Chapter 2 Entropy

2.4 Coding (Binary Codes) Code words Alphabet (Collection of symbols) (FLC) FWL (Fixed word length) (VLC) VWL (Variable word length) Uniquely decodable code FLC (Codes) Decoding (Simpler)

a1 a2 a3 a4

00 01 10 11

a4

a3

a4

00 11 01 10 10 11 01 a1 a2 a3 a2

(Error is localized. Does not affect the other bit stream)

Random bits stream: a1 a4 a2 a3 a3 a4 a2 00110110101101

Bit position 6 i.e. bit 1 detected as 0.

P.S: These notes are adapted from K.Sayood Introduction to data compression, Morgan Kaufmann, 3 Edition, San Francisco, CA, 2006.

rd

2.4.1 Uniquely Decodable Codes Ex: Source alphabet Table 3.1

ai

P(ai) 1

Binary Code 2 0 1 00 11 1.25 3 0 10 110 111 1.75 4 0 01 011 0111 1.875

a1 a2 a3 a4

1/8 1/8

0 0 1 10 1.125

Avg. Length

Avg. Length = P (ai) n(ai)

i=1 4

(bits/symbol) VLC

P (ai) = 1,
i=1

Serial bit stream 0111 a4 1 01 0 01 011 01 a2 a1 a2 a3 a2 Decoder (Complex)

VLC is highly error sensitive

Random bits stream: a4 a2 a1 a2 a3 a2

1
01110100101101
Bit position 10 i.e. bit 0 detected as 1. This can affect detection at the receiver.

Unique Decodability A given sequence of codewords can be decoded in one and only one way. No Ambiguity. Code 3 0 10 110 111 Instantaneous code Shannon
Entropy = - P (ai) log2 P(ai)
i=1 N

Code 4 0 01 011 0111 Not instantaneous code

N = # of symbols P (ai) = probability of symbol ai P (ai) = 1, Entropy: Theoretical minimum average bit rate
i=1 N

Table 2.2 a1 a2 a3 0 01 11

Consider Bitstream 011111111111111111 17 ones

Uniquely decodable but not instantaneous.

Table 2.3 a1 a2 a3 0 01 10

Consider Bitstream 01010101010101010

Not Uniquely decodable

Unique decidability is a must. Prefix code: No codeword is prefix of any other codeword. This guarantees unique decodability.

Unique Decodability Consider two binary codewords a and b a : k bits long b : n bits long k<n

If the first k bits of b are identical to a then a is called prefix of b. Last n-k bits are called dangling suffix. Ex. a = 010, (a is prefix of b) 010 b = 010 11, 11 = Dangling suffix prefix k = 3, n = 5

2.4.2 Prefix codes Unique Decodability : Examine dangling suffixes of codeword pairs in which one codeword is prefix of the other. If the dangling suffix is itself a codeword, then the code is not uniquely decodable. Ex: 2.4.1 Codewords { 0, 01, 11} Uniquely Decodable Codeword 0 is prefix for 01. Dangling suffix is 1 Codewords {0, 01, 11, 1} Not Uniquely decodable 2.4.2 Prefix Codes (contd.,) Prefix code : No codeword is prefix of any other code. Code 2 (Not uniquely decodable) Root Node

a1 a2 a3 a4

0 1 00 11
(Fig. 2.4) Internal node External node (Leaf)

Protocol A

Protocol B

Codes 3 & 4 are uniquely decodable Code 3 Root Node

a1 a2 a3 a4

0 10
a1

110 111
a2

a3 Code 4

a4

a1 a2 a3 a4

0 01 011 0111

a4 is external node a1, a2, a3 are internal nodes For any non prefix uniquely decodable code, there is a prefix code with the same codeword lengths.

In a prefix code, codewords are associated only with the external nodes. For any non-prefix uniquely decodable code, there is always a prefix code with the same codeword lengths. ( Prefix code: No codeword is prefix of any other codeword. This guarantees unique decodability.)

Chapter 3 Huffman Coding

VLC - prefix codes optimum for a given model. Practical code closest to the entropy. If all probabilities are negative integer powers of two then Huffman code = Entropy. Ex: 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-3
Entropy = - Pi log2 Pi(ai)
i=1 N

Minimum Theoretical bit rate to code N symbols, Pi = 1

i=1

Huffman Code : Practical VLC comes very close to Entropy. 3.2 Huffman Coding (Optimum prefix code ) 1. Symbols that occur more frequently (Higher Probabilities) have shorter codewords than symbols that occur less frequently. 2. Two symbols that occur least frequently will have the same code length.
Average bit rate = ni Pi
i=1 N

(bits / symbol)

N = # of symbols n i = bit size for symbol i P i = probability of symbol i Pi = 1, Entropy

i=1 N

3. Codewords corresponding to the two lowest probability symbols differ only in the last bit.

Two least Probability Symbols r = Concatenation m = 1101001 Ex. 3.2.1 Design of Huffman Code Given ai 1 2 3 4 5 P (ai) .2 .4 .2 .1 .1

Code word (m * 0) 11010010 (m * 1) 11010011 m

1 Rearrange (VLC) ai a2 a1 a3 a4 a5 P (ai) .4 .2 .2 .1 .1

P(ai) = 1,
i=1

H = Entropy = - P(ai) log2 P(ai) = 2.122 bits/symbol

i=1

= Minimum Average Theoretical bit rate ( P(ai) is either given or developed experimentally )

Huffman Tree

(1.0) 0 0 1 0 (.6) 0 1

a2 (.4) a1 (.2) a3 (.2) a4 (.1) a5 (.1)

0 a2 a1 a3 a4 a5 1 01 000 0010 0011

0 0 0 0 0 0 (.2) 0 1 0 (.4) 1

Huffman code is a Prefix code Uniquely Decodable

(See Fig. 3.2/ p.46)

Protocol Average bit size = [2 * 0.2 + 1 * 0.4 + 3 * 0.2 + 2 * 4 * 0.1] (bit/symbol) = 2.2
H = Entropy = - Pi log2 Pi = 2.122 bits/symbol
i=1 5

Ex. 3.2.1 Average bit length P(ai) n(ai) = 2.2 bits/symbol

i=1 5

Redundancy = 2.2 2.122 = 0.078 bit/symbol

3.2.1 Minimum Variance Huffman Codes (See Fig 3.3) Always put the combined letter as high in the list as possible in the Huffman tree.

Fig. 3.4 Average bit length = 2.2 bits/symbol Pi .2 .4 .2 .1 .1 a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 10 00 11 010 011

Min Variance Huffman tree Buffer design become much simpler. (See pages 44 - 45)

ai a1 a2 a3 a4 a5

P (ai) .2 .4 .2 .1 .1

Min. Variance Huffman Code Place the combined letter as high as possible

3.2.1 Minimum Variance Huffman Code (Fig. 3.2 / p.3 - 5) & (Fig. 3.4 / p.3 - 7) Both give the same average bit length (2.2 bits/symbol). Their variances are different. VLC Buffer Fixed bit rate Channel Assume 10,000 symbols/sec (i.e. average bit rate of 22,000 bits/sec) Minimum Variance Huffman Code

a2 a1 a3 a4 a5

00 10 11 010 011

Buffer : To smooth out the variations in the bit generation rate.

a1 a2 a3 a4 a5

01 1 000 0010 0011

a1 a2 a3 a4 a5

10 00 11 010 011

Huffman Code

Min. Variance Code

Assume strings of a4s & a5s to be transmitted for several seconds. (10,000 symbols/sec) Code from Fig 3.2 Generates 40,000 bps (store 18000 bps) Code from (Min. Variance Code) Fig. 3.4 Generates 30,000 bps (store 8000 bps)

Assume string of a2s to be transmitted for several secs. Generates 10,000 bps generates 20,000 bps (Make up a deficit of 12000 bps) (Make up a deficit of 2000 bps) Buffer design is simpler based on minimum variance Huffman Code. Variable bit rate Buffer Channel

Given Rearrange (VLC) ai P (ai) ai P (ai) a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 .2 .4 .2 .1 .1 a2 a1 a3 a4 a5 .4 .2 .2 .1 .1

Huffman Tree (Page 3.5)

Rearrange

Ex. 3.2.1 (Fig. 3.2 / p.46) Average bit size = [2 * 0.2 + 1 * 0.4 + 3 * 0.2 + 2 * 4 * 0.1] = 2.2 bits/symbol
5

P(ai) = 1; H = Entropy = - P(ai) log2 P(ai) = 2.122 bits/symbol

i=1 i=1

Redundancy = 2.2 2.122 = 0.078 bit/symbol Minimum Variance Huffman Tree p.3-7a code MVHC a2 a1 a3 a4 a5 00 10 11 010 011 Rearrange a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 10 00 11 010 011

Average bit rate 2.2 bits/symbol. Assume 10,000 symbols/sec channel 22,0000 bps. MVHC makes buffer design easier Minimum variance Huffman Code. 3.2.2 Optimality of Huffman Codes. (VLC) H(s) = - Pi log2 Pi
i

3.2.3 Length of Huffman Codes: H(s) l < H(s) + 1, (3.1)

l = Avg. code length for Huffman code H(s)= - P(ai) log2 P(ai)
i

= Entropy (Min., theoretical Average bit rate) (Huffman tree) (Symbol with High probabilities: bit size is small) and vice versa. Huffman code is a prefix code. Guarantees unique decodability. ( Page 48) H(s) lH < H(s) + Pmax, Pmax 0.5

< H(s) + Pmax + 0.086, Pmax < 0.5 Pmax = Largest probability of any symbol. See [80]

When alphabet size is small and P(ai) of different ai is skewed, then Pmax can be large Huffman coding becomes inefficient. Fascimile 200 dpi 400 dpi 600 dpi 1000 dpi (dpi: dots per inch) white dot -> 0.8 & black dot -> 0.2 (Binary Images)

3.2.4 Extended Huffman codes. p.49 Ex. 3.2.3 H(s) R H(s) + 1/n alphabet size m symbols (a1, a2, a3, .am) Group and code n symbols at a time. Extended alphabet size = mn One code word for every n symbols. R = Rate = # of bits/symbol.

(3.7)

Ex. 3.2.3 p.49 0 a1 .8 11 a2 .02 10 a3 .18 m=3

(Contd.) Let n = 2 Symbol a1 a1 .64 a1 a2 a1 a3 .016 .144 .016 .0004 .0036 .1440 .0036 .0324

0 10101 11 101000 10100101 1010011 100 10100100 1011

Extended alphabet Size = mn = 32 = 9

a2 a1 a2 a2 a2 a3 a3 a1 a3 a2 a3 a3

See table 3.11 (p.31) for the code. Avg. codeword length for the extended code is 1.7228 bits/symbol of two alphabets. (1.7228/2) = 0.8614 bits/alphabet. Redundancy = 0.384 Avg. code word length = 1.2 bits/symbol (Entropy = 0.816)

m=3, n=3 (a1, a2, a3) a1 a1 a1, a1 a1 a2,..a3 a3 a3 Extended alphabet size = 33 = 27 By coding blocks of symbols together, redundancy of Huffman codes can be reduced. However alphabet (extended) size grows exponentially & Huffman coding becomes impractical. a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 a2 a1 a1 a3 a1 a2 a1 a1 a2 a2 m=3, n=4 alphabet size = 34 = 81

a3 a3 a3 Huffman coding (Variation) Truncated Huffman coding. Modified Huffman coding

3.4

Adaptive Huffman coding.

Non binary Huffman code (Ternary code: 0, 1, 2)

3.8.2 Text Compression (Page 74) II-Edition

Using Huffman Coding file size dropped from 70,000 bytes to 43,000 bytes. Higher Compression can be obtained by using the structure. Discussed in Chapters 5 & 6 LZ 77, LZ 78, LZW etc.

3.8.3 Audio Compression (Page 75)

(2 * 16 * 44.1) Kbps CD- quality audio. Stereo Channel. fs = 44.1 KHz, 16 bit PCM

(Two audio channels) (216 = 65,536 levels) Estimated Compressed file size = (entropy) * (# of samples in the file) Huffman Coding Programs: (p.74) huff_enc huff_dec adap_huff Lossless Schemes: JPEG Lossless JPEG LS GIF PNG FELICS JPEG-2000 H.264 Intra JPEG-XR, HD Photo LOCO

FLAC Apples ALAC or ALE Monkeys Audio, MPEG-4 ALS Entropy

Group of symbols 1,2,..,N ai i = 1,2,..,N P(ai) = probability of occurrence of symbol ai P(ai) = 1

i=1 N

(Probability Distribution) Given or Developed Shannons fundamental theorem Entropy:

H = - P(ai) log2 [P(ai)]
i=1 N

(p.22)

Minimum (theoretical) bit rate at which the group of symbols can be transmitted, # of bits/symbol. Huffman code is a VWL code. Very close to entropy. Practical code.
Entropy Coder

Contributes to compression.

P (a1) P (a2) P (a3) P (a4)

4

1/2 1/8 1/8 1/4

N=4 ai, i = 1,2,3,4

H = Entropy = - P(ai) log2 P(ai)

i=1

= (1/2) * 1 + 2 * (1/8) * 3 + (1/4) * 2 = (1/2) + (3/4) + (1/2) = 1.75 bits/symbol Huffman Code (Huffman Tree) Uniquely decodable

P (a1) P (a4) P (a2) P (a3)

1/2 1/4 1/8 1/8

a1 a2 a3 a4

0 110 111 10