Overview

There are two fundamental types of antennas, which, with reference to a specific three
dimensional (usually horizontal or vertical) plane are:

1. either omni-directional (radiate equally in the plane)

2. directional (radiates more in one direction than in the other).

All antennas radiate (or emanate) some energy in all directions in free space but careful
construction results in large directivity in certain directions and negligible energy
radiated in other directions.

By adding additional conducting rods or coils (called elements) and varying their length,
spacing, and orientation (or changing the direction of the antenna beam), an antenna with
specific desired properties can be created, such as a Yagi-Uda Antenna (often
abbreviated to "Yagi"). An "antenna array" is a plurality of active antennas coupled to a
common source or load to produce a directive radiation pattern. Usually the spatial
relationship also contributes to the directivity of the antenna. By the use of term "active
element" it is intended to describe an element whose energy output is modified due to the
presence of a source of energy in the element (other than the mere signal energy which
passes through the circuit) or an element in which the energy output from a source of
energy is controlled by the signal input. The "antenna lead-in" is the conductive means
(as for example a transmission line or feed line) for conveying the signal energy between
the active antenna and the signal source. It extends directly from the active antenna
towards the source. The "antenna feed" refers to the components between the active
antenna and an amplifier. The "antenna counterpoise" is the structure of conductive
material most closely associated with ground but insulated from (or capacitively coupled
to) the natural ground. It aids in the function of the natural ground, particularly where
variations (or limitations) of the characteristics of the natural ground interfere with its
proper function. Such structure are usually connected to the terminal of the signal
receiver or source opposing the active antenna terminal.

A "antenna component" is a portion of the antenna performing a distinct function and

limited for use in an antenna, as for example, a reflector, director, or active antenna.
"Parasitic elements" are usually metallic conductive structures which reradiates into free
space impinging electromagnetic radiation coming from or going to the active antenna.
The "electromagnetic wave refractor" is a structure which is shaped or positioned to
delay or accelerate transmitted electromagnetic waves, passing through such structure, an
amount which varies over the wave front. The refractor alters the direction of
propagation of the waves emitted from the structure with respect to the waves impinging
on the structure. It can alternatively bring the wave to a focus or alter the wave front in
other ways, such as to convert a spherical wave front to a planar wave front (or vice
versa). The velocity of the wave radiated have a component which is in the same
direction ("director") or in the opposite direction ("reflector") that of the velocity of the
impinging wave. A "director" is usually a metallic conductive structure which reradiates
into free space impinging electromagnetic radiation coming from or going to the active
antenna, the velocity of the reradiated wave having a component in the direction of
velocity of the impinging wave. The director modifies the radiation pattern of the active
antenna and there is no significant potential relationship between the active antenna and
this conductive structure. A "reflector" is usually a metallic conductive structure (e.g.,
screen, rod or plate) which reradiates back into free space impinging electromagnetic
radiation coming from or going to the active antenna. The velocity of the returned wave
having a component in a direction opposite to the direction of velocity of the impinging
wave. The reflector modifies the radiation of the active antenna. There is no significant
potential relationship between the active antenna and this conductive structure.

An "antenna coupling network" is a passive network (which may be any combination of

a resistive, inductive or capacitive circuit(s)) for transmitting the signal energy between
the active antenna and a source (or receiver) of such signal energy. Typically, antennas
are designed to operate in a relatively narrow frequency range. The design criteria for
receiving and transmitting antennas differ slightly, but generally an antenna can receive
and transmit equally well. This property is called "reciprocity".

The vast majority of antennas are simple vertical rods a quarter of a wavelength long.
Such antennas are simple in construction, usually inexpensive, and both radiate in and
receive from all horizontal directions (omnidirectional). One limitation of this antenna is
that it does not radiate or receive in the direction in which the rod points. This region is
called the antenna blind cone or null. Antennas have practical use for the transmission
and reception of radio frequency signals (radio, TV, etc.), which can theroretically travel
over great distances at the speed of light (the true velocity depends on the transmission
medium over which it passes). These signals can also pass through nonconducting walls
(although often there is a variable signal reduction depending on the type of wall, and
natural rock can be very reflective to radio signals).

Antenna parameters
There are several critical parameters that affect an antenna's performance and can be
adjusted during the design process. These are resonant frequency, impedance, gain,
aperture or radiation pattern, polarization, efficiency and bandwidth. Transmit antennas
may also have a maximum power rating, and receive antennas differ in their noise
rejection properties.

Resonant frequency

The "resonant frequency" and "electrical resonance" is related to the electrical length of
the antenna. The electrical length is usually the physical length of the wire multiplied by
the ratio of the speed of wave propagation in the wire. Typically an antenna is tuned for a
specific frequency, and is effective for a range of frequencies usually centered on that
resonant frequency. However, the other properties of the antenna (especially radiation
pattern and impedance) change with frequency, so the antenna's resonant frequency may
merely be close to the center frequency of these other more important properties.
Antennas can be made resonant on harmonic frequencies with lengths that are fractions
of the target wavelength. Some antenna designs have multiple resonant frequencies, and
some are relatively effective over a very broad range of frequencies. The most commonly
known type of wide band aerial is the logarithmic or log periodic, but its gain is usually
much lower than that of a specific or narrower band aerial.

Gain

In antenna design, "gain" is the logarithm of the ratio of the intensity of an antenna's
radiation pattern in the direction of strongest radiation to that of a reference antenna. If
the reference antenna is an isotropic antenna, the gain is often expressed in units of dBi
(decibels over isotropic). For example, a dipole antenna has a gain of 2.14 dBi [1]. Often,
the dipole antenna is used as the reference (since a perfect isotropic reference is
impossible to build), in which case the gain of the antenna in question is measured in
dBd (decibels over dipole).

The gain of an antenna is a passive phenomena - power is not added by the antenna, but
simply redistributed to provide more radiated power in a certain direction than would be
transmitted by an isotropic antenna. If an antenna has a positive gain in some directions,
it must have a negative gain in other directions as energy is conserved by the antenna.
The gain that can be achieved by an Antenna is therefore trade-off between the range of
directions that must be covered by an Antenna and the gain of the antenna. For example,
a dish antenna on a spacecraft has a very large gain, but only over a very small range of
directions - it must be accurately pointed at earth - but a radio transmitter has a very
small gain as it is required to radiate in all directions.

For dish-type antennas, gain is proportional to the aperture (reflective area) and surface
accuracy of the dish, as well as the frequency being transmitted/received. In general, a
larger aperture provides a higher gain. Also, the higher the frequency, the higher the
gain, but surface inaccuracies lead to a larger degradation of gain at higher frequencies.
"Aperture", and "radiation pattern" are closely related to gain. Aperture is the shape of
the "beam" cross section in the direction of highest gain, and is two-dimensional.
(Sometimes aperture is expressed as the radius of the circle that approximates this cross
section or the angle of the cone.) Radiation pattern is the three-dimensional plot of the
gain, but usually only the two-dimensional horizontal and vertical cross sections of the
radiation pattern are considered. Antennas with high gain typically show side lobes in
the radiation pattern. Side lobes are peaks in gain other than the main lobe (the "beam").
Side lobes detract from the antenna quality whenever the system is being used to
determine the direction of a signal, as in radar systems and reduce gain in the main lobe
by distributing the power.

Bandwidth

The "bandwidth" of an antenna is the range of frequencies over which it is effective,

usually centered around the resonant frequency. The bandwidth of an antenna may be
increased by several techniques, including using thicker wires, replacing wires with
cages to simulate a thicker wire, tapering antenna components (like in a feed horn), and
combining multiple antennas into a single assembly and allowing the natural impedance
to select the correct antenna. Small antennas are usually preferred for convenience, but
there is a fundamental limit relating bandwidth, size and efficiency.

Impedance

"Impedance" is analogous to refractive index in optics. As the electric wave travels

through the different parts of the antenna system (radio, feed line, antenna, free space) it
may encounter differences in impedance. At each interface, depending on the impedance
match, some fraction of the wave's energy will reflect back to the source, forming a
standing wave in the feed line. The ratio of maximum power to minimum power in the
wave can be measured and is called the standing wave ratio (SWR). A SWR of 1:1 is
ideal. A SWR of 1.5:1 is considered to be marginally acceptable in low power
applications where power loss is more critical, although an SWR as high as 6:1 may still
be usable with the right equipment. Minimizing impedance differences at each interface
(impedance matching) will reduce SWR and maximize power transfer through each part
of the antenna system.

Complex impedance of an antenna is related to the electrical length of the antenna at the
wavelength in use. The impedance of an antenna can be matched to the feed line and
radio by adjusting the impedance of the feed line, using the feed line as an impedance
transformer. More commonly, the impedance is adjusted at the load (see below) with an
antenna tuner, a balun, a matching transformer, matching networks composed of
inductors and capacitors, or matching sections such as the gamma match.

Polarization

The "polarization" of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field (E-plane) of the
radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical structure
of the antenna and by its orientation. It has nothing in common with antenna
directionality terms: "horizontal", "vertical" and "circular". Thus, a simple straight wire
antenna will have one polarization when mounted vertically, and a different polarization
when mounted horizontally. "Electromagnetic wave polarization filters" are structures
which can be employed to acts directly on the electromagnetic wave to filter out wave
energy of an undesired polarization and to pass wave energy of a desired polarization.

Reflections generally affect polarization. For radio waves the most important reflector is
the ionosphere - signals which reflect from it will have their polarization changed
unpredictably. For signals which are reflected by the ionosphere, polarization cannot be
relied upon. For line-of-sight communications for which polarization can be relied upon,
it can make a large difference in signal quality to have the transmitter and receiver using
the same polarization; many tens of dB difference are commonly seen and this is more
than enough to make the difference between reasonable communication and a broken
link.

Polarization is largely predictable from antenna construction, but especially in directional

antennas, the polarization of side lobes can be quite different from that of the main
propagation lobe. For radio antennas, polarization corresponds to the orientation of the
radiating element in an antenna. A vertical omnidirectional WiFi antenna will have
vertical polarization (the most common type). An exception is a class of elongated
waveguide antennas in which vertically placed antennas are horizontally polarized. Many
commercial antennas are marked as to the polarization of their emitted signals.

Polarization is the sum of the E-plane orientations over time projected onto an imaginary
plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the radio wave. In the most general
case, polarization is elliptical (the projection is oblong), meaning that the antenna varies
over time in the polarization of the radio waves it is emitting. Two special cases are
linear polarization (the ellipse collapses into a line) and circular polarization (in which
the ellipse varies maximally). In linear polarization the antenna compels the electric field
of the emitted radio wave to a particular orientation. Depending on the orientation of the
antenna mounting, the usual linear cases are horizontal and vertical polarization. In
circular polarization, the antenna continuously varies the electric field of the radio wave
through all possible values of its orientation with regard to the Earth's surface. Circular
polarizations, like elliptical ones, are classified as right-hand polarized or left-hand
polarized using a "thumb in the direction of the propagation" rule. Optical researchers
use the same rule of thumb, but pointing it in the direction of the emitter, not in the
direction of propagation, and so are opposite to radio engineers' use.

In practice, regardless of confusing terminology, it is important that linearly polarized

antennas be matched, lest the received signal strength be greatly reduced. So horizontal
should be used with horizontal and vertical with vertical. Intermediate matchings will
lose some signal strength, but not as much as a complete mismatch. Transmitters
mounted on vehicles with large motional freedom commonly use circularly polarized
antennas so that there will never be a complete mismatch with signals from other
sources. In the case of radar, this is often reflections from rain drops.
Efficiency

"Efficiency" is the ratio of power actually radiated to the power put into the antenna
terminals. A dummy load may have a SWR of 1:1 but an efficiency of 0, as it absorbs all
power and radiates heat but not RF energy, showing that SWR alone is not an effective
measure of an antenna's efficiency. Radiation in an antenna is caused by radiation
resistance which can only be measured as part of total resistance including loss
resistance. Loss resistance usually results in heat generation rather than radiation, and
therefore, reduces efficiency.

Overview of antenna parameters

Except for polarization, the SWR is the most easily measured of the parameters above.
Impedance can be measured with specialized equipment, as it relates to the complex
SWR. Measuring radiation pattern requires a sophisticated setup including significant
clear space (enough to put the sensor into the antenna's far field, or an anechoic chamber
designed for antenna measurements), careful study of experiment geometry, and
specialized measurement equipment that rotates the antenna during the measurements.
The distance is the space between two points, which may be immediately juxtaposed or
widely spaced.

Bandwidth depends on the overall effectiveness of the antenna, so all of these parameters
must be understood to fully characterize the bandwidth capabilities of an antenna.
However, in practice, bandwidth is typically determined by looking only at SWR, i.e., by
finding the frequency range over which the SWR is less than a given value. Bandwidth
over which an antenna exhibits a particular radiation pattern is also important, for in
practical use the performance of an antenna at the extremes of an assigned frequency
band is important.

Transmission and reception

All of these parameters are expressed in terms of a transmission antenna, but are
identically applicable to a receiving antenna, due to reciprocity. Impedance, however, is
not applied in an obvious way; for impedance, the impedance at the load (where the
power is consumed) is most critical. For a transmitting antenna, this is the antenna itself.
For a receiving antenna, this is at the (radio) receiver rather than at the antenna. Tuning is
done by adjusting the length of an electrically long linear antenna to alter the electrical
resonance of the antenna.

Antenna tuning is done by adjusting an inductance or capacitance combined with the

active antenna (but distinct and separate from the the active antenna). The inductance or
capacitance provides the reactance which combines with the inherent reactance of the
active antenna to establish a resonance in a circuit including the active antenna. The
established resonance being at a frequency other than the natural electrical resonant
frequency of the active antenna. Adjustment of the inductance or capacitance changes
this resonance.
Antennas used for transmission have a maximum power rating, beyond which heating,
arcing or sparking may occur in the components, which may cause them to be damaged
or destroyed. Raising this maximum power rating usually requires larger and heavier
components, which may require larger and heavier supporting structures. Of course, this
is only a concern for transmitting antennas; the power received by an antenna rarely
exceeds the microwatt range.

Antennas designed specifically for reception might be optimized for noise rejection
capabilities. An "antenna shield" is a conductive or low reluctance structure (such as a
wire, plate or grid) which is adapted to be placed in the vicinity of an antenna to reduce,
as by dissipation through a resistance or by conduction to ground, undesired
electromagnetic radiation, or electric or magnetic fields, which are directed toward the
active antenna from an external source or which emanate from the active antenna. Other
methods to optimized for noise rejection can be done by selecting a narrow bandwidth so
that noise from other frequencies is rejected, or selecting a specific radiation pattern to
reject noise from a specific direction, or by selecting a polarization different from the
noise polarization, or by selecting an antenna that favors either the electric or magnetic
field.

For instance, an antenna to be used for reception of low frequencies (below about ten
megahertz) will be subject to both man made noise from motors and other machinery,
and from natural sources such as lightning. Successfully rejecting these forms of noise is
an important antenna feature. A small coil of wire with many turns is more able to reject
such noise than a vertical antenna. However, the vertical will radiate much more
effectively on transmit, where extraneous signals are not a concern.

Basic antenna models

There are many variations of antennas that have various configuartions. These
configurations contain space or medium which tends to confine the energy within
specified boundaries along a predetermined path (known as "restricted space"), such as
wave guides, hollow resonators, and conductive wires. Below are a few common models.

A multiband rotary directional antenna for amateur radio use

• The isotropic radiator is a purely theoretical antenna that radiates equally in all
directions. It is considered to be a point in space with no dimensions and no mass. This
antenna cannot physically exist, but is useful as a theoretical model for comparison with
all other antennas. Most antennas' gains are measured with reference to an isotropic
radiator, and are rated in dBi (decibels with respect to an isotropic radiator).

• The dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in opposite directions arranged
either horizontally or vertically, with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the
other end hanging free in space. Since this is the simplest practical antenna, it is also
used as reference model for other antennas; gain with respect to a dipole is labeled as
dBd. Generally, the dipole is considered to be omnidirectional in the plane perpendicular
to the axis of the antenna, but it has deep nulls in the directions of the axis. Variations of
the dipole include the folded dipole, the half wave antenna, the groundplane antenna, the
whip, and the J-pole.

• The Yagi-Uda antenna is a directional variation of the dipole with parasitic

elements added with functionality similar to adding a reflector and lenses (directors) to
focus a filament lightbulb.

• Loop antennas have a continuous conducting path leading from one conductor of
a two-wire transmission line to the other conductor. "Symmetric" loop antennas have a
plane of symmetry running along the feed and through the loop. "Planar" loop antennas
lie in a single plane which also contains the conductors of the feed. "Three-dimensional"
loop antennas have wire which runs in all of the x,y, and z directions. By definition they
are not planar. They may, however, be symmetric about planes which contain the feed.

• The (large) loop antenna is similar to a dipole, except that the ends of the dipole
are connected to form a circle, triangle (delta loop antenna) or square. Typically a loop is
a multiple of a half or full wavelength in circumference. A circular loop gets higher gain
(about 10%) than the other forms of large loop antenna, as gain of this antenna is directly
proportional to the area enclosed by the loop, but circles can be hard to support in a
flexible wire, making squares and triangles much more popular. Large loop antennas are
more immune to localized noise partly due to lack of a need for a groundplane. The large
loop has its strongest signal in the plane of the loop, and nulls in the axis perpendicular to
the plane of the loop.

• The small loop antenna, also called the magnetic loop antenna is a loop of wire
(in other words, both ends of the wire connect to the radio) less than a wavelength in
circumference. Typically, the circumference is less than 1/10 for a receiving loop, and
less than 1/4 for a transmitting loop. Unlike nearly all other antennas in this list, this
antenna detects the magnetic component of the electromagnetic wave. As such, it is less
sensitive to near field electric noise when properly shielded. The received voltage can be
greatly increased by bringing the loop into resonance with a tuning capacitor. The small
loop has a maximum output when the magnetic field is normal to the plane of the loop,
and since this field is transverse to the direction of the wave, has a maximum in the plane
of the loop. This is the same mechanism as the large loop.
• The electrically short antenna is an open-end wire far less than 1/4 wavelength in
length - in other words only one end of the antenna is connected to the radio, and the
other end is hanging free in space. Unlike nearly all other antennas in this list, this
antenna detects only the electric field of the wave instead of the electromagnetic field -
think of the free end of the wire as measuring the voltage of that point in space, as
opposed to measuring both the voltage and the magnetic field. Its receiving aperture
cannot be changed by adding lumped components, but more efficient power transfer can
be achieved by impedance matching with such circuits. Electrically short antennas are
typically used where operating wavelength is large and space is limited, e.g. for mobile
transceivers operating at long wavelengths.

• The parabolic antenna is a special antenna where a reflector dish is used to focus
the signal from a directional antenna feeder. Antennas of this type are commonly found
as Satellite television antennas, Wi-fi / WLAN, radio astronomy, radio-links, mobile
phone backhaul and military tactical radio link -antennas. They are characterized by high
directionality and gain but can only be used at UHF to microwave and higher frequencies
due to dimensions getting too large at lower frequencies.

• The microstrip antenna consists of a patch of metalization on a ground plane.

These are low profile, light weight antennas, most suitable for aerospace and mobile
applications. Because of their low power handling capability, these antennas can be used
in low-power transmitting and receiving applications. Microstrip antennas are the most
commonly used antennas in mobile communications, satellite links, W-LAN and so on
because circuit functions can be directly integrated to the microstrip antenna to form
compact transceivers and spatial power combiners.

• The quad antenna is an array of square loops that vary in size. The quad is related
to the loop in exactly the same way the yagi is related to the dipole. Typically, the quad
needs fewer elements to get the same gain as a yagi. Variations of the quad include the
delta loop antenna which uses a triangle instead of a square, requiring fewer supports for
large wavelength antennas.

• The random wire antenna is simply a very long (greater than one wavelength)
wire with one end connected to the radio and the other in free space, arranged in any way
most convenient for the space available. Folding will reduce effectiveness and make
theoretical analysis extremely difficult. (The added length helps more than the folding
typically hurts.) Typically, a random wire antenna will also require an antenna tuner, as it
might have a random impedance that varies nonlinearly with frequency.

• The Beverage antenna is a form of directional long-wire antenna which uses a

resistive termination at one end and feed from the other.

• The endfire helical antenna is a directional antenna suited for receiving signals
that are either circular polarized or randomly polarized. These are usually used with
satellites, and are frequently used for the driven element on a dish.
• The Phased array antenna is a group of independently fed active elements in
which the relative phases of the respective signals feeding the elements are varied in such
a way that the effective radiation pattern of the array is reinforced in a desired direction
and suppressed in undesired directions. In plain language, this is a directional antenna
that can be aimed without moving any parts.

• Synthetic aperture radar uses a series of observations separated in time and space
to simulate a very large antenna. Interferometry allows the monitor to combine signals
from several radio receivers or a single moving receiver.

• A trailing wire antenna is used by submarines when submerged. These antennas

are designed to pick up transmissions in the low frequency (LF) and very low frequency
(VLF) ranges.

• An evolved antenna refers to an antenna fully or substantially designed using a

computer algorithm based on Darwinian evolution.

• A dielectric resonator is a variation on the conventional antenna in which an

insulator with a large dielectric constant is used to modify the electromagnetic field. It is
claimed that the dielectric contains the antenna's near field and therefore prevents it from
interfering with other nearby antennas or circuits, making it suitable for miniature
equipment such as mobile phones.

• A feed horn is an antenna system that handles the incoming waveform from the
dish to the focal point. It usually comprises of a series of rings with decreasing radius in
order to drive the signal to the polarizer.

How antennas work

Any conducting mass may function as a radiator or collector of radio wave energy and
may act as an antenna. Antennas, more specifically, are passive conducting mass, which
may be in the form of a metallic current conductor, wave guide, or space discharge. This
mass in use is in direct engagement with free space to emit or collect radio wave energy
to or from free space, and is coupled or connected to a source of energy or to a load. To
act as an antenna the mass usually has a particular shape of dimension, or may have
electrical circuit elements, namely, resistance, inductance, or capacity, associated
therewith.

"Scanning" an antenna repeated moves the antenna beam over an area in space, such as
in radar. "Sweeping" an antenna moves the antenna beam repeatedly along a single line
(which may be straight or curved) in space.

The reactive field

Fundamentally, all electromagnetic fields are created by the existence or movement of

electrical charge, and in normal electrical circuits, this charge is exclusively carried by
electrons and protons. Since protons tend to be confined within atoms and move very
little, it is usually only the movement of electrons that needs to be considered.

Since an electric current in a wire consists of a moving cloud of electrons, it follows that
every electric current induces a magnetic field. (Every electron also has its own
permanent electric field called its coulomb field, but this is not observable outside the
circuit because it is canceled by the equal but opposite coulomb field of a nearby proton.)
If the current is constant, it induces a constant magnetic field, and the magnetic field is
proportional to current.

Maxwell's equations predict that a changing magnetic field induces a changing electric
field, so we now have both magnetic and electric fields around the circuit, creating an
electromagnetic field called the reactive field or inductive field. However, when the
current stops, these fields collapse, returning energy to the power supply. The circuit
therefore behaves like a reactive component, either a capacitor or an inductor, which
stores energy temporarily but periodically returns it to the source.

The radiating field

Now consider a current that periodically reverses direction: an alternating current. This
consists of a flow of electrons that must therefore reverse direction, and a change of
direction is an acceleration. Because of the way that electromagnetic fields propagate
through space at the speed of light, an accelerating electrical charge creates
electromagnetic radiation. The result is that energy is continually radiated into space, and
must be replenished from the circuit's power supply. The circuit is now behaving as an
antenna, and is continually converting electrical energy into a radiating field that extends
indefinitely outward.

When the circuit is much shorter than the wavelength of the signal, the rate at which it
radiates energy is proportional to the size of the current, the length of the circuit and the
frequency of the alternations. In most circuits, the product of these three quantities is
small enough that not much energy is radiated, and the result is that the reactive field
dominates the radiating field. When the length of the antenna approaches the wavelength
of the signal, the current along the antenna is no longer uniform and the calculation of
power output becomes more complex.

Practical antennas

Although any circuit can radiate if driven with a signal of high enough frequency, most
practical antennas are specially designed to radiate efficiently at a particular frequency.
An example of an inefficient antenna is the simple Hertzian dipole antenna, which
radiates over wide range of frequencies and is useful for its small size. A more efficient
variation of this is the half-wave dipole, which radiates with high efficiency when the
signal wavelength is twice the electrical length of the antenna.
One of the goals of antenna design is to minimize the reactance of the device so that it
appears as a resistive load. An "antenna inherent reactance" includes not only the
distributed reactance of the active antenna but also the natural reactance due to its
location and surroundings (as for example, the capacity relation inherent in the position
of the active antenna relative to ground). Reactance diverts energy into the reactive field,
which causes unwanted currents that heat the antenna and associated wiring, thereby
wasting energy without contributing to the radiated output. Reactance can be eliminated
by operating the antenna at its resonant frequency, when its capacitive and inductive
reactances are equal and opposite, resulting in a net zero reactive current. If this is not
possible, compensating inductors or capacitors can instead be added to the antenna to
cancel its reactance as far as the source is concerned.

Once the reactance has been eliminated, what remains is a pure resistance, which is the
sum of two parts: the ohmic resistance of the conductors, and the radiation resistance.
Power absorbed by the ohmic resistance becomes waste heat, and that absorbed by the
radiation resistance becomes radiated electromagnetic energy. The greater the ratio of
radiation resistance to ohmic resistance, the more efficient the antenna.

Phase array antennas

Phased array antennas are electrically steerable, which means the physical antenna can be
stationary. This concept can eliminate all the headaches of a gimbal in a radar system, or
keep an antenna locked onto a satellite, when the antenna is mounted on a moving
platform. A phased array receiver can be flush-mounted on the top of a commercial
airplane's fuselage so that all of the happy passengers can receive satellite television!

So far there are not many consumer applications of phased arrays. This is because they
can be quite expensive, due to the need for many microwave phase shifters and their
control signals. On top of the phase shifter expense, phased arrays usually need a low
noise amplifier at each element for receive, and a power amp at each element for
transmit. One consumer market that is developing for phase arrays is satellite television
for vehicles such as RVs. For a couple thousand dollars, your kids can now watch eight
Disney channels, while you tour the painted desert in your Winnebago. Life is good,
especially if it appears on a small screen! Of course, the main driver for all developments
in consumer technology is pornography, in this case, now you and your date can watch
pay-per-view flicks on the Playboy channel from the comfort of your recreational
vehicle!

The physics behind phased arrays are such that the antenna is bidirectional, that is, they
will achieve the same steerable pattern in transmit as well as receive. In many
applications, both transmit and receive systems are needed; the solution to this problem
is known as the transmit/receive module (T/R module), which will be the subject for
another day.
Phase shifters are mostly used in phased array antennas (radar systems). It is well worth
it to step a bit back to have a closer look on the antenna aspect.

An antenna should be viewed as a matching network that takes the power from a
transmission line (50 impedance, for example), and matches it to the free space
"impedance" of 377 . The most critical parameter is the change of VSWR (voltage
standing-wave ratio) with frequency. The pattern usually does not vary much from
acceptable to the start of unacceptable VSWRs (> 2:1). For a given physical antenna
geometric size, the actual radiation pattern varies with frequency.

The antenna pattern depicted in Figure 1 is for a dipole. The maximum gain is
normalized to the outside of the polar plot and the major divisions correspond to 10 dB
change. In this example, the dipole length (in wavelengths) is varied, but the same result
can be obtained by changing frequency with a fixed dipole length. From the figure, it can
be seen that side lobes start to form at 1.25 and the side lobe actually has more gain
than the main beam at 1.5 . Since the radiation pattern changes with frequency, the gain
also changes.

Figure 1. Frequency effects

Figure 2 depicts phase/array effects, which are yet another method for obtaining varied
radiation patterns. In the figure, parallel dipoles are viewed from the end. It can be seen
that varying the phase of the two transmissions can cause the direction of the radiation
pattern to change. This is the concept behind phased array antennas. Instead of having a
system mechanically sweeping the direction of the antenna through space, the phase of
radiating components is varied electronically, producing a moving pattern with no
moving parts. It can also be seen that increasing the number of elements further increases
the directivity of the array. In an array, the pattern does vary considerably with frequency
due to element spacing (measured in wavelengths) and the frequency sensitivity of the
phase shifting networks.

Figure 2. Phase/array effects

A linear phased array with equal spaced elements is easiest to analyze and forms the
basis for most array designs. Figure 3 schematically illustrates a corporate feed linear
array with element spacing d. It is the simplest and is still widely used. By controlling the
phase and amplitude of excitation to each element, as depicted, we can control the
direction and shape of the beam radiated by the array. The phase excitation, (n),
controls the beam pointing angle, 0, in a phased array. To produce a broadside beam,
0=0, requires phase excitation, <(n) = 0. Other scan angles require an excitation, (n)
= nkd sin ( 0), for the nth element where k is the wave number (2 / ). In this manner a
linear phased array can radiate a beam in any scan direction, 0, provided the element
pattern has sufficient beamwidth. The amplitude excitation, An, can be used to control
beam shape and sidelobe levels. Often the amplitude excitation is tapered in a manner
similar to that used for aperture antennas to reduce the sidelobe levels. One of the
problems that can arise with a phased array is insufficient bandwidth, since the phase
shift usually is not obtained through the introduction of additional path length. However,
it should be noted that at broadside the corporate feed does have equal path length and
would have good bandwidth for this scan angle.