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Chapter 1.1: Introduction

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What is an Internal Combustion Engine?
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion,
or rapid oxidation, of gas and air occurs in a confined space called a
combustion chamber. This exothermic reaction of a fuel with an
oxidizer creates gases of high temperature and pressure, which are
permitted to expand.
The defining feature of an internal combustion engine is that useful
work is performed by the expanding hot gases acting directly on the
piston, causing movement of the piston inside the cylinder.
This contrasts with external combustion engines, such as steam
engines and Stirling engines, which use an external combustion
chamber to heat a separate working fluid, which then in turn does
work, for example by moving a piston.
The term Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is almost always used to
refer specifically to reciprocating engines, Wankel engines and similar
designs in which combustion is intermittent. However, continuous
combustion engines, such as jet engines, most rockets and many gas
turbines are also internal combustion engines.
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Brief Historical Perspective
1860s: Lenoir engine burned coal gas-air mixtures at atmospheric pressure before
combustion. 5000 engines built up to 6 hp; efficiency up to 5%
1862: Beau de Rochas, a French civil engineer, patents but does not build a four-stroke
engine
1866: Otto and Langen build 5,000 atmospheric engines with up to 11% efficiency and 2
hp.
1876: Otto builds a four-stroke engine. Enormous reduction in engine weight and volume.
50,000 engines sold in Europe and U.S.
1882: Atkinson invents the two-stroke engine with a longer expansion than compression
stroke. Compression ratios s 4 to avoid knock.
1893: Diesel received a patent for compression-ignition internal combustion engine using
petrol oil which achieves high thermal efficiency due to greater compression ratios.
1908: Production of the Model T begins. One of the first mass produced, affordable
automobiles (average cost ~ $550). 2.9 L spark ignited engine, ~ 20 HP, 13-21 mpg,
CR = 4.5:1.
1923: Bosch develops a number of designs for fuel injection pumps.
1939: First volume production car to be fitted with diesel (Mercedes 260D)
1946: Stratified-charge, spark-ignition engine developed by Texaco
1961: Wankel patents rotary engine
1975: Three way catalysts appear on spark-ignited vehicles within the US. The catalysts
significantly reduce NOx, HC and CO emissions, however, the vehicles must be operated
stoichiometrically for efficient catalyst operation.
1980s: Electronic SI Engine Controllers
1990s: Electronic Diesel Engine Controllers
2000s: Hybridization is introduced for production cars
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Todays ICE
Spark-Ignition (S.I.) and Compression Ignition
(C.I.) or Diesel Engines
Difference in combustion defines engine: use either
spark or compression to ignite fuel
Gasoline and Diesel (Fuel Oil #2) are main fuels
U.S. Diesel Popularity
2005: 3.2% of market share*
2015 forecast: ~10% of market share*
Nearly 50% of New Registrations for Western
European Vehicles are Diesel Powered with Some
Countries over 70%**
* J.D. Power and Associates (2006)
** Schindler, DEER Conference (2006)
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Engine Classification
a. Applications
b. Basic Engine Design
c. Working Cycle
d. Method of Breathing
e. Valve or Port Design
f. Fuels
g. Method of Mixture Preparation,
Ignition and Combustion
h. Method of Load Control
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Chapter 1.2: Introduction
Engine Classification (a-b)
1 - 7
Approx.
engine power Predominant Type
Class Service range, kW CI or SI Cycle Cooling
Road vehicles Motorcycles, scooters 0.75-70 SI 2, 4 A
Small passenger cars 15-75 SI 4 A, W
Large passenger cars 75-200 SI 4 W
Light truck 35-150 CI, SI 4 W
Heavy (long-distance) truck 120-400 CI 2, 4 W
Off-road vehicles Light vehicles (factory, airport, etc.) 1.5-15 SI 2, 4 A, W
Agricultural 3-150 CI, SI 2, 4 A, W
Earth moving 40-750 CI 2, 4 W
Military 40-2000 CI 2, 4 A, W
Railroad Rail cars 150-400 CI 2, 4 W
Locomotives 400-3000 CI 2, 4 W
Marine Outboard 0.4-75 SI 2 W
Inboard motorcrafts 4-750 CI, SI 4 W
Light naval craft 30-2200 CI 2, 4 W
Jet skis 5-10 SI 2, 4 A, W
Ships 3500-80000 CI 2, 4 W
Ships' auxiliaries 75-750 CI 4 W
Airborne Vehicles Airplanes 45-2700 SI 4 A
Helicopters 45-1500 SI 4 A
Home use Lawn mowers 0.7-5 SI 2, 4 A
Snow blowers 2-5 SI 2, 4 A
Light tractors 2-8 SI 4 A
Stationary Building service 7-400 CI 2, 4 W
Electric power 35-22000 CI, SI 2, 4 W
Gas pipeline 750-5000 SI 2, 4 W
Heywood (1988), Internal Combustion Engines; Taylor (1985), The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice
A Air
W Water
a. Applications
Piston size typically scales
with power output
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Extreme Engine Sizes
the small
www.modelflight.com.au
1 - 9
Extreme Engine Sizes
the big
http://www.emma-maersk.com/engine/Wartsila_Sulzer_RTA96-C.htm
Engine Sulzer RTA-96C
Engine weight 2087 metric tons
Length 27.1 m
Height 13.4 m
Cylinders 14
Bore 960 mm
Stroke 2500 mm
Maximum power 81220 kW at 102 rpm
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b. Basic Engine Design
Reciprocating
In-line
V-shaped
Radial
Rotary (Wankel)
Working Cycle
Method of Breathing
Valve or Port Design
Method of Mixture
Preparation, Ignition and
Combustion
Method of Load Control
Keep these in mind as we go through
the basic designs
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Common Piston Engine Layouts
In-line 4-cylinder
Most lightweight economy cars
Short enough to be placed sideways
(transverse mounting)
In-line 5-cylinder
More power than four, takes
up less space than six
No longer in production
In-line 6-cylinder
Longer and heavier than fours and fives
Smoother and more powerful
Bigger cars result due to length
V-6 engines
More powerful than I-4, short
enough to fit in smaller cars
Good matching of firing to
balance needed
V-8 engines
More powerful, smoother and
shorter than I-6
Essentially, two I-4s joined to
common crankshaft
Flat-4
Cylinders arranged horizontally
Low center of gravity improves
cars handling
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SI designs
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Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual
In-Line Four
Cylinder
SI Engine
(pushrod)
Cylinder head
communicates with
intake and exhaust
systems. Contains
passageways that the
air (& fuel) pass
through. Contains
cooling passageways.
Engine block
houses cylinders and
also contains
passageways for
coolant to prevent
extreme
temperatures.
Flywheel angular
momentum smoothes
out power pulses from
individual pistons.
uses under head camshaft
Rocker-arm design has more
moving parts; hence, more
friction than overhead valves.
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Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual
1 - 15
In-Line Four
Cylinder
SI Engine
(OHC)
Society of Automotive Engineers, 1981
Cleans intake to
prevent dirt from
entering cylinder
Older
method for
fuel
induction
(victim of
emissions
regulations)
Overhead
Activates valves with
one lobe per valve
Controls crankshaft,
but parasitic loss of
power
Translates force on
piston to crankshaft
Breathing of
engine.
Have
machined
surface for
uniform
combustion
chamber.
Engine manufacturers
have to be concerned
about packaging. In-
line four cylinder is
relatively compact, but
in-line 8-cylinder is
impractical.
Connected to
transmission for
translating engine
power to wheels
F = pA
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Courtesy of Ford Motor Company
V-Design
SI Engine
(pushrod)
Blue fresh air
Red exhaust gases
Yellow lubricating oil
Green coolant to reduce
temperature (or warm-up)
In this case, the engine
uses low pressure fuel
injection (~ 2 bar) in
the intake ports to
bring a charge of fuel
into the engine. Need
good atomization at
low flow rates.
Note throttle in
fully closed
position.
only one for V-design
Different Working Fluids
and runners
WOT Wide open throttle,
minimum pressure drop
through throttle plate (most
time operated at part load)
partial vacuum
puddles
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SI Piston Detail
Pistons provide the force
that drives the engine
Depending on the
application, there are
many different types of
piston shapes
Compression rings (2) seal
working fluid in chamber
Oil ring scrapes off oil to
prevent from entering
chamber
May have valve cut-outs
for high compression ratio
engines
Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual
Piston crown
Skirt
Connecting
Rod
Compression
Rings (2)
Oil Ring
Top Land
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CI diesel designs
1 - 19
In-Line Four
Cylinder
Light-Duty
CI Engine
(Ford)
Notice the very
compact design of
engine. This is a 4-
valve design with one
camshaft for the intake
valves and one for the
exhaust valves.
Common fuel rail that feeds
each cylinders injector at
~ 2000 bar
Fuel Injector
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Design Features
of a Heavy-Duty
Truck Engine
Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc.
High-pressure injection system is a
large cost factor for CI engines ~
20 to 30% of total cost.
To account for the high pressures (150-200
bar vs. 50 bar) during combustion, this
engine has massive components (ex:
connecting rod)
Fuel Injector
Notice the bowl shape in the piston to
account for the fuel injection spray. Have
to make sure of correct injection timing.
(soot, turbulence, mixing)
Cylinder liner may be press-fitted so
the block material and the piston
material are different. May reduce
the weight of the engine.
Wet liner means that the cooling
fluid flows over the liner, whereas a
dry liner does not.
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Radial Engines
Gasoline engines can also be
designed using a radial
configuration.
These engines are mostly
used in the aircraft industry
and not in automobiles
Differences with in-line and
vee configurations are
mostly just packaging still
four-stroke, reciprocating
combustion
Schwaller, Anthony E., Motor Automotive Technology
Radial Engine
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Wankel (Rotary) Engine
Uses a rotor instead of
reciprocating pistons.
This design delivers smooth
high-rpm power from a
compact, lightweight engine.
Mobil Technical Bulletin, Rotary Engines, 1971
Wankel Engine
Same thermodynamic
working cycle as
previous engine
designs
Mechanical
arrangement is very
different
Typically lower
efficiency , due in part
to the high surface area
to volume ratio of the
combustion chamber,
which effects heat
transfer
Smoother torque
production (less
imbalance)
Fewer moving parts
Seals package
3 power strokes per
one revolution of rotor
no valves
Spins 3 times faster
than rotor
Why not Wankel?
Used to have sealing
problems and high
fuel consumption
Rotor controls
working space.
Each face
creates one
combustion
chamber.
analogous to engine block
1 - 23
Chapter 1.3: Introduction
Engine Classification (c-e)
1 - 24
Engine Classification
a. Applications
b. Basic Engine Design
c. Working Cycle
d. Method of Breathing
e. Valve or Port Design
f. Fuels
g. Method of Mixture Preparation,
Ignition and Combustion
h. Method of Load Control
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c. Working Cycle
Four-stroke
The four strokes refer to intake, compression,
combustion and exhaust strokes that occur during two
crankshaft rotations per working cycle*
Two-stroke
The two-stroke cycle of an internal combustion engine
differs from the more common four-stroke cycle by
completing the same four processes (intake,
compression, power, exhaust) in only two strokes of
the piston rather than four**
* Four-stroke
** Two-stroke
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Four-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual; Car Bibles: The Fuel and Engine Bible (four-stroke animation)
Intake Stroke
Piston descends drawing
in air/fuel mixture while
the intake valve is open
(exhaust valve closed).
Intake valve closing ends
process.
Compression Stroke
While both valves are
closed, piston rises in the
cylinder compressing
fuel/air mixture
Power Stroke
Compressed gas is ignited
by spark plug. Expansion
of burning gases drives
piston down.
Exhaust Stroke
Exhaust valve opens and
the piston rises to expel
burned gases. Exhaust
valve closing and intake
valve opening ends
process
TDC (0) BDC (180) BDC (180) TDC (360) TDC (360) BDC (540) BDC (540) TDC (720)
Geometric stroke is defined as Top Dead Center
(TDC) to Bottom Dead Center (BDC) or vice-versa
one power stroke per two revolutions (720) of crankshaft
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Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle
Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual
Intake Stroke
Piston descends drawing
in air/fuel mixture while
the intake valve is open
(exhaust valve closed).
Intake valve closing ends
process.
Compression Stroke
While both valves are
closed, piston rises in the
cylinder compressing
fuel/air mixture. Just
before maximum
compression, diesel fuel is
injected into the chamber
under very high pressure
Power Stroke
Fuel vaporizes and ignites
after very short delay in
the hot compressed air.
Expansion of burning
gases drives piston down.
Exhaust Stroke
Exhaust valve opens and
the piston rises to expel
burned gases. Exhaust
valve closing and intake
valve opening ends
process
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Two Stroke SI or CI Engine Cycle
HowStuffWorks (2007)
Car Bibles: The Fuel and Engine Bible (two-stroke animation)
one power stroke per one revolution (360) of crankshaft
Crankcase
flow can bring
oil with air or
air/fuel
Ports activated by
motion of piston.
Piston shape helps
with breathing by
driving flow
direction.
* Dead zones
may not get
properly purged
*
EGR
happens
without
trying
Short-circuiting
may occur (loss of
fresh mixture)
Timing decided by
the location of
exhaust ports
versus intake ports
Uniflow Scavenging
Crank Scavenging
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Working Cycle
4 stroke design
2 stroke design
1 - 30
Two-Stroke Movie
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LuCUmQ9FxMU
2 min 20 sec
1 - 31
Wankel Four-Stroke Cycle
Intake
As one rotor tip passes
intake port it creates a
chamber of increasing
volume and draws in
fuel-air mixture
Compression
As rotor continues to
revolve, the second tip
passes intake port sealing
the fuel mixture in a
chamber of decreasing
volume.
Power
Spark-ignition causes fuel
mixture to burn and
expand, imparting energy
to rotor. The size of the
chamber will increase
during this process.
Exhaust
The leading tip of the rotor
passes the exhaust port
and leaves it open for the
burned gases to escape as
chamber decreases in size.
For every revolution of the
rotor, three power strokes
occur.
Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual; Wankel Engine
1 - 32
d. Method of Breathing
Naturally Aspirated
Turbocharged
Supercharged
Crank Scavenged
Intercooling / Aftercooling
Ambient air input
Use to pack more air
into cylinder for higher
power output
Used to cool the inlet air
effectively increasing the density
(from the ideal gas law)
p RT =
Ideal Gas Law
Compressing the mixture
will raise the pressure,
density and temperature
of the mixture subject to
the ideal gas law. For a
given volume of air, the
more dense it is, the
more mass we can put in
the cylinder.
m V =
1 - 33
Turbocharger Principle
The amount of power that an engine can
produce is limited by the amount of air and
fuel that can be drawn into the cylinders
Turbochargers use the high-speed flow of
the exhaust gases to power a small turbine
wheel compressing the intake mixture
The greater the flow of exhaust gases, the
faster the turbine spins and the more
compression that takes place
A waste gate prevents the process from
getting out of hand sensor on inlet
pressure is utilized to bypass some exhaust
energy
No direct coupling to engine
May lead to knock in SI engines
Aerodynamic compressor may not have
constant volume flow rate during operation;
hence susceptible to surging and choking
Surge: can have backflow through T/C causing
non-ideal accel/deceleration of compressor
wheel
Choking: critical flow is reached
Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual
Up to ~ 30 to 40% of
fuel energy can exit in
the exhaust gas,
however not all of this
energy can be converted
into useful work
1 - 34
Turbocharging
Exhaust gas energy was just going to
be wasted anyway
However, the turbocharger adds a
restriction on the system, which
may affect pumping
Turbochargers can suffer from turbo
lag
When acceleration is needed, exhaust
energy initially was not enough to
keep up with the demand
Inertia of turbocharger must be
overcome
That is why a black smoke cloud
would appear behind a diesel engine
Depending on operating conditions,
boosting the engine generally
provides higher overall thermal
efficiency
Fairbanks (2004), Engine Maturity, Efficiency and Potential Improvements
Q: Why not use T/C on ALL
engines?
1 - 35
Supercharger Principle
While turbochargers use the exhaust flow,
superchargers are powered mechanically by
a belt- or chain-drive from the engines
crankshaft
Driven parasitically from engine crankshaft
Superchargers do not suffer from any lag
because they are respond directly to the
speed of the engine
As the engine power increases, the
supercharger immediately spins faster
Positive Displacement Pump every
rotation it will output the same amount of
volume flow rate (not subject to surging or
choking)
* Howstuffworks How Superchargers Work
* Supercharging
Roots type
Twin screw type
Centrifugal type
Advantage always on
Disadvantage parasitic loss
1 - 36
Supercharger Movies
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MiW5vehtTCk http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDkSW7evYM8
1 min 2 sec 1 min 15 sec
1 - 37
Two-Stroke
Diesel Engine
Operation
With Uniflow
Scavenging
Supercharging can
help with the
scavenging process
by providing more
force to the input air
1 - 38
Intercooling / Aftercooling
An Intercooler lowers the temperature of
the intake mixture, which will increase the
density according to the Ideal Gas Law
This is especially important in Turbocharging
and Supercharging applications because
while compressing increases the pressure it
also increases the temperature
A small loss in pressure occurs through the
Intercooler but at a much larger gain in
density
The Inter in the name refers to its location
compared to the compressors
In aircraft engines, coolers were typically
installed between multiple stages of
supercharging
Modern automobile designs are technically
Aftercoolers because they appear most
often at the very end of the chain
Design of the size of the Intercooler is also
important due to the volume of air it
contains which can lead to a larger turbo lag
Dinkel (2000), Road & Track Illustrated Automotive Dictionary
p RT =
1 - 39
e. Valve or Port Design
Poppet Valves (Four-Stroke Scavenging Methods)
Used to bring in the fresh charge (consisting of air and/or fuel)
during intake and to expel burnt combustion gases during the
exhaust stroke
Valve actuation:
Rocker-arm
Overhead cam
Ports (Two-stroke Scavenging Methods)
Also used for intake and exhaust
Most common methods:
Loop-scavenged porting
Uniflow-scavenged
Intake ports combined with a poppet exhaust valve
Crank Scavenged
1 - 40
Valve Trains with Rocker-Arms
In a rocker-arm type
arrangement, cams
located below the
valves operate a
pushrod that cause a
rocker arm to pivot
and push the valve
down
Springs provide
tension to close the
valves when the
pushrods are no
longer active
Todays cars typically
no longer use this
approach (you will see
this arrangement in
your CFR labs)
Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual
1 - 41
Valve-Trains with Overhead Cams
Overhead cams operate
the valves more directly
than rocker-arm design
Fewer parts and less
inertia allow engines to
run faster
One or more overhead
camshafts may be used
V-type engine with dual
overhead camshafts has
four camshafts in all
Less friction than rocker
arm designs
Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual
Roller finger follower
2.2L GM Ecotec
1 - 42
2 Valve vs. 4 Valve Designs in CI engines
The effective flow area for
the intake and exhaust
process can be increased
by increasing the number
of valves
This impacts the flow
velocity and resulting
friction losses, which
influence volumetric
efficiency
The flow will choke if the
flow area is too small
Volumetric efficiency: the
effectiveness of the engine
at inducting air
The valve configuration
can also be used for
turbulence enhancement
or flow arrangement
1 - 43
Ideal Timing Diagram
Introduction to timing
diagrams
Reference four-stroke
cycle
Geometric processes
define the intake and
exhaust events
Not really what happens
Valve Lift
1 - 44
The inlet and exhaust valve opening is
a function of the crank angle and
varies from a closed position to a
maximum lift position
Valve Lift
Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual
Valves do not open instantly
takes time to reach max lift
Valve Lift
1 - 45
Geometric Valve Lift Effect
Lobes have gradual ramps
Stiff ramps would cause
higher velocity during valve
lift
Higher mechanical loads,
friction forces and more
losses
Adjust valve timing to expose
more of flow to maximum lift
Ideal would be to have instant
on for maximum flow rate
Camless valve trains
Electromagnetic Valve train
(EMV)
Electrohydraulic Valve train
(EHV)
Use solenoids to get
approximately square wave
profiles
effective open
area close to
maximum lift
greatly
reduced
-30
210
0 180
Geometric Effect
Camless Lift
Lift with Cam
1 - 46
Intake Fluid Dynamics Lift Effect
In addition to geometric concerns, fluid
dynamics must be considered
At BDC, piston has effectively zero
velocity
During reversion of piston, flow
velocities are initially low; hence, the
loss due to piston movement is small
Can take advantage of the high speed
momentumof inlet air flow to continue
to charge cylinder: IVC occurs after BDC
(180)
Momentum effect depends on length
and diameter of intake runner.
Must consider momentum when
specifying valve timing:
Low engine speeds (rpm) dictate earlier
closing (closer to BDC)
High engine speeds dictate later closing
May get backflow if improper timing:
loss in fresh charge back through inlet
valve
RAM effect: high speed
momentum of air flow continues
to charge cylinder as piston moves
from BDC
BDC
1 - 47
Exhaust Fluid Dynamics Lift Effect
Why not follow same methodology
as intake for exhaust by opening
after BDC?
Will do a good job purging the
cylinder
However, now performing negative
work by using the piston to push
out the exhaust gas
There is a thermodynamic advantage
by opening the exhaust valve early
Large pressure drop across valve
causes significant blowdown and
purging of combustion gases from
cylinder ~ 5-10 bar
Open during late expansion after
most of the combustion has occurred
to take advantage of pressure drop
Balance between expansion, exhaust
(breathing) and compression work
BDC
~ 1 bar
There exists a balance between
expansion work and purging of the
exhaust gases during blowdown
process
1 - 48
Overlap Period
When both the intake and exhaust valves
are open there may be situations of
backflow into the intake port from the
exhaust side
Is this desirable?
It may be depending on what you want to
accomplish
EGR reduces NO
x
emissions and may be
used for part-load operation
Internal (i-EGR) or External (e-EGR)
Exhaust Gas Recirculation
The fact that p
intake
in an SI engine is normally
below p
exhaust
accentuates the backflow
process, especially at idle
This decreases volumetric efficiency even
more than for engines with no overlap.
This is why race engines with large
overlap idle so poorly as shown on next
slide
p
exhaust
> p
cylinder
> p
intake
i-EGR
e-EGR
1 - 49
Four Stroke Valve Timing: Conventional vs. Formula SAE
High-speed timing (12,000 rpm)
Use momentum of air intake to
close extremely late
Early blowdown because of high
engine speed (time/breathing)
Poor idling capabilities
A single set of valve timings
will not work for all engines
and all desired conditions
Conventional Engine
Formula SAE Engine
IVO
IVO
IVC
IVC
EVO
EVO
EVC
EVC
More overlap to charge (make
sure all exhaust gases leave
the cylinder)
1 - 50
Two-Stroke Scavenging Methods
Loop scavenging
No valvetrain required
Possibility of short
circuiting air through the
exhaust ports
Uniflow scavenging
Improved volumetric
efficiency relative to loop
scavenging
More complicated design
(exhaust valve and
mechanism)
Crank scavenging
See slide 1-28
Loop Scavenging Uniflow Scavenging
EXHAUST VALVE
marineengineeringonline.com
1 - 51
Helps push out
exhaust gases
Threat of losing
fresh mass
Short-circuiting can
occur during this time
1 - 52
Chapter 1.4: Introduction
Engine Classification (contd)
1 - 53
Engine Classification (Contd)
a. Applications
b. Basic Engine Design
c. Working Cycle
d. Method of Breathing
e. Valve or Port Design
f. Fuels
g. Method of Mixture Preparation,
Ignition and Combustion
h. Method of Load Control
1 - 54
f. Fuels
Gasoline
Diesel
Natural Gas, LPG
Alcohols (methanol, ethanol)
Synthetic diesel
Bio-diesel
Dual Fuel
Gas to Liquid / Coal to Liquid
Hydrogen
1 - 55
Fuel Choices
Crunching the Numbers on Alternative Fuels Popular Mechanics
1 - 56
Fuel Air Mixture Preliminaries
CH
2
+ 3/2 * O
2
+ 3.76N
2
] CO
2
+ H
2
O + 5.64 N
2
FUEL AIR PRODUCTS
moles
mass
(12+2) + 3/2 [ 32 + 3.76 (28) ]
14 + 206
CHEMICALLY CORRECT (STOICHIOMETRIC) MIXTURE
(F/A) Stoich = 14/206 = 0.068 or (A/F) Stoich = 14.7
Relative Measures
ST
A F
A F
) / (
/
|
ST
F A
F A
) / (
/

Fuel Air
Equivalence ratio
Air Fuel
Equivalence ratio
7 . 1 6 . 0 < <|
6 . 0 7 . 1 > >
Flammability Range
Lean Lean Rich Rich
1 - 57
MIT Laboratory for Energy and the Environment
g. Methods of Mixture Preparation, Ignition and
Combustion
SI
Homogeneous Mixture
Spark Ignition
CI (Diesel)
Stratified Mixture
Compression Ignition
HCCI
Homogeneous Mixture
Compression Ignition
SIDI
Homogeneous or
Stratified Mixture
Spark Ignition
Spark Ignited (SI)
Compression Ignited (CI)
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) also commonly referred to as Low Temperature Combustion (LTC)
Spark Ignited Direct Injection (SIDI) also known as Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)
MITSUBISHI GDI
1 - 58
g. Methods of Mixture Preparation, Ignition and
Combustion
1. The CI process begins with auto-ignition and transitions to a non-premixed flame
2. SIDI (late): Late injection is used to shorten fuel residence times, reducing the amount of fuel air mixing
prior to combustion
3. SIDI (early): Early injection is used to lengthen fuel residence times, allowing for more fuel air mixing
before combustion
Engine
Type
Mixture
Preparation
Ignition Method Combustion
SI Homogeneous Spark Premixed Flame
CI (Diesel) Stratified Compression Non-Premixed Flame
1
SIDI (late)
2
Stratified Spark Premixed Flame
SIDI (early)
3
Nearly
Homogeneous
Spark Premixed Flame
HCCI Homogeneous Compression Auto-Ignition
1 - 59
Stratified Mixture Preparation Methods
Stratified Mixture Preparation Methods
Indirect Injection (IDI)
Direct Injection
Engine
Type
Mixture
Preparation
Ignition Method Combustion
SI Homogeneous Spark Premixed Flame
CI (Diesel) Stratified Compression Non-Premixed Flame
SIDI (late) Stratified Spark Premixed Flame
SIDI (early) Nearly
Homogeneous
Spark Premixed Flame
HCCI Homogeneous Compression Auto-Ignition
1 - 60
Indirect Injection (IDI) for diesels
Antiquated system used in pre-
chamber CI engines
Fuel only goes into pre-chamber
where there is a great amplification
of turbulence
Glow plug used to warm-up small
chamber for cold starts (resistance
heating element)
Relatively quiet compared to direct
injection (following slides)
Subject to losses in heat transfer and
power
Note tortuous path of fluid flow
during combustion
Fuel economy not as good because
of throttling losses and combustion
is delayed
Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 1982
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~ 300 bar
1 - 61
Methods of Direct Diesel Fuel Injection
Unit Injector
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Common Rail
BMW World
Fuel gets
pressurized,
mechanical
system to inject
fuel. Only
about one pulse
allowed.
Have reservoir of fuel at high pressure (1500-2000 bar).
Can tap from reservoir to provide multiple pulses of
different amounts of fuel at different times. Minimizes
soot, noise and can maximize power output.
1 - 62
Methods of Fuel Injection for SIDI Engines
Similar to the common rail
fuel injection
lower injection pressures, on
the order of a few hundred
bar
Spark Plug
Fuel Injector
motivemag.com
1 - 63
Homogeneous Mixture Preparation Methods
Homogeneous Mixture Preparation Methods
Carburetion
Port Fuel Injection
Early Direct Injection (DI)
Engine
Type
Mixture
Preparation
Ignition Method Combustion
SI Homogeneous Spark Premixed Flame
CI (Diesel) Stratified Compression Non-Premixed Flame
SIDI (late) Stratified Spark Premixed Flame
SIDI (early) Nearly
Homogeneous
Spark Premixed Flame
HCCI Homogeneous Compression Auto-Ignition
1 - 64
Carburetion
Antiquated system used on SI engines
As piston moves downward while intake
valve is open, a partial vacuum is created
inside the cylinder
Due to pressure difference between
ambient and cylinder, flow is created in the
intake system
This flow through a carburetor draws fuel
out of a float bowl which is around the
same pressure as the incoming air
The fuel vaporizes and mixes with air to
create charge
Throttle plate (controlled by fuel pedal)
adjusts the pressure difference in the
intake system
Had problems during idling (very low
airflow)
Choke used to flood engine for starting
purposes; another restrictor in the system
upstream of throat area to introduce
greater pressure drop between fuel and
venturi
Had issues when operated at altitude
Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual
~ atmospheric
partial vacuum
piston movement
causes the vacuum
Venturi causes
velocity increase and
by Bernoullis
principle
(conservation of
energy) pressure
must decrease
Fuel flow rate
depends on
pressure gradient
(left in hands of
nature)
1 - 65
Port Fuel Injection
Motivation for Port Fuel Injection
Torque and Horsepower
Improved fuel distribution
WOT enrichment closer to
optimum A/F
Open intake valve injection
possible for WOT torque
improvement
Emissions
Improved air/fuel control during
warm-up & stabilized engine
Closed intake valve injection
possible
Individual cylinder adaptive
learning reduces C-T-C variation
Fuel pressures around 100 psi
Mechanical system illustrated,
however all electrical now
Computer decides when and how
long to inject fuel
Readers Digest (1981), Complete Car Care Manual
1 - 66
Combustion in Homogeneous SI and SIDI Engines
BIG IDEA:
Homogeneous mixture composition
Control Heat Release Rate (HRR) through flame propagation
Engine
Type
Mixture
Preparation
Ignition Method Combustion
SI Homogeneous Spark Premixed Flame
CI (Diesel) Stratified Compression Non-Premixed Flame
SIDI (late) Stratified Spark Premixed Flame
SIDI (early) Nearly
Homogeneous
Spark Premixed Flame
HCCI Homogeneous Compression Auto-Ignition
1 - 67
Zigler, B., An Experimental Investigation of the Properties of Low Temperature Combustion in an Optical
Engine, PhD Thesis in Mechanical Engineering, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (2008)
Spark
+0.0 deg +4.2 deg +8.4 deg +12.6 deg +16.8 deg
Premixed Flame Propagation
(time measured below in degrees)
False Color Images of Premixed Flame
Propagation in an SI Engine
View of Cylinder Head Through
Optical Window in Piston Crown
Burned Gas
SI Combustion
Chamber Cross
Section
Fuel Air
Mixture
(Unburned)
Piston
Propagating
Thin Flame
1 - 68
Combustion in CI (Diesel) Engines
1. The CI process typically begins with auto-ignition and transitions to a non-premixed flame
BIG IDEA:
Use overall very lean mixture for high thermal efficiency
Locally, the mixture can range from lean to rich
Control Heat Release Rate (HRR) by mixing air with fuel
Fast enough to use up all of the air
Slow enough to avoid diesel knock fast autoignition
Engine
Type
Mixture
Preparation
Ignition Method Combustion
SI Homogeneous Spark Premixed Flame
CI (Diesel) Stratified Compression Non-Premixed Flame
1
SIDI (late) Stratified Spark Premixed Flame
SIDI (early) Nearly
Homogeneous
Spark Premixed Flame
HCCI Homogeneous Compression Auto-Ignition
1 - 69
High Pressure Direct Injection CI Engine
Attempt is to take advantage of fluid
mechanics, shape of piston and high
pressure injection to induce a good
mixing of fuel with air
Wherever fuel sprays emerge
from fuel injector, will be
extremely rich (A/F = 0) and
soot can form
Geometric
compression ratios in
the range of 12 to 24
Can auto ignite lean overall mixtures
(A/F = 100:1 is possible). There are
pockets of concentrated fuel/air
mixture around injector will be plenty
rich in fuel to trigger autoignition.
Load is controlled by
amount of fuel injected,
not by throttle plate
Never goes stoichiometric
because of emissions
issues (A/F ~ 30:1 max)
1 - 70
Combustion in a Direct Injection CI Engine
Combustion happens over a range
of fuel/air mixtures and
temperatures. There will be
locations where there is too much
fuel (soot), there will also be
pockets where we have high
temperatures and excess O
2
(NO
x
)
http://picasaweb.google.com
Non-Premixed
Flame , ~ 1
Rich Mix
~ 4
Soot
Flynn, P. F., et al. (1999) Diesel combustion: An integrated view
combining laser diagnostics, chemical kinetics, and empirical
validation. SAE Paper No. 1999-01-0509
Conceptual Model of Mixing
Controlled Diesel Combustion
Fuel
=
DI Diesel Fuel Spray Movie
(no sound)
DI Diesel Temperature Evolution
(no sound)
1 - 71
Combustion in Stratified SIDI Engines
BIG IDEA:
Use overall very lean mixture for high thermal efficiency
Locally, the mixture can range from lean to rich
Arrange fuel air mixture near spark plug to be
stoichiometric (A/F = 14.6) for best ignition.
Control Heat Release Rate (HRR) through flame
propagation
Engine
Type
Mixture
Preparation
Ignition Method Combustion
SI Homogeneous Spark Premixed Flame
CI (Diesel) Stratified Compression Non-Premixed Flame
SIDI (late) Stratified Spark Premixed Flame
SIDI (early) Nearly
Homogeneous
Spark Premixed Flame
HCCI Homogeneous Compression Auto-Ignition
1 - 72
Gasoline Direct Injection
SIDI with gasoline fuel
Used to take advantage of fuel economy benefits
of globally lean mixtures at low load
Nearly premixed, stoichiometric operation at
high load through early injection
Control engine through fuel injection not throttle
plate to eliminate pumping loss (more the
vacuum, the more the loss)
Can get 100% of fuel in cylinder versus PFI
Vaporization of fuel in cylinder takes energy away
from air which lowers temperature can go to
higher compression ratios
Homogeneous mixture at WOT is harder to create
Still use spark plug, so mixture composition
around plug is crucial
Use of intake air motion and fuel injection on
modified piston shape to get stoichiometric
mixture around spark plug at desired time
Misfire is a strong likelihood for this engine, if
mixture is too lean or too rich
Premixed flame will propagate through fuel-air
mixtures ranging from locally lean to locally rich
Can have issues with catalytic exhaust
aftertreatment
What about knock and this design?
Mitsubishi GDI
Stratified charge engine that can
be run at global A/F of 40 or 50:1
Compression ratios range from
around 10 to 15
1 - 73
Gasoline Direct Injection Modes
Stratified
(Lean / Part Load)
Homogeneous
(Stoichiometric / Full Load)
1 - 74
Combustion in Homogeneous Charge
Compression Ignition (HCCI) Engines
BIG IDEA:
Use overall and locally ultra lean/dilute mixtures for high thermal
efficiency and low burned gas temperature
Combustion is controlled by auto-ignition (chemically controlled) and
lacks flames
Engine
Type
Mixture
Preparation
Ignition Method Combustion
SI Homogeneous Spark Premixed Flame
CI (Diesel) Stratified Compression Non-Premixed Flame
SIDI (late) Stratified Spark Premixed Flame
SIDI (early) Nearly
Homogeneous
Spark Premixed Flame
HCCI Homogeneous Compression Auto-Ignition
1 - 75
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)
A Gasoline-Powered HCCI Hybrid?
Currently a promising research concept limited to low loads; use bigger engines or
boost for higher specific power
Combination of premixed and CI
Homogeneous mixtures prevent generation of soot
No spark autoignition of charge due to high temperature near TDC
Use higher compression ratios for efficiency
Use lean mixtures (similar to CI) and/or large amounts of EGR (Dilute mixture) for Low
Temperature Combustion. This significantly lowers NO
x
emissions.
Nearly constant volume combustion which leads to extreme rate of pressure rise
Compression ratios range from 6 to 21 with ignition controlled by charge temperature
Use cooled or hot EGR to control charge temperature and hence ignition timing
(variable valve timing)
Subject to low combustion efficiencies leading to higher amounts of CO and HC
1 - 76
Variable Valve Timing (VVT) and HCCI
BIG IDEA
Adjust valve timings to get proper amount of
HOT residuals at beginning of compression and
the right charge temperature to control
IGNITION TIMING near TDC
Rebreathing: draw back residuals
(EGR) from the Exhaust port with
extra EV opening event
Recompression: prevent burned gas
from leaving the cylinder with
negative valve overlap (NVO)
0 180
720 540
LIFT
CA deg
EXH 1 INT
EXH 2
0 180
720 540
LIFT
CA deg
EXH INT
POSITIVE
OVERLAP
0 180
720 540
LIFT
CA deg
EXH INT
NEGATIVE
OVERLAP
1 - 77
h. Method of Load Control
Throttling of fuel and air flow together (most current SI systems)
Most pumping losses
Control of fuel flow alone (typical diesel, HCCI)
No throttling
Lowest pumping losses
Variable Valve Timing (VVT) (SI, HCCI)
Controls air flow without throttling (lower pumping losses)
More expensive
1 - 78
Load Control via Throttling
Regulates load on the majority of current
production SI engines that operate
stoichiometrically ( = 1)
The throttle position controls the flow area
and p across the throttle plate
density of the air within the intake
manifold and cylinder varies with p
across the throttle plate
Trapped air mass varies with air density
Backflows of exhaust also occur with
throttling, effecting trapped air mass
p adjusted in part with throttle position
Because A/F ratio is fixed (~14.7:1) for
stoichiometric operation, the fuel delivery
scales with the mass of air trapped in the
cylinder
Undesirable because of pumping losses at
low and mid loads
new-car365.blogspot.com
P
ambient
P
intake
p
RT
= p= p
ambient
- p
intake
air
m
air
m
1 - 79
Chapter 1.5: Impact of the IC Engine on Society
1 - 80
U.S. Energy and Petroleum Consumption Trends
U.S. Energy Information Administration/Annual Energy Review 2009
1 - 81
Energy Balance
Green Car Congress
Chevron Products Company
Heat balance for a diesel engine
* All values approximate
These are called Sankey-diagrams where the width of the
arrow indicates the relative flow
1 - 82
Atmospheric Issues Facing Society
Problematic Emissions
Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur
(NO
x
/SO
x
)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Unburned Hydrocarbons (HC)
Particulate Matter (PM)
Acid Rain, Smog and Tropospheric O
3
Acidification of lakes and soil damage
Forest die-back
Greenhouse Gases (CO
2
/N
2
O/CH
4
)
Inevitable result of burning fossil fuels
Can only be restricted by reducing fuel
consumption
Cannot sell cars unless they meet
emission requirements!
Foust (2007)
UM (2005)
Acid Rain
HC + NO + hv
= SMOG
1 - 83
Internal Combustion Engine as a Source
Large Contributor to Global
Emissions
Primary people and commerce mover in
the U.S. and the potential for more*
Most NO
x
Forms in Lean Mixtures
Needs oxygen and high temperatures
Once formed it is hard to remove
CO and HC Forms in Rich Mixtures
Not enough oxygen to complete reaction
PM Formed Mainly in D.I. Engines
Produced in heterogeneous charge rich
fuel pockets
Most Fuels Contain Sulfur
Burns et al., Scientific
American (2002)
Diffusion
Burn Phase
in C.I.
Engine
Adapted from Monkhouse et al. (2000)
* Currently: 6.5 billion people in the world and only 12% own an automobile.
By 2020: 7.5 billion people and up to 15% (1.1 billion cars)
1 - 84
UNITED STATES, FEDERAL
(g/mi)
Regulation Year HC CO NOx PM
1970 4.1 34
1973 3.0 28 3.1
1975 1.5 15 3.1
1981 0.41 3.4 1.0
Tier I (g) 1994 0.25 3.4 0.4 0.08
Tier I (d) 1994 0.25 3.4 1.0 0.08
Tier II, Bin 8 2009 0.143 4.2 0.20 0.02
Tier II, Bin 5 2009 0.108 4.2 0.07 0.01
Tier II, Bin 1 2009 0 0 0 0
EUROPE
(g/km)
HC+NO
x
CO NO
x
PM
Euro II 1996 0.90 0.1
Euro III 2000 0.56 0.64 0.5 0.05
Euro IV 2005 0.30 0.50 0.25 0.025
Euro V proposed 0.25 0.50 0.2 0.005
Source www.epa.gov
Exhaust Emission Certification Standards: Federal Test Procedure: Passenger Cars
Automotive Emission Regulation Trends
Tier II Emissions
Vehicles can be made
with emissions over a
range of bins, however,
the manufacturers fleet
conform to an average
level (around Bin 5)
Europe NO
x
standards are
about 6x the US
standards. More
conscience
about
greenhouse
gases, hence fuel
economy
1 - 85
Detroit Diesel's Series 60 Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine (2007)
Normalized numbers and approach are similar to
passenger cars
Continuous variation of
speeds and loads to
mimic operating cycle
* Transient tests were met, but
engine calibration shifted during
operation at steady-state points.
EPA fines lead to Consent Decree.
*
EPA Heavy-Duty Engine Emissions Standards
1 - 86
Comparison of Four Generations of Cars
Vehicle Characteristics 1921 Ford
Model T
1979 Chevrolet
Chevette
1988 Chevrolet
Cavalier
2005 Chevrolet
Aveo
HC g/mile 5.49 0.67 0.16 0.0568
CO g/mile 41.03 8.3 1.69 1.3428
NO
x
g/mile 2.2 0.71 0.15 0.091
Test weight class kg (lb) 908 (2000) 1022 (2250) 1248 (2750) 1078 (2376)
Rated Power kW (hp) 15 (20) 52 (70) 86 (115) 77 (103)
Power Density (kW/kg) 0.016 0.051 0.069 0.071
Transmission M2 M4 M5 M5
Urban economy miles / gal
25 29
20 27
Highway economy miles / gal 29 35
Note that emissions have been reduced significantly for a similar weight vehicle while
increasing the power, power density and maintaining or increasing the fuel economy.
The real challenge for the future is increasing the fuel economy
while maintaining the low emission standards. Fuel economy
MUST get better, it CANNOT get worse.
1 - 87
Potter (2006), Diesel Technology Challenges & Opportunities for North America