance among several other factors whose relationship has been established through research. According to Tharp (1992), one possibility is that an individuals personality type can increase a students ability to succeed in one area of the study but push them toward failure in a different academic area. There are numerous theories that are set out to give vivid descriptions of personality types that are identifiable among people. One of the outstanding theories includes that of Carl. G. Jung. Carl. Jung, a Swiss Psychiatrist attempted a classification of human beings on two behavioral categories- extraversion and introversion. This typology is widely recognized and probably the most used in research on personality types. Chauhan (1994) identified the characteristics of these two types of personality as follows: 1. Introvert: A person who tends to withdraw into his/herself especially, when faced with emotional conflicts and stress in his/her environment. Introvert individual is shy, avoids people and enjoys to be alone etc. 2. Extrovert: In contrast to the introvert type, extrovert persons orientation is towards the external world. He/she deals with people intelligently in social situations. He is conventional, outgoing, social, friendly and free from worries and seeks the company of others etc. According to Pallegama, Ariyashinghe and Perera, (2007) Extroverts will be negatively and significantly associated with academic performance, particularly with examination marks. This would be consistent with studies reporting a
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negative relation between extroverts and knowledge tests. Introverts have better academic performance according to Pallegama, Ariyasinghe and Perera (2007). Better academic performance by introverts has been attributed to their greater ability to consolidate learning, lower distractibility and better study habits. This findings are corroborated by the fact that extroverts under-perform academically owing to their distractibility, sociability and impulsiveness. Introverts spend more time studying and extroverts spend more time socializing. Thus, the researcher was gingered to carry out an inquiry aimed at discovering how different personality type of students in our secondary school system predicts their subject interest or preference and the effect of personality types in their academic performance in the preferred subject areas. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Students are supposed to enroll in programmes based upon perceptions of good fit between their personality type and their perceived ability to be successful in the programme. Most secondary school leavers in Nigeria made poor vocational decisions because of unrealistic vocational aspirations. Students select occupations mainly because of the salaries, position, glamour and prestige attached to them. Furthermore, students in secondary schools dabble into chosen of subjects either in science or arts without adequately considering their personality types. Many research reports indicate that similar personalities have a tendency to choose similar career paths. Students, quite early in life are confronted with the challenge of choosing a career path in the broad disciplines of sciences and arts. This is a time most children are only at the teenage and prone to a lot of external influences when it comes to decision making. Usually, their career path decisions
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are informed by reasons other than personality factors. While there seem to be sufficient evidence to proof that personality type factors among other factors play significant role in the determination of the level of success in the future performance in occupations along chosen career paths, adequate personalitybased career education is never provided. In the end, we have the situation where students struggle unsuccessfully with a course that their personality makeups cannot accommodate. The resultant effect is that round pegs are kept in square holes. If such persons find their way into the University System or even later in life employed in any establishment, there might be the tendency for them to constitute a snag in the wheel of progress. In the University, they might be tempted to go into all kinds of vices to ensure that they make good grades. Such vices may include cultism and examination malpractices which are societal ills that confront our educational system. In the workplace, such individuals might become very inefficient and unproductive as a result of lack of interest. Such choices on the basis of interest may be at the risk a career option that is in congruent with the personality type of the students in question. Therefore a survey of students subject preference is desired in this study as well as their personality type preference. The study will further observe to see the difference between the academic performances of students in relation to their personality type and subject preferences. A prominent area of investigation into the factors that determine individual difference is psychological or personality characteristics because it has been realized that factors other than intelligence determine academic performance. Research reports have shown that there are predictable relationships among personality types, work, values and occupational interests.
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1.3

Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of the study was to investigate students personality dimensions (introversion-extraversion) as it affects their subject preferences and academic performances. The objectives of this study are to:1) Find out possible differences in the subject preferences of secondary school students who manifest different types of personality traits. 2) Determine the difference in terms of academic performance among secondary school students who manifest different types of personality traits. 3) Examine the possible differences in the subject preferences of male and female extrovert students. 4) Ascertain the difference in terms of academic performance between male and female extrovert students. 5) Establish the possible differences in the subject preferences of male and female introvert students. 6) Ascertain the difference in terms of academic performance between male and female introvert students. 1.4 Research Questions The following research questions were raised: 1. What are the school subject preferences of secondary school students in Abuja Municipal Area Council who manifest different form of personality traits?

2.

What is the difference in terms of academic performance between introvert and extrovert secondary school students in Abuja Municipal Area Council?

3.

Is there any difference in academic performance between male and female introvert students?

4.

Are there differences between the subject preferences of male and female extrovert students?

5.

Is there any difference between the subject preferences of male and female introvert students?

6.

Are there differences between the academic performance of male and female extrovert students?

1.5

Hypotheses

The following null hypothesis (HO) were tested:HO1: There is no significant difference between the subject preferences of secondary school students who are extrovert and introverts. HO2: There is no significant difference between the academic performances of extrovert and introvert secondary school students. HO3: There is no significant difference between the academic performance of male and female extroverts. HO4: There is no significant difference between the subject preferences of male and female extroverts. HO5: There is no significant difference between the academic performance of male and female introverts.
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HO6: There is no significant difference between subject preferences of male and female introverts. 1.6 Basic Assumptions

The research is based on the assumptions that: 1. Subject preferences of secondary school students who are extroverts and introvert can be investigated. 2. Possible differences in the academic performance of introvert and extrovert secondary school students can be determined. 3. Possible differences in subject preferences of male and female extroverts can be ascertained. 4. That possible difference in academic performance of male and female extroverts can be established. 5. That possible difference in subject preferences of male and female introverts can be investigated. 6. That possible difference can be established in academic performance of male and female introverts. 1.7 Delimitation of the Study

This study will be limited to Senior Secondary Schools in the Abuja Municipal Area Council of the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. This is because of proximity of the Federal Capital Territory to the researcher and also to help cut down the financial implications of carrying out the research. 1.8 Significance of the Study This research work is of strategic importance because it provides in-depth understanding of the relationship between personality and career path choices.
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Understanding the role personality plays in a career decision making process will aid counselors and educators to assist students in determining what is best for them. This study will de-emphasize the current preoccupation with intelligence as measures of ability and recommend based on research evidence that different personalities tend to have different subject preferences. A study of this kind and at the Senior Secondary School I level will provide basis for personality-based guidance of students on their vocational choices. It will also help students to appreciate their personality characteristics thus reducing the incidence of loss of self esteem which is critical to overall performance and efficiency later on in life. It will provide variety of information for teachers, students, school administrators as well as school councilors. It will reveal the impact of personality on learning so that educationists can modify teaching styles to meet the needs of varied personality types among learning. It will also help to reveal the personality types that agrees with the teaching profession because the teaching profession favors certain personality traits. 1.9 Operational Definition of Terms In this study, the following terms will be used to mean: (1) Personality: This refers to unique characteristics of different students as it relates to their orientation towards the external world or inner world of thoughts. (2) Personality Type: This study defines personality types as individuals behaviour patterns under the broad category of Extroversion and Introversion.

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1.10

Abbreviations

The following are the meaning of the abbreviations used in this chapter: MBTI WAEC NECO JSS FCT NABTEB JAMB Myers, Briggs Type Indicator West African Examination Council National Examination Council Junior Secondary School Federal Capital Territory National Business Technical Education Board Joint Admission and Matriculation Board

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CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0

INTRODUCTION This study will determine how personality types such as introverts and

extroverts affect academic performance. It seeks to compare the achievement scores of introverts and extroverts. The review will be carried out under the following sub topics. 2.1 The Concept and Meaning of Personality 2.2 Theoretical Framework of the Study 2.3 Theories of Personality 2.4 Types of Personality 2.5 Personality Types and Academic Performance 2.6 Extroverts and Introverts in relation to their Academic Performances 2.7 Subject Preference and Personality Type 2.8 Review of Previous Studies 2.9 Summary 2.1 THE CONCEPT AND MEANING OF PERSONALITY The meaning and definition of personality is arbitrary. The term personality is derived from a Latin word persona which means the mask worn by the Greek actors. In this respect according to Chauhan (2002) personality means the effect and influence which the individual wearing a mask left on the audience i.e. the individual as seen by others.

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Even today, for a layman, personality means the effect which an individual leaves on other people. The impression one makes on others tends to sketch ones personality (Denga 2002). To (non psychologists) the term personality may refer to the physical appearance and to some extent a persons popularity and his ability to express himself well. When we wish to chose a person for political leadership or any type of leadership at all, we tend to assess him or her on the basis of the physical characteristics primarily. We even conclude sometime that an individual has no personality. But personality is more complex than that, and everybody has a personality. Personality is a core area of study for psychology. We use the term personality frequently, but what does it actually mean? Frequent use of the term is as follows: 1 She has a wonderful personality 2 He had no personality 3 Its just her personality 4 She has her mother's personality 5 He has a real personality 6 He is always shy 7 He is always nervous 8 Her personality matters 9 We have personality conflict etc. According to Adams (1954), cited in Schultz and Shultz. (1994), personality is I Adams suggested that we get a good idea of what personality is by listening to what we say when we use "I". When you say I, you are, in effect, summing up everything about yourself - your likes and dislikes, fears and virtues, strength and
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weaknesses. The word "I" is what defines you as an individual, as a person separate from all others. Gazzaniga and Heatherton (2003) see personality as an individuals characteristics, emotional responses, thought and behaviours that are relatively stable over time and across circumstances. Guilford (1959) cited by Chauhan (2002) defines personality an individuals personality, then is his unique pattern of traits A trait is any distinguishable relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from another. Gordon Allport in Oladele (2004) defines personality as "the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems that determine his characteristic, behaviour and thought". To him, the terms; dynamic organization inside the person, psychological systems, characteristic pattern and behaviour. thoughts and feelings can be explained as follows: Dynamic organization: Suggests on going readjustments, adaptation to experience continual grading and upgrading, personality does not just lye there. It has process and it is organized. Within the Individual: Suggests internal storage of patterns, supporting the notion that personality influences behaviour. Psychophysical systems: Suggests that the physical is also involved in whom we are. Characteristic Pattern: Implies that consistency/continuity which are uniquely identifying of an individual. Behaviour, thought and feeling: Indicates that personality includes a wide range of psychological experience/manifestation, that personality is displayed in many ways.

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Personality can be approached in various ways such as a stimulus, Chauhan (2002). This means defining personality in terms of its social stimulus value. How an individual affects other persons with which he comes in contact. Whether he is impressive or repulsive. He has dominating or submissive personality. Personality from this point of view becomes identical to reputation and impression, mostly in terms of physical appearance, clothing, conversation and etiquette. Personality can be seen as adjustment. An individual, since birth attempts to adjust to his environment. Behaviour of an individual can be defined as an adjustment in the society. According to this approach, personality is an individual's characteristics pattern of behaviour. Therefore, sum of the individual's movements as he adapts himself to the environment is his personality. Personality can equally be seen in terms of summative approach. This emphasizes the importance of sum total of different process and activities of the individual, as for example innate disposition, habits, impulses and emotions etc. The word "personality" refers to the integrated and dynamic organization of the physical mental and special qualities of the individual, as that manifest itself to other people in social intercourse (Mukherjee, 2002). The above definition of the term personality seems to include wide range of behaviour aspect of the individual, each of these aspects being integrated to manifest in dynamic organization relating to interpersonal behaviour of the individual. According to Rastogi (1983), personality emerges from the interaction between biological organism, a social and physical world. In another way, personality may be defined as the characteristic pattern of behaviour and modes

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of thinking that determines a person's adjustment to the environment (Hilgard, 1975). Personality is a collection of emotional thought and behavioural pattern unique to a person that is consistent over time. It is a dynamically organized totality or personal traits which distinguish one person from others (Badu, 2003). According to Yusuf (2002), a full description of an individual personality would include many factors: Intellectual abilities, motives acquired in the process or growing up, emotional reactions, attitudes, beliefs and moral values. It also includes one's role in life, the totality of one's qualities or attributes, the way one really is, ones observable traits such as politeness, initiative. Different approaches have been made to define personality but there is agreement on a single definition of personality. Though there is diversity in views, all psychologists agree that personality is unique; no two individuals, even the identical twins have a like personality. The second basic fact regarding personality is that it is the product of its own functioning; what we do today depend on our accumulated experiences of the past. The experiences are accumulated day after day and shape our personality by continuous interaction with external environment. The third common characteristics of most definitions are that they stress the need to understand the meaning of individual difference. Personality, is what makes, individual unique; it is only through the study of personality that the relevant differences among individuals can be made clear (Chauhan, 2002). Hence, personality can be described in terms of behaviour of an individual, his interaction with other people, his thoughts and gestures, which is observed over a very long period of title.

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According to Emenogu et al (1997), personality can be affected by the hereditary and innate potentials, the environmental situation in which the person finds himself and the meaning and interpretation he gives to his experiences subjectivity and the way in which he wants to shape them. Personality can be facilitated by such factors as relationships. of the parent to the child, the influence of his siblings and relations, that of his peers with whom he interacts, that of the teachers and many others that come in contact with him. 2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY Carl Jung, a Swiss Psychiatrist made an attempt at classifying human beings on two behavioral dimensions: extrovert and introvert. Jungs typology is actually eight-fold not two-fold as it is popularly known. He believed that some people are naturally more sociable than others, and are most at their ease when with other people. He referred to those as extroverts. Others are less sociable in nature, preferring their own company, and these he described as introverts. Jungs theory of personality types posits that systematic variation in perception and judgment among individuals would create variation in their interests, values, motivation and reactions. In this study, the two behavioral dimensions of Extroversion and Introversion were studied for variation in subject interest and eventual academic performances. Hollands Typology theory may also be valuable in understanding how students choose career paths (in arts of science) along the behavioral dimensions of extroversion and introversion. White (1981) argued that choosing ones major is an initial step towards developing ones career. The basic tenets of Hollands theory (1973) is that people fall within six personality/interest types and
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interaction of certain types with specific environments predicts the behavior and interactions that occur in those environments. The six types are: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and Conventional. Holland went on to describe the courses such personalities would enjoy the most.

2.3

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Personality theory, when viewed as a theory of individual differences, is

concerned to describe and explain those mental states or processes that are both relatively stable in, and distinctive of, an individual person. Psychologists have developed several theories of personality to study the structure and growth of it. Some of these theories will be briefly discussed here. A. Psychodynamic Theories Approach-the proponents of this are:

Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik H. Erikson. B. The Humanistic Theories- here we have psychologists:

Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow. C. The Behavioural Theories-among the behaviorists:

Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner, Albert Bandura. D. The Trait/type of Theories-we have:

William Sheldon, Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck. A brief description of some of these theories will now be attempted. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY/APPROACH Sigmund Freud an Austrian physician is one of the influential theories of personality. The control premise of his theory is that unconscious forces influence behaviour. He referred to these psychic forces as "Instincts". He proposed that
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people have life instinct that is satisfied by following a pleasure principle. The energy that derives the pleasure principle he called "Libido". Structure of Personality Freud proposed an integrated model of how the mind organized, which consists of three theoretical structures that vary at the level of consciousness. The ID which operates on a "pleasure principles" the EGO which operates on reality principle and SUPEREGO, which is the internalization of societal and parental standards of conduct. An important component of his theory was that early childhood experiences had a major impact on the development of personality that children went through developmental stages that corresponds to their pursuit of satisfaction of libidinal urges (Goldstein, 1994). Psychosexual Stages of Sigmund Freud The Oral Stage: (0 -18months) where pleasure is sought through the mouth. The Anal Stage: (I8months - 3 years). Libidinal energy shifts to the anal region where toilet training leads children to focus on the anus. The Phallic Stage: (3 - 6 years). Libidinal energies' are directed towards the genitals where the child obtains pleasure through stimulation of the genitals although there is no sexual intent per se. The Latency Stage: (6 - 12 years). A brief stage in which urges become

suppressed or channeled into school work. The Genital Stage: (12 years and above). The adolescent libidinal satisfaction focuses on genital stimulations with others. According to Freud, the child's personality will be interfered with if she/he suffers any form of fixation at any of these stages, because he believed that
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personality and human behaviour are shaped by the ways infants and children learn to control and release their libidinal energy. THE HUMANISTIC THEORIES/APPROACHES In contrast to the arguments of psychodynamism, the humanistic perspective, optimistically argues that people have enormous potential for personal growth. Major proponents of humanistic ideas on the human personality include Carl Rogers (1961) and Abraham Maslow (1962). Their works was really propelled by the growing dissatisfaction with the two dominant theories of that era namely psychoanalysis and behaviorism. The humanists argued that experiments with rats and pigeons could not inform us about higher human goals (Matlin, 1999). Carl Rogers proposed that even young children need to be highly regarded by other people. He suggested that children also need positive self-regard. He identified two kinds of positive self-regards and their effect on the development of the childs personality (Rogers, 1959). There are the conditional positive regard and the unconditional positive regard which can come in the form of parenting styles. The authoritative parents he said, is the most successful leading to self actualization. Abraham Maslow is best known for his theory on self-actualization which is described as the tendency to realize our own potential. Maslow proposed that human motives are arranged in a hierarchy, with the most basic needs at the bottom. At the top are the more highly developed needs (esteem needs and selfactualization at the very top).

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THE TRAIT/TYPE OF THEORIES The trait approach to personality focuses more on the theme of individual differences. Trait, according to Wakefield (1989), is a consistent tendency to have certain kinds of beliefs, desires, and behaviors. Theorists under this approach often examine whether a trait remains stable across time. theories are the Allports trait theory and the Five-Factor Model. Gordon Allport proposed three levels of traits. These are cardinal trait, central trait ad secondary trait. 1. Cardinal trait is one that dominates and shapes a persons behavior. For example, someone who is obsessed with becoming wealthy or another person whose life focus is religion. 2. Central trait is a general characteristic, found to some degree in every person, that shapes much of our behavior For example, honesty, cheerfulness, and shyness. 3. Secondary trait is a characteristic seen only in certain situations. This is necessary to provide a complete picture of human complexity. Example of secondary trait might be uncomfortable in large crowds and likes to drive sports cars. Allport (1937) argued that a persons unique pattern of traits determine his or her behavior. He stated that no two people are completely identical. In a famous quote, he stated that the same fire that melts the butter hardens the egg. Two prominent

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THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY APPROACH In the beginning of 1980s, many personality psychologists have agreed that there are five basic personality traits which are referred to as the FIVE THEORY known as the BIG FIVE (Gazzaniga 2003). They are extraversion, neuroticism conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness to experience can be remembered with the acronym OCEAN. The table below shows the BIG FIVE. DIMENSION Openness to Experience REPRESENTATIVE TRAIT Imagination vs. down to earth; variety vs. routine; independent vs. conforming. Conscientiousness Organized vs. disorganized; careful vs. careless; self-discipline vs. weak-willed; Extraversion Agreeableness Social vs. retiring; fun-loving vs. sober. Affectionate vs. reserved; Softhearted vs. ruthless; trusting vs.

suspicious; Helpful vs. uncooperative. Neuroticism Worried vs. calm; Insecure vs. secure; Self-pitying vs. self satisfied. 2.4 TYPES OF PERSONALITY It has been the nature of persons, from ancient times, to name and classify objects of his environment and human beings into different categories called Types. The old system of typology still continues according to Chauhan (2002) and even in modern times, psychologists have developed various typologies which will be described. Greek physicians were the first in the fifth B. C. who classified people into four broad categories on the basis of emotional and

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temperamental characteristics. One of Aristotles pupils theorized that human body consists of four fluids. The personality of an individual is typed by the dominance of one of them in the body. Modern personality typing was first developed by Carl Jung in the early 1920's. In its purest form, Jungian personality typing is arguably the most complex view of human nature ever described, and even today it is quite a task to attempt to understand Jung's writings on personality (see the Resource Material section at the end of this Summary for references to Jung's works). Fortunately, in the 1950's, Myers and Briggs resurrected Jungian personality typing, modified it somewhat by adding a fourth scale, simplified its description, and developed a psychometric called the MBTI, the "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator" for measuring their revised system of personality typing. The MBTI test and associated model has become so famous that today many people refer to personality typing as the "MBTI", but in a rigorous sense this is not true; the MBTI is only one test instrument among several for determining personality types, though it is by far the most widely used. Hereafter, unless qualified, 'personality typing' refers to the personality model developed by Myers and Briggs, and adapted by others such as Keirsey and Bates, while the MBTI refers to their test. Other types according to Chauhan (2002) are as follows:

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1. THE TEMPERAMENT TYPE S/NO HUMOUR 1 2 3 4 Blood Yellow-bile Phlegam (Mucus) Black-bile TEMPERAMENT Sanguine Choleric Phlegmatic Melancholic CHARACTERISTICS Active hopeful Irritability, quick to anger Calm, temperamentally, sluggish Depressed, slow and pessimistic

3. CONSTITUTIONAL TYPE Ernest Kretscher, a German psychiatrist, classified human beings on the basis of physical constitutional. He attempted to establish relationship between personality characteristics and body build. S/NO 1 2 3 4 TYPE Pyknic Asthenic (Leptosomic) Athletic Dysplastic 3. SOMATO TYPE Dr. Willian H. Sheldon, an American surgeon, divided all human beings into three broad categories of physical dimensions and their corresponding temperamental characteristics. He believes that physical structure of the body is the determinant of personality characteristics. S/NO 1 2 3 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Endomorphic (Soft, round) TEMPERAMENT Viscerotonic (sociable extrovert, affectionable) love of physical comfort Mesomorphic (Muscular and Somatotonic (energetic and muscular, strong) love of risk and chance) Ectomorphic (thin and tall) Cerebrotonic (fearful, artistic, introvert and restrained)
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CHARACTERISTICS Stocky, full-chested, popular Weak, tall-sensitive and thin Strong Mixed type

4. SPRANGERS TYPE E. Spranger, German philosopher divided human beings on the basis of interests in the following categories: Theoretical: Persons who are theoretical in nature, neglect, social and political participation. Economic: Those persons who are interested in money-hoarding. Aesthetic: Those persons who are lovers of beauty and are busy in sensuous gratification. Social: Persons who are interested in social activities Political: Dominating and desirous of power Religious: Persons who devote themselves to religious activities and mysticism.

5. CARL G. JUNGS PERSONALITY TYPE Allida and Vyhmeister (2004) noted that the most prominent figure in the development of the modern personality type concept based on mental functions is Carl Jung (1875-1961). Jung, a Swiss Psychiatrist, in his book, Psychological types attempted to classify human beings on two behavioural attitudes: extraversion and introversion, and four functions, thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition making eight types of personality in all. This study will focus only on the work of Carl Jung. Extraverts prefer to focus on the outer world of people and things. Extraverts find energy in things and people. They prefer interaction with others and are action oriented (Vincent & Ross, 2001). Myers (1980) defined extraverts are the after thinkers; they cannot understand life until they have lived it. Their attitude is relaxed and confident. They expect the waters to prove shallow, and
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plunge readily into new and untried experiences. Minds outwardly directed, interest and attention following objective happenings, primarily those of the immediate environment. Their real world therefore is the outer world of people and things (Myers, 1980). Introverts focus on the inner world of ideas and impressions. Introverts find energy in the inner world of ideas, concepts, and abstractions. They can be sociable but need quiet to recharge their energies (Vincent & Ross, 2001). They are the fore thinkers, and cannot live life until they understand it. Attitude is reserved and questioning. They expect the waters to prove deep, and pause to take soundings in the new and untried. Minds are inwardly directed, frequently unaware of the objective environment, interest and attention being engrossed be inner events. Their real world therefore is the inner world of ideas and understanding (Myers, 1980). Extraversion and introversion have their own special dynamics and both attitudes have progressive and regressive properties (Ryckman, 1982). Ambivert refers to those persons who could be classified as neither extroverts nor introverts. This is an addition from modern psychologists. 6. THE SIXTEEN PERSONALITY TYPES The two preferences for each of the four independent scales give 16 unique combinations (2x2x2x2), each combination being designated a personality type. The commonly accepted order for describing each combination is given as: Energizing; Attending; Deciding; Living.

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For each of the these 16 types, quite detailed personality profiles have been assembled from many years of application and analysis on large populations of normal people, as well as theoretical analysis of how the preference scales interact with each other. It is very important to realize that these personality profile descriptions (which could also be referred to as archetypes) are derived from large populations, and some variation from the archetype is expected to occur from individual to individual. One major source of variation, but not the only one, is the possible presence of mental illness/trauma (most often low selfimage), which is not measured nor even considered by the personality typing model. It is plausible that the observable behavior from some forms of mental illness may be strongly influenced by innate personality type. ENFJ "Pedagogue". Outstanding leader of groups. Can be aggressive at "helping others to be the best that they can be". 5% of the total population. ENFP "Journalist". Uncanny sense of the motivations of others. Life is an exciting drama; emotionally warm; empathic. 5% of the total population. ENTJ "Field Marshall". The basic driving force and need is to lead. Tends to seek a position of responsibility and enjoys being an executive. 5% of the total population.

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ENTP "Inventor". Enthusiastic interest in everything and always sensitive to possibilities. Non-conformist and innovative. 5% of the total population. ESFJ "Seller". Most sociable of all types. Nurturer of harmony. Outstanding host or hostesses. 13% of the total population. ESFP "Entertainer". Radiates attractive warmth and optimism. Smooth, witty, charming, clever. Fun to be with. Very generous. 13% of the total population. ESTJ "Administrator". Much in touch with the external environment. Very responsible. Pillar of strength. 13% of the total population. ESTP "Promotor". Action! When present, things begin to happen. Fiercely competitive. Entrepreneur. Often uses shock effect to get attention. Negotiator par excellence. 13% of the total population. INFJ "Author". Motivated and fulfilled by helping others. Complex personality. 1% of the total population. INFP

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"Questor". High capacity for caring. Calm and pleasant face to the world. High sense of honor derived from internal values. 1% of the total population. INTJ "Scientist". Most self-confident and pragmatic of all the types. Decisions come very easily. A builder of systems and the applier of theoretical models. 1% of the total population. INTP "Architect". Greatest precision in thought and language. Can readily discern contradictions and inconsistencies. The world exists primarily to be understood. 1% of the total population. ISFJ "Conservator". Desires to be of service and to minister to individual needs - very loyal. 6% of the total population. ISFP "Artist". Interested in the fine arts. Expression primarily through action or art form. The senses are keener than in other types. 5% of the total population. ISTJ "Trustee". Decisiveness in practical affairs. Guardian of time- honored institutions. Dependable. 6% of the total population.

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ISTP "Artisan". Impulsive action. Life should be of impulse rather than of purpose. Action is an end to itself. Fearless, craves excitement, master of tools. 5% of the total population. 2.5 PERSONALITY TYPE AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Research results have variously supposed that conclusion that both cognitive ability and certain personality traits consistently predict academic performance (Dyer, 1987). A study conducted by Clark & Riley (2001) evaluated the correlation between university students self-tested Jungian personality type, as implemented through the MBTI, and their level of performance in two beginning level chemistry classes. It was found that the INTJ (Introverted; Intuition; Thinking; Judging) students class average was nine points higher than the pooled students groups class average and nearly 14 points higher than the lowest group (ESFP- Extroverted; Sensing; Feeling; Percetions). Obrien, Bernold & Akroyd (1998) found similar results in an analysis of the academic performance (measured by course grades) of 83 undergraduate engineering students enrolled in a Mechanical Engineering course. The researchers concluded that the ISTJ (Introverted; Sensing; Thinking; Judging) and the INTJ (Introverted; Intuition; Thinking; Judging) were the most predominant personality types of students scoring in the highest percentiles. From the above research evidence, there exist a clear link between personality and academic performance. Understanding this relationship is important in providing the foundation upon which a framework for predicting academic performance can be built.
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According to Silver, Strong and Hanson cited by Allida and Vyhmeister (2004), the typical classroom contains many types of personalities and learning styles. They suggest that each student comes to school with unique gifts, needs, skills, attitudes and preferred ways of learning. Because of this, todays classroom teachers regardless of their students ages or the subjects taught, are confronted with this diversity of student needs and potentials and must teach student equally well students have a right within the educational system to have their instructional needs met and to know how to utilize appropriate strategies for approaching teachers (Allida and Vyhmeister, 2004). Educators have to work towards promoting and sustaining greater diversity within educational systems by honouring individual differences within their own classes and by setting incremental personal goals for modifying instruction to respond to a wide range of learners characteristics. Understanding and applying personality type concepts in our educational endeavours can be significant in addressing the learning needs of students and eventually helping them become more successful in their chosen careers. Understanding and accepting our personality types is important for reaching our potential and for having a fulfilling life (Silver 1996). Helping students find out whom they really are what they are good at and what they love to do is the most important way of maintaining natural curiosity and eagerness to learn (Kindle-Hodson, 1999). In terms of academic success personality type plays a greater role than intelligence. Personality type according to Davis (2006) refers to the characteristic way in which an individual approaches lifes experiences.

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So many researchers have done great works on personality type and academic achievement. Felder et al (2002) conducted research on the effects of personality type on Engineering Student performance and attitudes. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was administered to 116 students taking the introductory chemical engineering course at North Carolina State University. The courses were taught in a manner that emphasized active and cooperative learning and inductive presentation of course material. Type differences in various academic performance measures and attitudes were noted as the students progressed through the curriculum. In their studies, introverts, intuitor, thinkers and judgers generally outperformed their extraverted, sensing, feeling and perceiving counterparts. In the population studied students with different type preferences tend to respond differently to different modes of instruction: Extraverts like working in settings that provide for activity and group work. Introverts prefer settings that provide opportunities for internal processing. Sensors like concrete learning experiences and clearly defined expectations and dislike instruction heavy in abstractions like theories and mathematical models, intuitors like instruction that emphasizes conceptual understanding and deemphasizes memorization of facts, rote substitution in formulas, and repetitive calculations. Thinkers like locally organized presentations of course material and feedback related to their work; feelers like instructors who establish a personal rapport with them and feedback that shows appreciation of their efforts. Judgers like well-structured instruction with clearly defined assignment goals and milestones; perceivers like to have choice and flexibility in their assignments and dislike having to observe rigid timelines.
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Also SAT scores of 100 freshman Year Grades were studied. The same type differences were observed as introverts outperformed extraverts in overall GPA in calculus, physics and chemistry grades, but the differences was not statistically significant. Also a research done on the relationship between personality type and achievement in an undergraduate physiology course using MBTI shows that more of the higher-achievement students were introverts, T and J types whereas the students who dropped were higher in Extroversion and P types. A similar study conducted by Allida and Vhymeister (2003) on personality types, preferred learning modalities and college majors of students in Luzon. The result finding shows that there were no dimensions of personality types that showed significant relationships to the choice of academic major. The result revealed that students choice of academic major is not influenced by their personality types. The study equally showed that despite the result, descriptive statistics reveal that there are personality types that gravitate in a certain academic major. In another result, on relationship between personality type and Academic Performance, the result revealed that there were significant relationships between the college student personality types and their academic performance in all of the four bi-polar dimensions of personality type. Extraverted, sensing, thinking and judging personality types are more strongly related to academic performance than introverted, intuitive, feeling and perceiving personality. Furthermore, Sanchez Marin et al cited by Furnham and ChamorroPremuzic (2003) found that extroverts tended to fail their courses more frequently than introverts, no doubt because of their distractivity, sociability and
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impulsiveness unlike introverts that have greater ability in consolidating learning and better study habits. Another interesting issue by Furnham (2003) is relationship between personality type and creativity. He reported higher creativity test scores for introverts and also positive correlations between creativity and extraversion. Felder (2002) also noted that students who came into specific courses with strong predictors of success were equally likely to succeed, regardless of their type. 2.6 EXTROVERTS AND INTROVERTS AND THEIR ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Extroversion (E) and Introversion (I) are used to describe where a student focuses his or her attention in the learning process. Extroverts tend to focus their perception and judgment on people and objects; they are energized by what is going on in the outer world rather than the inner world of their mind. Extraverts usually prefer to communicate more by talking than by writing and to learn by experiencing. Thus extraverts prefer to learn through acting rather than reflecting. Introverts become aroused to action by what goes on in their own mind. Introverts tend to focus their attention on concepts and ideas and are more comfortable when they are expected to spend most of their time just thinking. In fact, introverts prefer to reflect before acting (Randall 2004). With regard to the relationship between extroverts and academic performance, early studies concluded that introverts perform better than extroverts; this was attributed to a greater ability to consolidate learning and better study habits ChamorroPremuzic (2003). However, several researches have failed to replicate these results. Furnham and Medhurst (1995) replicated this results, but found extroverts to be rated more positively in seminar classes than introverts. Nevertheless, in a
36

recent study, SanchezMarin et al (2001) found that extroverts tended to fail their courses more frequently than introverts, no doubt because of their social nature. A possible reason for the ambiguity of results has been given by Anthony (2002), who argued that extroverts generally outperform introverts in primary school, while the opposite occurs in higher levels of education. This would be a consequence of higher education involving more analytical, formal and complex tasks than lower education. These interaction in the classroom (e.g. with the teacher) and introverts would therefore have an advantage over extraverts. A study by Rolfhus and Ackerman (1999) revealed that extraversion will be negatively and significantly associated with academic performance. This association is usually explained in terms of differences in knowledge acquisition time between introverts. Chamorro Premuzic and Furnham (2003) noted that extraversion was only partly related to academic performance, i.e to final year project mark. It is also noteworthy that this relation was positive rather than negative. This positive association is perhaps best interpreted in terms of the interpersonal skills (i.e. getting along with the supervisors during the project period). However, the performance of extroverts and introverts sometimes, depends on the subjects or courses concerned. For example the result of the study by Schuir and Puble (1992) on physiology course shows that IJ students were significantly higher achievers than EP students. The higher grades of the INJ over ESP students indicate that the course favours the person, who can work well alone, is interested in abstract thinking and is well organized and motivated. The EP students had the lowest total points of any combination of two types and also dropped out of the course in the largest numbers.
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Also Terrance et al (1998) conducted a research on MBTI and Academic Achievement in Engineering Education. The descriptive statistics revealed that introversion outperformed extraction. In Myers and McCauley (1995) study on first year law students and performance, students preferring extraversion had a lower mean first semester grade point average (2.499) than students preferring introversion (2.610). The difference was not statistically significant. Furthermore, between first semester grades and dichotomous type (EI), the law students EI continuous scores increased as their first semester grades increased and the correlation was statistically significant. That is, the more, the student preferred introversion, the better the student performed. It is not wonder that students preferring extraversion had a lower mean FSGPA than students preferring introversion. Legal education rewards the preferred learning style of introverts, although you might be misled if you sat in on a typical Socratic classroom. Extraverted law students think best when talking, learn well in groups, and may have difficulty sitting in front of a book for a long period of time. Also extroverts may excel more on social related courses like Theatre Arts than introverts. Finally, Jung saw extroversion and introversion as mutually complementary attitudes. The differences generated the tension that both the individual and social need for the maintenance of life. 2.7 SUBJECT PREFERENCE AND PERSONALITY TYPE Altogether 81% (327) of the business students preferred organizational employment and 19% (76) preferred entrepreneurship as their career aspiration.
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These results are in line with Hammer (1997) and Uljas (2001), and suggest that most of the business students enter in organizational employment instead of entrepreneurship. In theory, occupations requiring system and order are expected to attract judging types and occupations requiring adaptability to change are expected to attract perceptive types (Myers et al., 1998). Brenner et al. (1991) found that those who preferred organizational employment have a greater desire for job clarity and they prefer jobs with a regular routine and clear cut procedures. They further found that creativity, risk taking, and independence were more related to self-employment. In addition, according to Reynierse (1995), preference for judging represents bureaucracy and preference for perceiving represents entrepreneurship. The relation between perceiving and entrepreneurship and, correspondingly, between judging and organizational employment, seems understandable. Lawrence (1984) reports that individuals with different MBTI classifications prefer different types of learning activities. For example, introverted students prefer learning situations where they can primarily work individually and time is provided for internal processing, while extroverted students prefer working with a group and having discussions. Sensing students prefer tasks that call for going step-by-step while observing facts and specifics that relate to practical interests. On the other hand, students classified as intuitive prefer tasks that call for imagination and quickness of insight. Thinking students prefer to study objective material that has been logically organized by the teacher, whereas for feeling students personal relationships and developing a rapport with the teacher are
39

more important. Finally, judging students prefer to work in a steady, orderly way that result in closure or completion of prescribed tasks, while perceiving students like to follow their impulses and work in a flexible, informal manner. Whether or not personality types may have an effect on ones choice of college major or eventual career is still subject to debate. Previous findings indicate that some business professions such as accounting tend to be uncreative and unwilling to encounter new ideas without being systematically prepared for a new change, and would prefer that everything would stay at a constant (Omundson & Schroeder, 1996). These are characteristics of Type A personality trait because of the reluctance of change in the work environment and wanted tasks to stay the same scheduled pace. The population involved in business profession shows vocational interest in business and organization, and not in general culture, arts or entertainment (Omundson & Schroeder, 1996). Preceding conclusions have found that type A personalities are more apt to choose business majors such as accounting, banking, and finance (Haemmerlie, Robinson, & Carmen 1991). Business professions such as these coincide with aggressive, competitive, individualistic personality traits that are characteristic of the fast pace and constant change in the business field (Haemmerlie, Robinson, & Carmen 1991). Professions in art such as art design, art historians, and art teaching will involve more social interaction and creativity tend to be more passive and easy going, thus showing type B personality characteristics (Schaubroick, 1995).

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2.8

REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES Various studies have examined the relationship of personality type to

academic achievement of secondary school students in various disciplines using MBTI. Schuir and Puble (1986) reported by Tharp (1992) used the MBTI to examine the achievement of 2,713 freshman college students, using grades in course that met the general studies requirement. They found the I. N students were best prepared, whereas the ES types were least prepared for achievement in college. The combination of the E - I and S N scales were most associated with achievement that could be predicted from the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores. Combinations of the E - I and J - P scales were most associated with achievement that could not be predicted from the SAT. I - J achievement was highest and EP was lowest, J and P types are similar in aptitude (SAT). These relationships were also found in a later study of 906 students, and the authors (Schuir and Puble, 1988) as reported by Tharp (1992) concluded that the J-P scale is indicative of the personality characteristics that are most uniquely associated with college instructors' evaluation of achievement. Thus the college learning environment appears better suited for students who are: a. Organized (J) b. Interested in abstract thinking (N) and c. Work effectively alone (I). d. Students who prefer to live spontaneously (P.) e. Like to work with practical applications (F) f. Enjoy interpersonal interactions (E) and

41

The INJ students clearly have an advantage over ESP students in the college environment as it is currently structured (Tharp, 1992). He also reports the findings of studies that have shown that the MBTI profile is related to the selection of a college science major McCauley (1977) as reported by Tharp (1992) followed college freshman students for two years and found that the students interested in science, the IN types outnumbered the ES types. T types outnumber F types in the physical sciences, and F types outnumbered T types in the behavioural sciences. Tharp (1992) also reported that Howe (1978) had similar finding when the MBTI was given to 314 high school students in summer science research programs at the University of Florida and to 306 public high school students from the same state. The summer research students were predominantly I types whereas the public school students were mainly S types. Also reported by Tharp (1992) were the findings of Melear (1990) who gave the MBTI to 673 non major undergraduate students in an introductory Biology course that used a structured learning environment with defined goals and deadlines. He found the typical non major could be described as an ESFP type: interested in working on real problems with other people rather than 'on abstract problems in an impersonal atmosphere. The EP students in this biology course had the lowest achievement of any personality type and Tharp (1992) asserts that this poor performance is understandable, since the course structure favoured the IN types who like to learn by themselves in an orderly, planned environment. Finally, Tharp presented the findings of his own study, which was designed to measure the relationship of personality type of achievement in a more advanced undergraduate course (Human physiology) using a sample of 206 students. Tharp
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(1992) after a detailed analysis and comparison of his findings with those of previous studies, asserts that the results of his study agree in many ways (but no all) previous research on personality types and achievement in college was however quick to add that his study did not take into account other variables that could influence achievement, such as student background in the science or years of college completed suggested that these variables should be included in future studies of personality type and achievement. Also, O'brien, Bernold and Akroyd (1994) while reporting the results of their findings in a study conducted to investigate patterns in psychological type among students in a lower division Engineering course and differences in the academic performance of those students associated with difference in psychological types, using 83 students as a sample indicates that no significant MBTI and academic achievement differences were manifested in relation to the dimensions of Extroversion - Introversion, Thinking - Feeling or Judging - Perceiving. But a significant main effect did emerge in relation Sensing - Intuition dimension. What this means is that students with intuitive personality types or cognitive styles, achieved significantly higher end-of course grades than students with sensing styles. Hurley (2002) in a study to identify any differences between art and business majors personality type, and whether or not personality type correlated with their choice of major arrived at results which suggests that there are no differences in levels of Type A between students who are decided art majors, and those who are declared business majors. Ronald et al (2008) found out in a study on personality as a prognostic factor for specialty choice that no specialty differences were found for the
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domains of extraversion and conscientiousness, numerous specialty variations were identified for neuroticism, openness, and agreeableness. Carland and Carland (1992) reported in an empirical test that entrepreneurs, small business owners, and managers were statistically different using the Keirsey and Bates (1984) temperaments of sensing-perceiving (SP), sensing-judging (SJ), intuitive-feeling (NF), and intuitive-thinking (NT). They found that entrepreneurs were more likely to display the NT temperament while the small business owners and managers were more likely to display the SJ temperament. The result supported the earlier studies of Carland (1982), Hoy and Boulton (1983), and Barbato and Durlabhji (1989), that entrepreneurs tended to be NTs and managers and small business owners SJs. Although the Carland's discussion centered on entrepreneurs as innovative NTs, their empirical results indicated that entrepreneurs tended to be NPs, whereas managers tended toward SJ. Similarly, Ginn and Sexton (1990) found that fast growth entrepreneurs showed significantly higher N, P, and NP orientations than managers. Furthermore, Routamaa, Vesalainen, and Pihlajaniemi (1996) found more ENs than ISs among internationally oriented entrepreneurs. Garden (1997) studied MBTI profiles and career paths of software workers and found support for the notion that S-N and J-P dichotomies are relevant to the choice of starting one's own company, with both Ns and Ps significantly choosing this route relative to Ss and Js. In contrast, Es, Ss, Ts, and Js chose a managerial career path more often than Is, Ns, Fs, and Ps did.

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2.9

SUMMARY

In this chapter on the review of related literature, the concept of personality as seen by different psychologists was examined. Selected personality theories were reviewed. The previous findings on MBTI were also reviewed. Previous studies on personality type, subject preference and academic achievement were also reviewed.

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CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

3.1

Introduction This chapter states and discusses the research design, population, sample

size and sampling techniques, instrumentation, data collection and statistical procedure that will be used to analyze the data. The discussion also includes the psychometric properties- validation and reliability of the instrument for gathering the required data. 3.2 Research Design The design for this study is a descriptive survey design in which a structured questionnaire was used to collect the required information. Nworgu (1991) said that the survey research is better with studies that strive to improve the lot of a given population. This of course is the focus of this research and the researcher went out to gather information that is already on ground without manipulating the data in any way. Questionnaires were used to obtain the responses of the subjects for the purpose of analysis. 3.3 Population of the Study The total population for this study is 14,189 students of Senior Secondary Schools. This comprises the number of students in 57 Senior Secondary Schools in Abuja Municipal Area Council of the FCT. The source is from FCT Secondary Education Board (2009).

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The diverse attributes of the population of Abuja, where people of different ethnic backgrounds, socioeconomic status, professions and level of education are represented, ensured that this research covered a wide spectrum. 3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedures The sample for this study was 375 using Krejcie and Morgan (1970) which specified the appropriate sample size for specific populations. This sample was randomly assigned to the 17 schools in the Abuja Municipal Area Council of the FCT to give opportunity to every member of the population to be selected without the researchers influence. 3.5 Instrumentation Three different instruments were used for this study. a. b. c. Student Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) Junior School Certificate Examination Results (JSCER) School Subject Preference Indicator (SSPI)

The first instrument titled, The Students Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) was adapted from the Adolescent Personality Identification Scale by Abubakar 2007) which is used in identifying personality type dimensions of adolescents. The original instrument has 18 items and was modified in the current research from five-point scale to a four-point scale by removing the NOT SURE option. The SPQ is a 30-item instrument structured along a four-point likert scale. Responses were scored using 4,3,2,1 for positive items and 1,2,3,4 for negative items. The responses were set out as strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree.

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The second instrument is the Junior Secondary School Certificate Examinations results. It is students academic reports for English Language, Mathematics, Integrated Science and Social Studies. The School Subject Preference Indicator is a 20-item indicator designed to elicit information on students subject preferences. Questions were structured along a four-point likert scale. The responses were set out as very much, much, little, very little were scored using 4,3,2,1 respectively.

3.5.1 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments The Students Personality Questionnaire, (SPQ) was adjudged reliable after subjecting the instrument to the scrutiny of experts in the field for face and content validation. The instrument was further subjected to pilot study as a result of the modifications stated above. The pilot study was conducted in one of the secondary school that falls in the population of the study. This school did not participate in the main study. The proposed questionnaire was administered on 20 randomly selected students. The split-half method was used to determine the reliability of the instrument. A reliability coefficient of 0.74 was obtained which was corrected using the Spearman-Brown formula to obtain a value of r=0.82. The implication of this result is that the instrument has good internal consistency. The second instrument, the Junior School Certificate Examination is a standardized test as far as content coverage, syllabus and grading system is concerned. It is therefore judged as reliable.

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Pilot study for the School Subject Indicator yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.78. Experts also made valuable suggestions and comments which were adopted to make the instrument valid in terms of face validity. 3.6 Method of Data Analysis The t-test was used in the analysis of data that were collected. The t-test is used because the study seeks to establish differences between the variables under investigation. Null hypothesis was accepted whenever the P values obtained are less than the table values at 0.05 level of significance.

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CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1

Introduction In this chapter, the results from the analysis of data obtained from the study

are presented and analyzed according to gender and personality type using frequency counts, percentages mean ratings and t-test statistic. 4.2 Demographic Data Under this section, the following tables 4.1 4.4 indicate the respondents demographical data in terms of gender and personality type. Table 4.1: Distribution of Respondents by Gender Gender Male Female Total Respondents 195 180 375 Percentage 48.0 42.0 100

As indicated in table 4.1, the number of respondents who were male was one hundred and ninety five which represented 48% of the sample whereas their female counterparts were one hundred and eighty representing 42%. There was no missing case in this variable. The result of this analysis indicated that the number of male respondents was more than that of their female counterparts. The reason could have been as a result of odds against girl-child education especially in the rural areas of the Federal Capital Territory.
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Table 4.2: Distribution of Respondents by Personality Type Personality Type Extrovert Introvert Total Respondents 200 175 375 Percentage 53.3 46.7 100

As indicated in table 4.2, an overwhelming majority of the respondents were extroverts which represented 53.3% of the sample whereas the introverts constituted 46.7%. There was no missing case in this variable. The result of this analysis indicated that respondents of extravert dimension were in the majority. The reason could have been as a result of increasing awareness on the essence of boldness and sociability among the youths of modern times. Table 4.3: Distribution of Respondents by Gender and Personality Types Personality Gender Male Extrovert Female Male Introvert Female No. of respondents 120 80 75 100 Percentages 32.0 21.3 20.0 26.7

Total

375

100

Table 4.3 indicates that one hundred and twenty respondents representing 32% were male extroverts while eighty respondents (21.3%) of the sample were
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female extroverts. Again, seventy five respondents representing 20% were male introverts while one hundred respondents representing 26.7%. From the analysis, the male extroverts were found to be in the majority. Reasons for this overwhelming majority may not be farfetched. In Nigeria, like other African Countries majority of the active population were the youths who manifest interpersonal relation more than any other trait. The bulk of such youth are usually found in secondary schools. 4.3. Research Questions The questions that sought to establish students subject preferences and academic performances are hereby presented using frequencies, means and standard deviation on table 3. 4.3.1. Research Question One How do school subject preferences and academic performance of extroverts and introverts differ? To answer this research question, frequency count, standard deviations and means were used for the set analysis set out on table 3

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Table 4.4: Descriptive Statistics of Respondents Subject Preferences and Academic Performance Mean ( x ) Personality Types Subject Preference Extroverts Introverts 3.42 2.86 Academic Performance 18.00 14.00 Subject Preference 4.20 5.00 Standard Deviation (SD) Academic Performance 0.70 0.80

Results on table 4.4 indicated that the extroverts had the highest mean score of 18.00 in academic performance and 3.42 in subject preference with standard deviation of 4.20 and 0.70 respectively. On the other hand, the introverts recorded mean scores of 2.86 in subject preference and 14.00 in academic performance with standard deviations of 0.80 and 5.00 respectively. 4.3.2: Research Question Two What are the differences in terms of academic performance and subject preference between male and female extroverts? To answer this research question, frequency count, standard deviations and means were used for the set analysis set out on table 4.4.

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Table 4.5: Descriptive Statistics of Students Subject Preferences and Academic Performance in terms of Gender and Personality Types

Male Subject Pref. Personality Types N X SD N Academic Performance X SD N Subject Pref. X SD

Female Academic Performance N X SD

Extroverts

120

3.64 1.20 120

18.20 3.00

80

3.20 1.40 80

17.80 2.60

Introverts

75

3.02 1.02 75

14.50 2.20

100

2.70 1.50 100

13.50 2.00

Results on table 4.5 indicated that male extroverts recorded a mean score of 3.64 for subject preference and 18.20 for academic performance with standard deviations of 1.20 and 3.00 respectively. On their own parts, the female extroverts recorded a mean score of 3.20 for subject preference and 17.80 for academic performance with standard deviations of 1.40 and 2.60 respectively. 4.3.3: Research Question Three What are the differences in terms of academic performance and subject preference between male and female introverts? To answer this research question, frequency count, standard deviations and means were used for the set analysis set out on table 4.5.
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Table 4.5 shows that male introverts recorded a mean score of 3.02 for subject preference and 14.50 for academic performance with standard deviations of 1.02 and 2.20 respectively. On their own parts, the female introverts recorded a mean score of 2.70 for subject preference and 13.50 for academic performance with standard deviations of 1.50 and 2.00 respectively. Again, it could be observed that subject preference and performance scores were generally low on the learning outcomes in respect of the entire introvert group. With these results from the descriptive analysis, the apparent differences in the dependent variables of students have been tentatively established. To further buttress this claim a more in depth statistics was employed to test each hypothesis as shown below. 4.4 Testing of Hypothesis In this section, six hypotheses were generated and tested at 0.05 level of significance as follows; 4.4.1: Null Hypothesis One (Ho1) HO1: There is no significant difference between the subject preferences of secondary school students who are extrovert and introverts. The above hypothesis was tested using t-test statistical technique. Results were presented in table 4.6

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Table 4.6 t-tests Result In Respect of Introvert and Extroverts Responses on Subject Preferences Personality Number Mean Type (N) (X) Extroverts Introverts 200 175 3.42 2.86 0.70 0.80 373 10.00 2.50 0.0000 Rejected Standard deviation (SD) Df

ttvalue crit.

Sig. (Two- Decision tailed)

Result on table 4.6 showed that there was significant difference between the responses of extraverts and introverts on subject preferences. As a result, the first hypothesis was rejected. In other words, the personality type of the respondents did affect students subject preferences. 4.4.2: Null Hypothesis Two (Ho2) HO2: There is no significant difference between the academic performances of extrovert and introvert secondary school students. The above hypothesis was tested using t-test statistical technique. Results were presented in table 4.11.

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Table 4.7: t-test Result In Respect of Mean Performances of Extrovert and Introverts Personality Number Mean Type (N) (X) Standard deviation (SD) Df

ttValue crit.

Sig. (Two- Decision tailed)

Extrovert Introvert

200 175

18.00 14.00

4.20 5.00 373 12.00 2.50 0.0000 Rejected

Table 4.11 shows the result of analysis for hypothesis two. It indicated that there was significant difference as regards the performances of extroverts and introverts. The hypothesis was therefore rejected in the light of present result. However, a closer examination of their mean scores revealed that the extroverts performed higher than the introverts. 4.4.3: Null Hypothesis Three (Ho3) HO3: There is no significant difference between the academic performance of male and female extroverts. The above hypothesis was tested using t-test statistical technique. Results were presented in table 4.12.

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Table 4.8. t-test Result In Respect of Mean Performance of Male And Female Extroverts Gender Number Mean Standard deviation (N) (SD) (X) Df 120 80 18.20 17.80 3.00 2.66 198 1.42

tt-crit. Sig. Value (Two- Decision tailed) 2.50 0.6213 Accepted

Male Female

Results on table 4.12 revealed that there was no significant difference between the mean performance of male and female extroverts. Hence the third hypothesis becomes acceptable. It does appear therefore that the respondents gender do not influence their performance. 4.4.4: Null Hypothesis Four (Ho4) HO4: There is no significant difference between the subject preferences of male and female extroverts. The above hypothesis was tested using t-test statistical technique. Results were presented in table 4.13.

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Table 4.9: t-test Result In Respect of Male And Female Extroverts Responses on Subject Preferences. Gender Number Mean Standard deviation (N) (SD) (X) Df

tt-crit. Sig. Value (Twotailed

Decision

Male Female

120 80

3.64 3.20

1.20 1.40 198 3.37 2.50 0.0000 Rejected

Results on table 4.13 showed that there was significant difference between in the subject preferences of male and female extroverts. In the light of this result, the fourth hypothesis was rejected. In other words, the subject preference of male and female extroverts were not the same. 4.4.5: Null Hypothesis Five (Ho5) HO5: There is no significant difference between the academic performance of male and female introverts. The above hypothesis was tested using t-test statistical technique. Results were presented in table 4.14.

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Table 4.10. t-Test Result In Respect of Mean Performance of Male And Female Introverts Gender Number Mean Standard deviation (N) (SD) (X) Df 75 100 14.50 13.50 2.20 2.00 173 3.00 2.50 0.0000 Rejected

tt-crit. Sig. Value (Two- Decision tailed)

Male Female

The t-test value for all items was obtained as shown in table 4.14. Result displayed on the table showed that there was significant difference between the mean performances of male and female introverts. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected based on these results. It then implies that the mean performances of male and female introverts differed significantly. 4.4.6: Null Hypothesis Six (Ho6) HO6: There is no significant difference between subject preferences of male and female introverts. The above hypothesis was tested using t-test statistical technique. Results were presented in table 4.15.

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Table 4.11: t-Test Result In Respect of Male And Female Introverts Responses on Subject Preferences Gender Number Mean Standard deviation (N) (SD) (X) Df

tt-crit. Sig. Value (Twotailed

Decision

Male Female

75 100

3.02 2.70

1.02 1.50 173 2.68 2.50 0.0003 Rejected

Results of the analysis shown on table 4.15 indicated that there was significant difference in the subject preferences of male and female introverts. It then implies that the subject preferences of the introverts did differ as a result of gender. 4.3 Discussion

This study has made significant findings with regards to the variables under study. In the first hypothesis, which sets out to test the significance of difference between subject preferences between students showing extroverted and introverted traits, it was found that there was significant difference between the two groups. This is a clear indication that the personality type of students of FCT secondary school tend to affect their subject preference. Lots of work has been done in an attempt to show the pervasive nature of introversion - extroversion in the individuals' life. Holland (1981) holds the view that the choice of a career is an -expression of personality. Odeleye (1985) went further to say that extroverts
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significantly choose more person-oriented activities than introverts while introverts choose more task-oriented activities than extroverts. Tharp (1992) followed college freshman students for two years and found that the students interested in science, the IN types outnumbered the ES types. T types outnumber F types in the physical sciences, and F types outnumbered T types in the behavioural sciences. Tharp (1992) also reported that Howe (1978) had similar finding when the MBTI was given to 314 high school students in summer science research programs at the University of Florida and to 306 public high school students from the same state. The summer research students were predominantly I types whereas the public school students were mainly S types. Hurley (2002) in a study to identify any differences between art and business majors personality type, and whether or not personality type correlated with their choice of major arrived at results which suggests that there are no differences in levels of Type A between students who are decided art majors, and those who are declared business majors. Carland and Carland (1992) reported in an empirical test that entrepreneurs, small business owners, and managers were statistically different using the Keirsey and Bates (1984) temperaments of sensing-perceiving (SP), sensing-judging (SJ), intuitive-feeling (NF), and intuitive-thinking (NT). They found that entrepreneurs were more likely to display the NT temperament while the small business owners and managers were more likely to display the SJ temperament. The result supported the earlier studies of Carland (1982), Hoy and Boulton (1983), and Barbato and Durlabhji (1989), that entrepreneurs tended to be NTs and managers and small business owners SJs. Although the Carland's
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discussion centered on entrepreneurs as innovative NTs, their empirical results indicated that entrepreneurs tended to be NPs, whereas managers tended toward SJ. Similarly, Ginn and Sexton (1990) found that fast growth entrepreneurs showed significantly higher N, P, and NP orientations than managers. Furthermore, Routamaa, Vesalainen, and Pihlajaniemi (1996) found more ENs than ISs among internationally oriented entrepreneurs. Garden (1997) studied MBTI profiles and career paths of software workers and found support for the notion that S-N and J-P dichotomies are relevant to the choice of starting one's own company, with both Ns and Ps significantly choosing this route relative to Ss and Js. In contrast, Es, Ss, Ts, and Js chose a managerial career path more often than Is, Ns, Fs, and Ps did. Kanekar and Mukerjee (1972) found in India that Forty students in the Arts (including Social Sciences) were less intelligent, more extroverted and more neurotic in the Eysenck personality inventory than a similar number of Science students. Entwistle (1972) found out in America among adults that as far as academic performance is concerned the introvert is superior. He concluded that though this might appear to be an over-generalisation but it remains a powerful prediction at least relatively. In Great Britain, also among adults, he discovered that the stable introverts is superior in the Arts than the mildly neurotic introvert in the Sciences. Interestingly enough, Howe (1977) has found almost similar results in Uganda and Ghana, cultures very different from the West. Cattel (1973) found similar results among University students in India, Japan and Chinese students.

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However different findings have been reported by Ronald et al (2008) who found out in a study on personality as a prognostic factor for specialty choice that no specialty differences were found for the domains of extraversion and conscientiousness, numerous specialty variations were identified for neuroticism, openness, and agreeableness. The second hypothesis also found that there was significant difference between the academic performances of students due to personality type difference. It has nearly become conventional to argue that personality type is a significant indicator of learning as so say this study. Various studies have examined the relationship of personality type to academic achievement of secondary school students in various disciplines using MBTI. Schuir and Puble (1986) reported by Tharp (1992) used the MBTI to examine the achievement of 2,713 freshman college students, using grades in course that met the general studies requirement. They found the I. N students were best prepared, whereas the ES types were least prepared for achievement in college. The combination of the E - I and S N scales were most associated with achievement that could be predicted from the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores. Combinations of the E - I and J - P scales were most associated with achievement that could not be predicted from the SAT. I - J achievement was highest and EP was lowest, J and P types are similar in aptitude (SAT). These relationships were also found in a later study of 906 students, and the authors (Schuir and Puble, 1988) as reported by Tharp (1992) concluded that the J-P scale is indicative of the personality characteristics that are most uniquely associated with college instructors' evaluation of achievement.

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Also reported by Tharp (1992) were the findings of Melear (1990) who gave the MBTI to 673 non major undergraduate students in an introductory Biology course that used a structured learning environment with defined goals and deadlines. Tharp (1992) after a detailed analysis and comparison of his findings with those of previous studies, asserts that the results of his study agree in many ways with previous research on personality types and achievement in college. Also, O'brien, Bernold and Akroyd (1994) while reporting the results of their findings in a study conducted to investigate patterns in psychological type among students in a lower division Engineering course and differences in the academic performance of those students associated with difference in psychological types, using 83 students as a sample indicates that no significant MBTI and academic achievement differences were manifested in relation to the dimensions of Extroversion - Introversion, Thinking - Feeling or Judging - Perceiving. But a significant main effect did emerge in relation Sensing - Intuition dimension. What this means is that students with intuitive personality types or cognitive styles, achieved significantly higher end-of course grades than students with sensing styles. The findings of Durosaro (1993) who investigated the relationship between students academic performance and the introversion-extroversion dimension of their personality revealed that there was no significant correlations between the two variables. The researcher therefore could not conclude that one personality dimension was superior to the other in terms of academic performance. The findings were rather interesting because it disagrees with some of the previous research findings on the relationship between introversion - extroversion and academic performance Eysenck (1967), Kotosh (1976) and Leith (1973) among
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others have all argued that there are significant indications of difference in academic achievement between introverts and extroverts. On the gender-related hypotheses it has been found in all cases except one that there was significant difference between male and female subject preferences as well as academic performances whether amongst introverts or extroverts. While it is often perceived that people select a job on the basis of experiences or exposures to the world of work it is possible to relate peoples preferences of subjects (which become a determining factor for their careers) to their personality type. Studies have shown that gender plays an important role in career choices. Male and female career choices are normally different because of the difference in their self-concepts. Studies (Adams and Walkerdine, 1986; Best, 1983; and Spender, 1982) showed that girls tended to opt for a very narrow range of stereotypically feminine occupations. Furthermore, there is a gender-role stereotyping in expressing vocational interest among gender whereby male preferred realistic and investigative occupations and female on the other hand preferred social type of occupations (Betz and Hackett, 1981). Similar Tomlinson and Evans (1991) found that male students scored significantly higher than female students on the realistic and investigative scales of the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. On the other hand, female students prefer social, artistic, and conventional types of occupations. The findings of the study suggested that the career interest patterns of university students vary across gender. The finding of this study is quite consistent with that of Tomlinson and Evans (1991). They found that male college students scored significantly higher than female college students on Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. Another
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researcher, Van Burren et al. (1993) also found that more males than female students preferred realistic and investigative occupations. Many researchers for example, Bem (1981) and Betz (1994), tend to suggest that the development of gender difference in vocational interests as well as vocational choices is a result of multitudes of factors, some which are internally related, and some are environmentally related. No doubt, personality type is one of those internally related factors. However one cannot rule out the influence of other factors such as self-concepts, self-efficacy, personality and even the environment which could also influence the career interest pattern where students grew-up. For instance, the perceptions of many students that subjects such as mathematics and physics are difficult could affect ones career interest. On academic performance, a study by Rahim (1995) showed that CGPA of female and male student did not differ significantly. Studies on the academic performance at the secondary level also showed that their academic performance did not differ significantly (Rahim, 1995, 2000). This is different from the findings of this study where significant difference in academic performance is recorded between male and female students due to personality type. Many researchers have provided reports that there are no longer distinguishing differences in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skill achievements of students in respect of gender (Abayomi and Mji, 2004; Bilesanmi-Awoderu, 2006; David and Stanley, 2002; Din et al., 2004; Freedman, 2002; Sungur and Tekkaya, 2003). This may be explained on the basis of the contemporary drive to make women compete favourable in a world largely dominated by men. Girls are being encouraged and sensitized into developing positive attitudes towards science.
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Other researchers have reported differently on this issue. For example, in one study carried out by (Eriba and Sesugh, 2006; Onekutu and Onekutu, 2002), they found that boys outperformed girls in science and mathematics achievements. Some other research studies reported that males are becoming the disadvantaged gender in schools, and that fewer males are interested in science (Alkhateeb, 2001; Bleuer and Waltz, 2002; Omoniyi, 2006; WeaverHightower, 2003).

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CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction In this chapter, a summary of the findings of this thesis is presented; implications of the findings, recommendations for further research as well as limitation of the findings of this research are stated. Finally, suggestions for further research were raised. 5.2 Summary Extroversion refers to people and objects in the outside world; impulsive social tendencies. Introversion refers to inner directedness and a preference for abstract ideas than concrete objects; controlled and responsible behavior. In recent years, studies have shown that introversion -extroversion have assumed the status of being one of the mostly used variables as far as the concept of personality is concerned. Morris (1979) observed that introverted and extroverted tendencies appear earlier in childhood and evidence more stability through developmental years than most personality characteristics. In other words, researchers as well as practitioners have begun to reckon with the need to consider the individual's personality before assigning him on a job or function was emphasized. This study has found reason to arrive at the same conclusion that personality type affects subject preference as well as academic performances of students in the FCT. It is a departure from other factors like social and

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interpersonal relationship, and mental disorders which have often been related to introversion-extroversion dimensions of personality. 5.3 Recommendations As a result of the findings of this study, the following recommendations have become necessary: The relevance of subject preference as highlighted in this study makes it relevant to encourage teachers and parents not to see a particular personality type like introverted students as being academically inferior to their extroverted counterparts. The defining characteristics of ones personality should not be negatively construed to the end that the individual is embarrassed by the reaction of teachers and parents. It should also be noted that loud, carefree or extroverted students are equally intelligent as their introverted, quiet and reserved counterparts. Given the increase interest that competitive universities are showing in standardised tests for the selection of their students, it is believed that personality inventories should not be neglected in any academic selection process, for individual differences in personality are probably of educational relevance in higher learning programmes.

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5.4 Suggestions for Further Research Research into personality type students need to take into account some other variables such as: 3.1 Student background in the science or arts and personality type preferences. 3.2 3.3 Personality type of Juvenile Delinquent and academic performances. Typology of personality among teacher education students and implication for the teaching profession. 3.4 Longitudinal study of personality type and subject preferences among secondary school students 5.5 Limitations of the Findings One should bear in mind that the relation between personality traits and psychometric intelligence is rather modest (Zeidner & Matthews, 2000). It is thus likely that the prediction of academic performance (and maybe performance in general) will be improved with the inclusion of sound personality inventories, which does not, to any extent, imply that personality inventories should replace ability tests. This study is also limited to adolescents who are better in a research where self-report is required. It is believed that they are likely to provide the truthful information.

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5.6 Conclusion This research work has provided in-depth understanding of the relationship between personality and career path choices. Understanding the role personality plays in a career decision making process will aid counselors and educators to assist students in determining what is best for them. This study will de-emphasize the current preoccupation with intelligence as measures of ability and recommend based on research evidence that different personalities tend to have different subject preferences. The study also provides basis for personality-based guidance of students on their vocational choices. It will also help students to appreciate their personality characteristics thus reducing the incidence of loss of self esteem which is critical to overall performance and efficiency later on in life.

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Hoy, F., & Boulton, W. R. (1983). Problem-solving styles of students- Are educators producing what business needs? Collegiate News and Views, 36(3), 15-21. Hurley, M.R. (2002). Is there a correlation between type a personality and choice of a college major. Undergraduate Journal of Psychology, Volume 15, 2002. University of North Carolina Charlotte. Holland, J.L. (1973). Making vocational choices: A theory of careers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice Hall Holland, J. I. (1981). The present status of a theory of vocational choice, perspectives on vocational development. American Personal and Guidance Association. Kassebaum, D. G. and Szenas, P. L. (1994). Factors influencing the speciality choices of 1993 medical school graduates. 69:163170. Kassebaum D. G., Szenas, P.L & Schuchert M.K (1996). Determinants of the generalist career intentions of 1995 graduating medical students 71:198 2009 Lawrence, G. (1984). A synthesis of learning style research involving the MBTI. Journal of psychological type, 8, 2-15. Matlin, M.W. (1999). Psychology. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Maslow, A.H. (1962). Toward a psychology of being. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand. Mitra S. K (1991). Development and assessment of personality. In advanced educational psychology B. Kuppuswany (ed). Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd; New Delhi. Myers, I.B. (1965). Manual: the myersbriggs type indicator. Princeton, N.J: Education Testing Service. Myers, I.B. (1980). Gifts differing. Palo Alto. CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Maria, J. (2002). Organisational employment vs. entrepreneurship: the personality approach to business students career aspirations. Journal of Business & Entrepreneurship. findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5424/

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Myers, I., McCaulley, M., Quenk, N., & Hammer, A. (1998). MBTI Manual: A guide to the development and use of the myers-briggs type indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. Mukherjee, A. (2002). Educational psychology. Zaria: Asekome & Co Publisher. Nworgu, B. G. (1991). Educational research: basic issues and methodology. Owerri: Wisdom Publishers Limited. Nworah, F. N. (1997). An analysis of factors that influence career choice among secondary school students in Onitsha educational zone. Unpublished M.Ed Project Nnamdi Azikiwe Unviersity Awka. Onoyase D & Onoyase A. (2005). The relationship between personality types and career choice of secondary school students in Delta State. The Nigerian Journal of Guidance and Counseling Vol. 10 No 1. Oladele, J. O. (2004). Fundamentals of educational psychology. Lagos: Johns Lad Publishers Limited. Obrien, T., Bernold, L., & Akroyd, D., (1998). Myers-Briggs type indicator and academic achievement in Engineering Education. International Journal of Engineering Education. 4, 311-315. Pallegama. R. W. Ariyasinghe, S and Perera H. A. E. D (2007). Influence of personality traits, on the attitudes towards the teaching program and the academic performance of dental undergraduates. Paoli .L, (2005). Students personality type and attitudes towards classroom participation. Proceedings of the CATESOL State Conference Los Angeles. Peng, A (1996). The impact of career education course on career beliefs and career decision making among Business College students in Taiwan. Dissertation Abstract International, 58 (8) 33405 - .A. Routamaa, V., Vesalainen, J., & Pihlajaniemi, E. (1996). Meeting the challenges of export markets: Entrepreneurs' personality and international orientation. In Proceedings of the ENDEC World Conference on entrepreneurship (pp. 479487). Singapore: NTU-Entrepreneurship Development Centre.

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Rogers, C. R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships, as developed in the client-centred framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science (Vol 3), New York: McGraw Hill. Reynierse, J. H. (1995). A comparative analysis of Japanese and American managerial types through organizational levels in business and industry. Journal of Psychological Type, 33,19-32. Ronald, J., Rodenhauser, P., El-Baghadadi, M., Kornelija, J., Alexander, T. H., Bradley, A.M., (2008). Personality as a Prognostic Factor for Specialty Choice: A Prospective Study of Medical School Classes. 10 (2): 49 Saka, A. O. Yusuf, S. E. & Yusuf .K. (2002). Educational psychology. Tanzania publishing company limited. Kaduna:

Shultz .D. and Schultz. S. E. (1994). Theories of Personality. Kaduna: Pacific Groove. Tharp, G. D. (1992). Relationship between personality type and achievement in undergraduate physiology course. American Journal of Physiology 262 & Page 51 53. Tomas C. P. and Furnham .A. (2003). Personality predicts academic performance: evidence from two longitudinal University samples. Journal of Research in Personality, University College 37(2003) 219 338. Ryckman R.M. (1982). Theories of personality. Belmont, CA: Brooks Cole. Uljas, A. (2001). Ekonomin keskipalkka yli 23 000. Ekonomi, 1,2-3. Vincent, A., & Ross, D. (2001). Personalized training: Determined learning styles, personality types and multiple intelligence online. The Learning Organization, 8, 36 43. White, B.A.R. (1981). Selected background variables as they influence the choice of college major. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Michigan. Dissertation Abstract International, 42, 149. Wakefield, J.C. (1989). Level of explanation in personality theory. In D.M. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality Psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp.333-346). New York: Springer-Verlag

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APPENDIX 1 To whom it may Concern, Thank you for volunteering to complete this questionnaire. All responses will be kept anonymous and confidential. The purpose of this research is to determine personality type of students, subject preference and Academic performance. You are kindly requested to give your honest opinion about each item. Thank you. Yours, Ezemaduka Tochukwu University of Abuja

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APPENDIX II STUDENT PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE (SPQ) SECTION A Please supply the information required below. (a) (b) (c) Name___________________________________________________ Name of School ____________________________________________ Sex: Male Female

SECTION B Rate the following statement according to how they apply to you. Be sure that you are honest about yourself and give realistic rating to the statement you have chosen. The options include Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (DA) and Strongly Disagree (SD). ITEM 1. I prefer to be active at all times 2. I like making friends with lots of people 3. The phrase calm and cool will best describe me 4. I like talking about my achievements 5. I am always in high spirits 6. I prefer to be always heard in a group of friends 7. I always say my mind 8. I am a naturally quiet person 9. I dont get angry easily 10. I withdraw to myself often for no reason SA A DA SD

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11. I hate crowds and public outings 12. I like attending parties 13. I act quickly without thinking 14. I love being noticed by my friends 15. I am happier when alone and withdrawn from others 16. I always make more contributions when discussing with my friends 17. I act before I think 18. I love to think carefully before I act 19. I enjoy working behind the scenes 20. I am an easy going person 21. I like to be alone 22. I like to tell others what to do 23. I am highly inquisitive 24. I like working alone 25. I am like quiet places 26. I am not sociable 27. When I buy food and drugs, I usually look out for the expiry dates 28. I like studying many days before examination 29. I will always rush my drink 30. I like to leave things till the last minute

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APPENDIX III SCHOOL SUBJECT PREFERENCE INDICATOR (SSPI) (a) (b) (c) Name_____________________________________________________ Name of School ____________________________________________ Sex: Male Female

Think about each of the following activities and rate them according to your level of interest. S/NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 INTEREST Collect plants, rocks and weeds Discover what causes the different colors of the rainbow Discuss current affairs Discuss issues like workers corruption in government strikes and VERY MUCH MUCH LITTLE VERY LITTLE

Find out about business matters like imports, exports or shares Find out how the planets were discovered Find why the moon looks different at different times Learn how fire extinguishers put out fire Listen daily to the Radio or TV for news Listen to teachings on how sounds are heard from a radio Listen to the speech of the President

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12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Pay a visit to the court to watch proceedings Read about lives of great politicians Read about Nigerian independence history Read about other countries Study animals Study how the weather is predicted Study the duties of each branch of government Study the systems of the body Watch how spiders build their webs

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APPENDIX IV TABLE FOR DETERMINING NEEDED SIZE S OF A RANDOMLY CHOSEN SAMPLE FROM A GIVEN FINITE POPULATION OF N CASES SUCH THAT THE SAMPLE PROPORTION p WILL BE WITHIN .05 OF THE POPULATION PROPORTION P WITH A 95 PERCENT LEVEL OF CONFIDENCE
1

Population Size 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210

Sample Size 10 14 19 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 59 63 66 70 73 76 80 86 92 97 103 108 113 118 123 127 132 136

Population Size 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1100

Sample Size 140 144 148 152 155 159 162 165 169 175 181 186 191 196 201 205 210 214 217 226 234 242 248 254 260 265 269 274 278 285

Population Size 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 15000 20000 30000 40000 50000 75000 100000

Sample Size 291 297 302 306 310 313 317 320 322 327 331 335 338 341 346 351 354 357 361 364 367 368 370 375 377 379 380 381 382 384

Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining Sample Size for Research Activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 607-610.

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