Bones and Skeletal Tissues

Skeletal Cartilage Contains no blood vessels or Surrounded by the perichondrium (dense irregular connective tissue) that resists outward Three types hyaline, elastic, and Hyaline Cartilage Provides support, flexibility, and Is the most abundant skeletal Is present in these cartilages: Articular covers the ends of long Costal connects the ribs to the Respiratory makes up the larynx and reinforces air Nasal supports the Elastic Cartilage Similar to hyaline cartilage but contains elastic Found in the external ear and the Fibrocartilage Highly compressed with great tensile Contains collagen Found in menisci of the knee and in intervertebral Classification of Bones Axial skeleton bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib Appendicular skeleton bones of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder, and Classification of Bones: By Shape Long bones longer than they are (e.g., humerus) Short bones Cube-shaped bones of the wrist and Bones that form within Flat bones thin, flattened, and a bit Irregular bones bones with complicated

Function of Bones Support form the framework that supports the body and cradles soft Protection provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital Movement provide levers for

Mineral storage reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and Blood cell formation hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of Gross Anatomy of Bones: Bone Textures Compact bone dense outer Spongy bone honeycomb of trabeculae filled with yellow bone Structure of Long Bone Long bones consist of a diaphysis and an Diaphysis Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long Composed of compact bone that surrounds the medullary Yellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in the medullary Epiphyses Expanded ends of long Exterior is compact bone, and the interior is spongy Joint surface is covered with articular (hyaline) Epiphyseal line separates the diaphysis from the Bone Membranes Periosteum double-layered protective Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective Inner osteogenic layer is composed of osteoblasts and Richly supplied with nerve fibers, blood, and lymphatic vessels, which enter the bone via nutrient Secured to underlying bone by Sharpeys Endosteum delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone Haversian system, or osteon the structural unit of compact Lamella weight-bearing, column-like matrix tubes composed mainly of Haversian, or central canal central channel containing blood vessels and Volkmanns canals channels lying at right angles to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian Osteocytes mature bone Lacunae small cavities in bone that contain Canaliculi hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic Osteoblasts bone-forming Osteocytes mature bone Osteoclasts large cells that resorb or break down bone Osteoid unmineralized bone matrix composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic

Hydroxyapatites, or mineral Sixty-five percent of bone by Mainly calcium Responsible for bone hardness and its resistance to Bone Development Osteogenesis and ossification the process of bone tissue formation, which leads to: The formation of the bony skeleton in Bone growth until early Bone thickness, remodeling, and Formation of the Bony Skeleton Begins at week 8 of embryo Intramembranous ossification bone develops from a fibrous Endochondral ossification bone forms by replacing hyaline Intramembranous Ossification Formation of most of the flat bones of the skull and the Fibrous connective tissue membranes are formed by mesenchymal Stages of Intramembranous Ossification An ossification center appears in the fibrous connective tissue Bone matrix is secreted within the fibrous Woven bone and periosteum Bone collar of compact bone forms, and red marrow Endochondral Ossification Begins in the second month of Uses hyaline cartilage bones as models for bone Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to

Stages of Endochondral Ossification Formation of bone Cavitation of the hyaline Invasion of internal cavities by the periosteal bud, and spongy bone Formation of the medullary cavity; appearance of secondary ossification centers in the Ossification of the epiphyses, with hyaline cartilage remaining only in the epiphyseal Hormonal Regulation of Bone Growth During Youth During infancy and childhood, epiphyseal plate activity is stimulated by growth During puberty, testosterone and estrogens: Initially promote adolescent growth

Cause masculinization and feminization of specific parts of the Later induce epiphyseal plate closure, ending longitudinal bone Bone Remodeling Remodeling units adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts deposit and resorb bone at periosteal and endosteal Bone Deposition Occurs where bone is injured or added strength is Requires a diet rich in protein, vitamins C, D, and A, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and Alkaline phosphatase is essential for mineralization of Sites of new matrix deposition are revealed by the: Osteoid seam unmineralized band of bone Calcification front abrupt transition zone between the osteoid seam and the older mineralized Bone Resorption Accomplished by Resorption bays grooves formed by osteoclasts as they break down bone Resorption involves osteoclast secretion of: Lysosomal enzymes that digest organic Acids that convert calcium salts into soluble Dissolved matrix is transcytosed across the osteoclasts cell where it is secreted into the interstitial fluid and then into the

Importance of Ionic Calcium in the Body Calcium is necessary for: Transmission of nerve Muscle Blood Secretion by glands and nerve Cell Control of Remodeling Two control loops regulate bone Hormonal mechanism maintains calcium homeostasis in the Mechanical and gravitational forces acting on the Hormonal Mechanism

Rising blood Ca2+ levels trigger the thyroid to release Calcitonin stimulates calcium salt deposit in Falling blood Ca2+ levels signal the parathyroid glands to release PTH signals osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+ into the Homeostatic Imbalances Osteomalacia Bones are inadequately mineralized causing softened, weakened Main symptom is pain when weight is put on the affected Caused by insufficient calcium in the diet, or by vitamin D Rickets Bones of children are inadequately mineralized causing softened, weakened Bowed legs and deformities of the pelvis, skull, and rib cage are Caused by insufficient calcium in the diet, or by vitamin D Osteoporosis Group of diseases in which bone reabsorption outpaces bone Spongy bone of the spine is most Occurs most often in postmenopausal Bones become so fragile that sneezing or stepping off a curb can cause Osteoporosis: Treatment Calcium and vitamin Increased weight-bearing Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone Natural progesterone cream prompts new bone Statins increase bone mineral