Reconfiguration of radial distribution networks:
application of heuristic methods on large-scale
networks
G.Peponis
M. Papadopoulos
tndexitg terms: Distribution networks, Network reconfiguration. Energy loss reduction, Load balancing, Services restoration, Network model size reduction
- also enable full utilisation of system facilities. With the
Albstract: Heuristic methods for the
reconfiguration of radial distribution networks
ha,ve been presented in recent years by several
researchers. The objective of the studies involved
is either to minimise resistive line losses during
normal operation, or to balance load and relief
overloads, e.g. during service restoration
procedures. In the paper the two basic strategies
employed and the adequate methods developed
for both objectives are presented, improved and
generalised. An efficient approach to the load
balancing problem, using switch exchange
operations, is presented. An overall algorithm for
the reduction of the size of the network model
without decreasing computations accuracy of all
methods is also presented. The adequate
computer programs are applied on a real, large-
scale 20 kV Greek network, for the optimisation
of its operation under normal operating
conditions and after the occurrence of an outage.
Gcneral conclusions are drawn regarding the
comparison of the two strategies as modelled in
the paper and the opportunities network
rec onfiguration offers for operation improvement.
- these methods, if properly structured, for the optimisa-
1 Introduction
Most electric distribution systems are normally oper-
ated radially; however, there are usually several inter-
connecting tie switches available, especially on the
underground medium voltage (6 to 35kV) networks.
Configuration alterations may be performed by chang-
ing the state of network switches, in such a way that
radiality is always re-established after the end of the
manipulations.
An effective reconfiguration strategy takes advantage
of the large degree of load diversity that exists on some
distribution systems. Feeder reconfiguration would
allow for the periodical transfer of load from heavily
loaded portions of the distribution network to rela-
tively lightly loaded ones. This would not only improve
the operating conditions of the system, but it would
0 IEE, 1995
IEE Proceedings online. no. 19952155
Paper first received 16th January 1995 and in revised form 12th June 1995
The au1:hors are with the National Technical University of Athens,
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Electric Power
Divisiol:, Patission 42, 106 82 Athens, Greece
IEE Pro<.-Gener. Transni. Distrib., Vol. 142, No. 6, November 1995
introduction of remote control of the switches, online
configuration management becomes an important part
of distribution automation.
As the operating conditions change, the network is
reconfigured for two purposes: (i) to reduce the system
energy losses; (ii) to relieve the overloads in the net-
work. We will refer to the first problem as network
reconfiguration for loss reduction and to the second as
reconfiguration for load balancing. Service restoration
to as many customers as possible during the restorative
state following a scheduled or forced outage, can be
partly treated as a special load balancing problem. Net-
work reconfiguration can also be used in planning
studies in order to determine the optimum configura-
tion of the network during one step of the overall plan-
ning procedure.
Mathematical techniques from operations research
have been used mostly in planning models to minimise
the costs associated with new constructions [l]. These
methods have been also used for network reconfigura-
tion and guarantee optimal solutions [2]. However,
they are either too time consuming or have other inher-
ent weaknesses which make them unsuitable for the
feeder reconfiguration problem [ 3 ] . The application of
tion of the operation of real size networks with varying
loads is practically prohibited.
Most of the algorithms in the literature for network
reconfiguration are heuristic search techniques based
on analytical or knowledge-based engines. Civanlar et
al. [4] presented a coinputationally attractive solution
procedure for power loss reduction through network
reconfiguration. Baran et ul. [5] were based on the
same strategy of load transfer steps, using different sets
of power flow equations, to approach the solution of
loss reduction and load balancing problems. Decision
tree techniques were employed by T. Taylor et al. in [6]
using principles founded in [4], and rules of thumb
were created to decrease the search space. Liu et al. [7]
described an expert system operational aid for restora-
tion and loss reduction of distribution systems. In [8] a
knowledge guided heuristic search strategy was pre-
sented by Morelato et al. These techniques are based
on a series of switch exchange operations, which is the
first strategy for the approach of the network reconfig-
uration problem.
A different approach to the problem of loss reduc-
tion has been proposed by Merlin and Back [9], based
on a special variation of the branch-and-bound tech-
63 1
nique. The solution method starts with a meshed distri-
bution system obtained by considering all switches
closed. Then, the switches are opened successively to
eliminate the loops. This heuristic strategy was further
improved and generalised by Shirmohammadi et al. in
[lo] for loss reduction and in [l 11 for load balancing.
This paper is aimed at generalising and improving
the two basic heuristic reconfiguration strategies in
order to more efficiently apply them either for loss
reduction or load balancing, using variable loads and
different load models. An efficient approach to the
load balancing problem, using switch exchange opera-
tions, is presented. This is developed using the concepts
established in other methods.
An overall algorithm for network model size reduc-
tion, is also presented. Applying this algorithm some
network branch data are eliminated, while others are
replaced by equivalents. Accurate voltage values and
changes of energy losses and load balancing index are
calculated, using the reduced size network model. This,
substantially improves the applicability of the two heu-
ristic strategies for both objectives.
Applications on a real Greek overhead network of
large size aim to make an exhaustive comparison of the
results of the two heuristic strategies as modelled in this
paper. The opportunities these methods, combined with
network model size reduction, offer for operation indi-
ces improvement are investigated.
2 Load modelling
It is assumed that the total load at each node consists
of five types (e.g. residential, industrial, etc.). For each
type, load variation with time is introduced into the
network data base using typical load curves for the
entire analysis time period. Each daily load profile (e.g.
winter working day, summer weekend day, etc.) is
characterized by a frequency of occurrence during the
overall analysis period. The total number of time
points (i.e. different network loading conditions) and
time subperiods (i.e. characteristic days) is practically
unlimited in our computer programs. Given the total
power installed and the load composition at each node,
active and reactive load curves can be obtained.
Loads can be represented by different models as
constant current (voltage independent current injec-
tions), CC, constant power (inversely proportional to
voltage value current injections), CP, constant imped-
ance (directly proportional to voltage value), CI, and
mixed, MX, that is any combination of the previous
models.
3 Network reconfiguration for loss reduction
The two main heuristic reconfiguration strategies and
the adequate methods developed for loss reduction are
briefly presented and discussed in this Section.
-
feeder-I
Fig.1 Switch exchange option: closing switch of branch m-n, opening
switch of brunch k-1
632
3.7 Switch exchange methods (SEM)
This method is based on the strategy of continuous
reduction of network losses following sequential switch
exchange operations. A switch exchange operation is
defined as the closing of an open switch and the open-
ing of a closed one on the loop formed. The efficiency
of this method is based on the estimation by a simple
formula of the loss reduction AP obtained by a particu-
lar switch exchange option ([4] eqn. 1). Referring to
Fig. 1, the loss reduction is given by:
where:
D = set of buses which are disconnected from Feeder-I1
and connected to Feeder-I with this switching option
m, n = buses connected to branch m-n, where the
switch to be closed is installed. Bus m is connected on
Feeder-I and bus n on Feeder-I1
iz = complex load current at bus i
Rloop;series resistance of the loop formed by closing
the switch of branch m-n
AVR, = voltage drop on the path 0 - m of Feeder-I
when branch reactances are neglected
AVR, = similar to AVRm but defined for bus n on
Feeder-I1
Re[.];*;l.l = real part, complex conjugate and magnitude
operators, respectively.
After considering all possible switch exchange
options, the one which provides the largest loss reduc-
tion, without violating any facility loading limitations,
is carried out. This set of actions is called a ‘step’. Suc-
cessive steps are followed until no further loss reduc-
tion is possible.
3.2 Improved switch exchange method
(ISEM)
SEM can be more efficiently applied by taking into
account the following remarks. f, is the load current
flow on branch i during one network loading condi-
tion, while superscripts refer to the network configura-
tions before and after the switching action.
1. Z,& = Ibefkl (in Fig. 1). Energy losses reduction can
be estimated by adding AP(t) for all different network
loading conditions.
2. A switch exchange option leading to energy losses
reduction is valid if no branch flow constraints are vio-
lated. Referring to Fig. l, the branch current flow
checks required, for all different network loading con-
ditions, are defined by eqns. 2-6 [12].
(a) On the path (0 - m - n):
On the path (0 k - 1 - n):
-
-aft - xbef - “bef
I, - I a. Ik1 (3)
Check (3) is required only on the path I - n
Note: Generalising eqns. 2 and 3 it can be noticed that
a switching action is equivalent to the flow of the
current -fbefkl(inverse current flow to this of branch
k-l) on the loop formed by closing the switch of branch
m-n .
IEE Pvoc.-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 142, No. 6, November 1995
(b) [n practice, changes in the state of the two switches
are not simultaneous, and the loop formed may remain
for several minutes. During this operating condition
constraint violations on the following branches should
be examined:
(4)
where Zloo is the series impedance of the loop formed
by closing t t e switch of branch m-n. On the path (0 -
m):
4"loop -
- 4"bef +Imn
"loop
On the path (0 - n):
"loop
I,,
It is expected that voltage quality and minimum volt-
age values are improved by network reconfiguration
for loss reduction. Consequently, it is not necessary to
check voltage drop limits violations at each step of
SEM. This is validated in Section 6.
3.3 Sequential switch opening method
(SStOMI
in th.is method, developed in [9] and modified in [lo], a
low loss configuration is determined by applying an
optirnal power flow analysis to the system with all
switches closed. This optimal power flow is referred as
'optimal flow pattern' (OFP). The system is led to a
radial configuration by opening the switches of the
branches with the lowest current flow under OFP. If a
switching action leads to constraint violations under
normal power flow solution, the switch carrying the
next lowest current (under OFP) is opened. This set of
actions will be called 'step'. OFP at each meshed net-
work is determined as the branch currents flowing in
the resistive network (with branch reactances
neglected), the load nodal current injections considered
constant. This method can be generalised with suffi-
cient accuracy for all load models.
Losadvariation during the entire optimisation period
complicates the choice of the switch to be opened at
each step. The switch to be opened corresponds to the
branch k with minimum:
F = xlfi(t)lz
t balancing provide the same final configurations.
where i i ( t ) is the complex current flowing on branch i
at time 1. The use of more complicated criteria, requir-
ing additional computational effort, is not justified by a
corresponding improvement of the results.
3.4 Analytical switch exchange method
(ASEM); analytical sequential switch opening
method (ASSOM)
As both methods are based on heuristic algorithms,
they may converge to local minima. Storing the N best
configurations at each step of SEM and examining
each of them as a starting configuration at the next
step may decrease the chances of that event [13]. This
extemion of the method will be called the analytical
switch exchange method (ASEM). Similarly, at each
step of SSOM several switches for which F (eqn. 7) has
value:; within a user-specified region above the mini-
mum F are determined. That is, at each step all
switches that have P between
(minimum F ) 5 F 5 K x (minimum F )
( K 2 :I) are determined. Energy losses after the opening
of each of them under OFP are calculated. The switch
IEE Prm-Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 142, No. 6, Novembev 1995
that provides the minimum losses on the next step is
chosen to open. It is clear that as multiplier K takes
larger values the network with minimum increment of
losses under OFP at each step is defined. This method
will be called the analytical SSOM (ASSOM) in this
paper.
ASEM and ASSOM are introduced in order to check
the potential of the corresponding methods to improve
their results. It is obvious that both analytical methods
require greater computational effort.
(5) 4 Network reconfiguration for load balancing
The methods presented in Section 3 can be applied for
the determination of the network configuration that
optimally or nearly optimally improves load balancing.
The objective of this optimisation procedure can be
expressed by the minimisation of the load balancing
index (LBI) [l 11:
LBI =
ZEB
Li [F)
/ I F I \ 2
where:
B = set of network branches forming loops
Li = length of branch i
Ii= I[ + j I i = complex current flow in branch i
IF = ampacity (current rating) of bus i
subject to radiality and voltage drop constraints. The
multiplier Li is neglected by some authors [5], but it can
be used in order to limit ampacity violations on the
shorter branches.
Wi can be defined for every network branch i, [I 11:
(9)
Substituting W iin eqn. 8 reveals that the objective
functions of loss minimisation and load balancing
problems are mathematically similar, and W can be
characterised as a modified branch resistance. Follow-
ing this, many similarities can be expected between the
reconfiguration methods applied for these objectives.
Moreover, if one conductor type is used on the entire
(7) network, reconfiguration for loss reduction and load
Service restoration, that is the minimisation of the
load to be disconnected in the case of extended outages
subject to ampacity and voltage drop constraints, can
be partially treated as a special load balancing prob-
lem. Load balancing may not relieve all conductor
overloads in the case of an extended outage, especially
when the number of switch state alterations is practi-
cally restricted. A form of load shedding algorithm,
prioritising sections to minimise disruption to critical
loads that provide essential services, must be applied in
this case [7,14,15].
The main differences expected between the algo-
rithms for service restoration and the respective for loss
reduction, can be summarised in the following:
(a) Switch state alterations for the isolation of the
faulted area should be suggested prior to the applica-
tion of the modified optimisation algorithms.
(b) There may be a strict limit to the number of the
switch state alterations suggested.
(c) There may be no need to take into account several
different network loading conditions, since an abnor-
mal operating condition shouldn't last so long.
633
(d) There is not a check for thermal limits violations at
each step, since this is the main objective of the optimi-
sation procedure.
In Section 4.1 an efficient approach to the load bal-
ancing problem is presented, based on a direct modifi-
cation of ISEM as this is applied for loss reduction.
SSOM and ASSOM for load balancing are briefly pre-
sented in Section 4.2.
4. I Improved switch exchange method
It is easy to prove (following the steps defined in [4], or
directly by applying eqns. 2, 3, 8 and 9), that LBI
reduction obtained by a switch exchange operation can
be estimated, similarly to eqn. 1, by eqn. 10:
I
1
(10)
where the quantities differing from those in eqn. 1 are:
Wloop series modified resistance of the loop formed
by closing the switch of branch m-n, where the resist-
ance of each branch has been replaced by W
AFmw = voltage drop on the path 0 - m of Feeder-I
(Fig. 1) where branch impedances have been replaced
by w B is transferred to the ‘destination nodes’ A and B
APnw = similar to AVmW but calculated on the path 0-
n on Feeder-11.
If ISEM is applied for load balancing for one network
loading condition advantage can be taken by the heu-
ristic rule that LBI reduction can be expected only if
lAFmwl < IAVnwI [4].
In some cases of ill designed networks load balancing
using ISEM cannot relieve all branch overloads that
may occur after a serious outage. A better approach is
to modify the objective function, eqn. 8, so that only
the overloaded branches are taken into account at each
step of ISEM. In this case ALBI‘ should be calculated
using eqns. 2 and 3. Other decision making criteria can
be also included in the objective function (on an eco-
nomical basis) at each step [16]. For example, under
emergency reconfiguration during service restoration a
penalty related to the distance from the operations cen-
tre may be attached to each switch.
4.2 Sequential switch opening method
SSOM as developed in [ll] faces load balancing and
service restoration problems. Following the definition
of the objective function, eqn. 8, the OFP of SSOM, is
replaced by the ‘secure flow pattern’, SFP. It is proven
that this can be determined by solving the Kirchhoff
current law and Kirchhoff voltage law of a purely resis-
tive network, whose branch resistances are in this case
equal to W. SSOM for service restoration provides suc-
cessive radial configurations (one at each step) in order
to reduce the switch state alterations suggested to the
limit specified by the operations engineer. At each step,
if an initially closed switch is decided to open, the ini-
tially open switch carrying the highest current under
SFP is closed so that a radial configuration feeding the
area not affected remains.
5 Network model size reduction
Different distribution network studies do not use a
great part of detailed network data. For reconfigura-
tion studies one part of branch data can be neglected,
634
while another can be replaced by an equivalent, in a
way that the important electrical data are present, but
not the exact network synthesis.
5. I Branch data that can be neglected
It is obvious that it is not necessary to take into
account laterals that cannot take part in any loop
formed by closing an initially open switch. Neglecting
these branches does not affect the optimisation proce-
dure. Adding the capacitance of the branches neglected
and the load of the nodes fed by them to the load of
the node which presents the root of the lateral results
in an equivalent power flow solution on the remaining
part of the network.
5.2 Branch data that can be replaced by an
equivalent
On real networks there are several sections like A-B in
Fig. 2 with the following characteristics:
1. Conductors on the path A-B are of the same type.
2. There are no switches on the path A-B.
3. The topology of the laterals departing from nodes on
the path A-B can be neglected following the remarks of
Section 5.1.
On such sections, the load of all nodes on the path A-
using the equations:
LA-B
In this way the load of node k is divided and added to
the load of nodes A and B, and node k can be
LA-B ______i/
Fig.2 Load of nodes I , ...k,...N can be transferred to nodes A and B
neglected. At the end of these transfers, path A-B will
consist of one single branch, of the same conductor
type and the total length of the initial path.
After applying all possible transfers:
the total load and the series impedance of all paths of
reduced size remain the same;
it is proven in the Appendix that network voltage cal-
culations on the remaining nodes are not affected;
although the exact values of network losses and LBI
are affected, the changes evaluated by eqns. 1 and 10
for switch exchange operations are not. Current flows
on branches which have remained in their initial form
(like those carrying switches), on radial or meshed con-
figurations, remain the same as well. Thus, the deci-
sions taken applying either ISEM or SSOM are not
affected.
Notes
(a) In order to transfer the load of each node k to des-
tination nodes A and B, only two remaining nodes
must surround node k . For example, in Fig. 3 if nodes
A , B and C are maintained, node D must be also main-
tained.
(b) Attention has to be given if there are long cables
having considerable capacitance, on network models
that are to be reduced (i.e. if the path A-B conductor
in Fig. 2 has considerable capacitance). If the presenta-
tion of the path A-B with several II-equivalents in
IEE Proc -Gener Transm Distrib , Vol 142, No 6, November 1555
series is more accurate, the capacitance of the single
branch A-B (after the load transfers) has to be
adjusted.
0 total network is obtained using Cw index [17]. This is
.-:,
,:=i
A
*+. ~. . 1-
D *...
0 bution of the node’s load to the total.
a1’ ccq---.
Fig.3 If nodes A, B and C are maintained, node D must also be
maintained
5.3 Overall network size reduction algorithm
Using these ideas the following algorithm can be for-
mulated for network model size reduction. ‘First class’
rejeccion of branches and nodes (steps 1 and 2) refers
to the application of the ideas of section 5.1. ‘Second
class’ rejection (steps 3 to 6) refers to the ideas of Sec-
tion 5.2.
1. Find the branches that form loops when initially
open switches close. Characterise them as first class
maintained. Characterise all other branches and the
node,s fed by them as first class rejected.
2. Add the load of the rejected nodes to the load of the
first node maintained on the path towards the root.
Add the capacitance of the rejected branches to the
load of the same maintained nodes.
3. Among the first class maintained nodes find the ones
where:
Branches of different conductor types are connected.
Branches carrying a switch are connected.
Characterise these nodes as second class maintained
(e.g. nodes A and B in Fig. 2).
Characterise all first class maintained but not second
class maintained nodes as second class rejected (e.g.
nodes 1,...,N in Fig. 2).
4. Among the second class rejected nodes find the ones
where at least three paths connected to second class
maini ained nodes are also connected. Characterise
these nodes as second class maintained too (e.g. node
D in Fig. 3).
5. At this step each second class rejected node has only
two :second class maintained nodes surrounding it.
Transfer the load of all second class rejected nodes to
these maintained nodes using eqn. 11.
6. Trmsfer and adjust the capacitance of the second
class rejected branches to the two closest second class
maintained nodes (Section 5.2, note b).
7. Other user-defined nodes and branches may be also
characterised as maintained, e.g. in order to have accu-
rate voltage drop values at remote nodes of the net-
work.
6 Applications
All the above algorithms and methods were imple-
mented using C language and DOS graphics routines
for interactive interface. The following applications
were implemented on a low cost 486 80MHz PC. The
computation times mentioned depend highly on the
management of the data files required to take into
accouint load variation. However, as special attention
has been given by the authors to their reduction, they
IEE Pro<:.-Gener.Transm. Distrib., Vol. 142, No. 6, November 1995
are indicative of the computation effort required by
each process.
The estimation of network voltage quality on the
evaluated as the summation of node voltage variances
ok2.Each variance is calculated based on the nominal
voltage and the summation is weighted by the contri-
6.1 Applications network
The applications network consists of sixteen 20kV lines
departing from two 150120kV substations of the Ath-
ens distribution network. 1104 branches defined by
1064 nodes and feeding 762 substations, describe the
network topology. There are 280 switches on it, 42 of
which are open, so that a radial configuration is
present under normal operation. Only small parts of
the network are underground. The total length of the
lines is 470.9km.
Five load types are used, i.e. urban, big industrial,
small industrial, touristic, agricultural, or different
combinations of these types. Load curves are consid-
ered to be different for each of two seasons of the year,
for working and not working days of each season.
Using hourly average values 96 different loading condi-
tions of the network are defined in total.
The annual energy losses are 1721.9MWh (0.61% of
the annual distributed energy). The maximum voltage
drop is 6.50%, and Cw voltage quality index is 13.6.
These calculated values are similar to those reported by
the operation engineers during 1993. It should be
remarked that the network is lightly loaded. Thus, no
capacitors installation is economically justified.
The study period is one year.
6.2 Network model size reduction
Application of the network model size reduction algo-
rithm provides a network model consisting of 384
branches of total length 221.3 km and 344 nodes. 608
branches are first class rejected (they do not take part
in any possible loops, Section 5.1) and 112 nodes sec-
ond class rejected (they belong to line sections with the
characteristics 1 - 3 of Section 5.2 and their load is
transferred). Although second class rejected nodes are
much less than first class rejected their removal sub-
stantially affects the computational effort required.
This is because second class rejected branches would
take part in many more computational procedures in
both reconfiguration methods. 3 10 load nodes remain.
Initial annual energy losses of the reduced network
model are 1633.4MWh. Computation time required by
the size reduction process is 26.9s on our system.
6.3 Network reconfiguration for loss
reduction
The main results of the steps followed applying ISEM
are illustrated in Fig. 4. At each step of this method the
state of two switches is altered. Successive radial con-
figurations are provided. It is clear that energy losses
reduction is followed in general by voltage quality
improvement (Cw index). Application of ASEM (by
storing the 50 best configurations at each step) pro-
vided the same final and intermediate results.
In Fig. 5 curve I illustrates the minimum losses under
OFP at each step of SSOM for CC loads. At each step
of this method the opening of one switch is proposed.
If this switch is initially open, no switching action is
encountered. Otherwise, two switching actions are
635
encountered as an initially open switch should be Table 1: Network reconfiguration for loss reduction:
closed to maintain radiality on the final configuration. total energy loss reduction and computation times (CC
Only the final configuration is radial. The application load model)
of ASSOM for K = 2.0 and K = 13.0 provides the
Execution time, s
results illustrated by curves I1 and I11 in Figs. 5 and 6. Final Reduction
1750- ,1375% losses, from initial Network model:
c method
-135
72 MWh (%)
detailed reduced

ISEM 1582.8 8.09 2823 1077

SSOM 1607.3 6.62 5260 1971
ASSOM, K=2 1608.4 6.59
ASSOM, K=13 1632.7 5.18
0 6 12 18 24 30
ISEM: switch state alterations SSOM is next applied for other load models. The
Fig.4 ISEM reconfguration for loss reduction; annual energy losses and results indicate that although the load model affects the
voltage quality at each step
calculated losses, the final configuration suggested is
practically the same for all load models. Network
1650- model size reduction substantially improves the appli-
1600- cability of SSOM (execution times using the reduced
1550- network model are about 2.5 times smaller), without
affecting the suggested decisions for all load models.
1500-,
CC load model gives the results closer to these of MX
1450- model, which can be considered to be the most accu-
1400- rate.

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 6.4 Network reconfiguration for load

SSOM-ASSOM :switch state alterations
Fig. 5 SSOM reconfguration for loss reduction
Annual energy losses under OFP: SSOM (curve I), ASSOM with K
11) and K = 13 (curve 111)
detail
SSOM-ASSOM: switch state alterations
Fig.6 Detail from Fig. 5 (Figs. 7 and 8). ASEM provided again the same results
Final energy losses and execution times for these
methods, using the detailed and the reduced network
models are indicated in Table 1.
It is evident that the network model size reduction
substantially improves the applicability of ISEM and
SSOM, without affecting their results. It can also be
concluded that SSOM provides final results not as
close to the absolute optimum as ISEM, while it is
computationally more time consuming when applied on
large size networks. Furthermore, this strategy is
judged to produce unreliable results, since improve-
ment of the intermediate steps does not improve the
final results. The conclusions drawn in [3] coincide with
the above. Application of the two methods on medium
size networks [12,16] gives different results: SSOM is
much faster, while it gives practically the same results.
If configuration alterations are accepted on a sea-
sonal basis (twice a year), a total annual energy losses
reduction of 9.91 YOcan be achieved by 12 seasonal
switch state alterations. The co-ordination of protec-
tion should be examined in this case [16].
636
balancing
ISEM and SSOM are applied in this section in order to
=2 (curve optimally balance the load after an outage in one of
the two distribution centres. From the buses of the out-
raged centre six of the 16 lines feeding the area depart.
The initial radial configuration taken into account is
the one in which operations engineers would operate
the network by making 12 switch state alterations (six
to isolate the affected centre and six to connect the
lines served to the ones departing from the other cen-
tre). This operating condition is described by having
LBI = 13.38 and minimum voltage at the most remote
end 83.94%. There are no branch overloads.
LBI of the successive radial networks provided by
the two methods is illustrated in Fig. 7. The minimum
voltage of the network at each step of ISEM and
SSOM is illustrated in Fig. 8. ASSOM is also applied
with SEM.
0 I 0 12 16 20 2 1 28 32 36 LO LL 18
switch state alterations
Fig. 7 Reconfiguration for load balancing, LBI for successive radial con-
figurations provided by ISEM, SSOM and ASSOM
It can be concluded that SSOM cannot be used to
provide successive radial configurations with improved
operational indices. Only the final configuration pro-
vided is close to the results provided by ISEM. Execu-
tion times on our system are: 46.8s for ISEM and
229.9s for SSOM on the detailed network model, while
IEE Proc -Gene7 Transm Distrib , Vol 142, No 6, November 1995
those on the network model of reduced size (the results
are identical, respectively) are 6.6s for ISEM and 48.4s
for SSOM.
,ISEM
E14
a3
o 4 a 12 16 20 24 2a 32 36 40 44 4a
switch state alterations
Fig.8 Reconfiguration for load balancing, minimum network voltage for
successive radial configurationsprovided by ZSEM, SSOM and ASSOM
7 Conclusions
The contribution of this paper can be outlined in the
following:
1. The two basic heuristic reconfiguration methods,
switch exchange method (SEM) and sequential switch
opening method (SSOM), are generalised and improved
in order to be more efficiently applied either for loss
reduction or for load balancing. An efficient and flexi-
ble approach to the load balancing problem, using
switch exchange operations is presented.
2. An exhaustive comparison of the results of the two
heuristic methods when applied for both objectives on
a real network of large size is made. The main conclu-
sions are the following:
While SEM requires substantially less computational
effort, it gives better results concerning the loss reduc-
tion and load balancing improvement achieved.
SSOM, on the other hand, can be applied for load
models other than constant current, such as constant
power, constant impedance or any combination of
these types.
SSOM cannot practically be used to derive successive
radial configurations when applied for load balancing.
SEM provides radial configurations with small differ-
ences in their operation indices in the last steps of the
method when applied for both objectives. This may
help the engineer to take decisions following other
qualitative criteria and limit switch state alterations.
The objective function of SEM is very flexible, since it
can include several different decision making criteria at
each step. That is, a combinatorial objective function
can be established, based probably on an economical
basis.
3. An overall algorithm for network model size reduc-
tion, is presented. One part of the network topology
data is neglected, while another is replaced by equiva-
lents in an efficient way, that provides a new network
model of reduced size. On this, accurate voltage values,
and changes of losses and load balancing index are cal-
culated. Application of this algorithm substantially
improves the applicability of the two heuristic methods
for both objectives.
4. Applications on a real overhead network of large
size were made to investigate operation indices
improvement that can be achieved by the use of recon-
figuration techniques. The main results on our applica-
tions network are the following:
IEE Proc -Gener Transm Distrib , Vol 142, No 6, November 1995
About 8% reduction of the annual energy losses is
achieved if one network configuration is present during
one year of operation. If configuration alterations are
accepted on a seasonal basis an annual energy losses
reduction of 10% can be achieved. Load balancing is
improved by 9.4% applying network reconfiguration,
after the occurrence of a serious outage.
Voltage quality is in general improved by network
reconfiguration for loss reduction. Maximum voltage
drop is in general reduced by network reconfiguration
for load balancing.
Constant current load model appears to be the most
accurate when there are no special data that justify the
use of another model. Load model affects network
losses calculations but not the decisions suggested by
SSOM for loss reduction.
SEM, when applied after the size of the network
model has been reduced by the proposed algorithm, is
fast enough (especially if more powerful machines are
used) to be used online on emergency cases for service
restoration.
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631
9 Appendix

We will prove first that network voltage calculations on

the remaining part of the network are not affected by
the proposed load transfer (eqn. 11).
We assume that there are N nodes between destina-
tion nodes A and B (Fig. 2). All the branches on the
path A-B have the characteristics mentioned in Section
5.2.
Current symbols are defined in Fig. 2. Superscripts
refer to values on the detailed A-B section model
(superscript 'dtld') or on the one of reduced size ('rcd').
k=1
Assume that node A is closer to the root, i.e. branch
= p p l d - ~$dcI$ = v i t l d
current flows are directed as shown in Fig. 2. Load
current flow 7, will become: Consequently, after node B the network operation is
not affected.
The same are valid if branch flows are reverse, i.e. if 1
I
node B is closer to the root.
N N If the path A-B belongs to any part of the loop m-0-
p d - 'dtld 2cd - 'dtld + ;$tld L A - k n (Fig. 1) all the quantities in the second parts of eqns.
B -'B + k i B - zB
k=l k=l
1 and 10 remain the same if the proposed load transfer
is used. Rloopand Wloopare obviously not affected. The
5.,cd = 0 'dk E (1,.. . , N ) transfered load ZLEDi,(= Ikl in Fig. 1) is not affected as
branch k-Z remains on the reduced model (there is a
switch on it). AUmR and AUnR, AUmw and AUnW are
proven in the same way as above (voltage not affected)
not to be affected. Loss reduction or LBI reduction due
to a switch exchange step are thus proven not to be
affected by the proposed load transfer.
The resulting network model will have the same volt-
ages for the remaining nodes and the same losses and
LBI changes resulting from a switch exchange step.
Since network impedances and voltages remain the
same, nodal current injections representing the closing
of an open switch, eqn. 4, remain the same as well.
= ;Tld + 521d + 5Fld + y g l d = fdtld
A Therefore, there will be no changes on the power flow
k=l on meshed networks (using the original network
Consequently, before node A the way the netwqrk impedances, or under OFP, or under SFP). Thus,
'sees' section A-B is not affected. Furthermore, if Zk-l SSOM decisions will not be affected by the network
is the series impedance of the path between nodes k model size reduction. This is not valid when CP, CI or
and I: MX load models are used for SSOM, but size reduc-
i g d = 7,tld
tion can be applied with very satisfactory results in
these cases as well (Section 6).

638 IEE Proc -Gener Transm Distrib , Vol 142, No 6,November I995