Power Quality Following Deregulation
JOS ARRILLAGA, FELLOW, IEEE, MATH H. J. BOLLEN, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE,
NEVILLE R. WATSON, MEMBER, IEEE
Invited Paper
Utility deregulation will have tangible and intangible effects on
power quality requiring industry-wide action to maintain adequate
standards. These effects are discussed in the first part of the paper.
The increasing trend towards more extensive use of power elec-
tronic control at the generation, transmission, and utilization sys-
tems following deregulation has power quality implications that
will affect the standards, system simulation, and monitoring tools.
The paper reviews the present methods available in these areas to
achieve specified levels of power quality in the deregulated environ-
ment.
Keywords—Deregulation, harmonics, HVDC, power quality,
power systems, unbalanced three phase circuits.
I. INTRODUCTION
A. General
In its broadest sense, the term “power quality” should be
interpreted as service quality, encompassing the three aspects
of reliability of supply, quality of power offered, and pro-
vision of information [1]. A more restrictive interpretation,
widely used in the recent literature, relates to:
• the ability of a power system to operate loads without dis-
turbing or damaging them, a property mainly concerned
with voltage quality at points of common coupling;
• the ability of loads to operate without disturbing or re-
ducing the efficiency of the power system, a property
mainly, but not exclusively, concerned with the quality
of the current waveform.
In contrast to the term “reliability” [2], which generally
covers intervals of minutes, typical power quality issues
include short-term events such as voltage sags or dips
lasting a few cycles to a few seconds caused by faults on
nearby feeders, large loads switching on, etc., and subcycle
Manuscript received May 7, 1999; revised August 20, 1999.
J. Arrillaga and N. R. Watson are with the Electrical and Electronic Engi-
neering Department, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
M. H. J. Bollen is with the School of Electrical and Computer Engi-
neering, Chalmers University of Technology, Sothenburg, Sweden.
Publisher Item Identifier S 0018-9219(00)00949-X.
0018–9219/00$10.00 © 2000 IEEE
246
AND
transients caused by switching power factor correction
capacitors, lightning strikes, etc. Power system harmonic
and flicker issues also fall into the category of power quality,
even though these issues tend to occur over much longer
intervals than sags and transients [3]–[6].
Today, electricity is generally sold from one supplier to
one consumer, with ownership changing hands at only one
physical point: the revenue meter. In contrast, after deregula-
tion we can expect that the ownership of the commodity will
be exchanged at several points along the generation/trans-
mission/distribution chain. Like all other commodities, for
electric power there will be quality issues at each physical
location where ownership is transferred.
This paper concentrates on the two most important power
quality issues at the moment: voltage sags and harmonic dis-
tortion, with a brief reference to interruptions.
A general feeling among experts is that momentary
voltage sags constitute the most pressing power quality
problem. This view is influenced by the extensive disruption
of industrial processes caused by low voltage conditions.
Voltage sags and interruptions at a transmission substation
will affect all customers in the distribution system, but a sag
originating at distribution level will not affect other distri-
bution systems. However, faults cleared by overcurrent re-
lays or by fuses may lead to sag durations of 1 s or more,
which have shown to be of serious concern even after prop-
agation through the transmission network [7], [8]. Deregula-
tion will not change the technical issues behind this, but the
responsibility problem may become rather complicated, es-
pecially as a local load may affect the severity of voltage sags
and a short-circuit fault inside customer premises will cause
voltage sags elsewhere.
Further complication arises from the fact that voltage
quality is, in general, an aggregate effect of the character-
istics of all of the suppliers upstream from that physical
location, while current quality is, in general, the aggregate
effect of all the loads downstream from that physical loca-
tion. (Of course, voltage quality and current quality affect
each other through system and load impedances, so the
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 88, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2000
separation between the two is not quite as clear as it initially
appears to be.)
System networking is a compromise between a high de-
gree of interconnection (which provides good reliability but
relatively more and more severe voltage sags) and dedicated
circuits (with relatively poor reliability but less voltage sags).
Finally, deregulation, and consequent competition and reluc-
tance to exchange information, will make it more difficult to
design systems with optimal local and global compensation.
B. Impact of Power Electronics
A variety of active equipment is now commercially
available covering the full range of power ratings, from
HVdc links and flexible ac transmission systems (FACTS)
to custom power devices, and their role is likely to increase
in the deregulated environment.
At the generation level, an increase in the connection of in-
dependent power producers (IPP’s, such as wind and gas-fu-
elled microturbines) with poorly controlled synchronization
will make power quality more difficult to control. The in-
crease in embedded generation will cause further voltage
magnitude variations as well as introduce additional voltage
magnitude steps [9]. Wind power is known to lead to an in-
crease in flicker severity. Solar power and the more advanced
ways of connecting wind power will lead to an increase in
harmonic distortion.
At the transmission level, the need for system operators to
transmit power according to contracts between the requested
locations is likely to accelerate the demand for series con-
nected FACTS controllers. In the future, series compensation
and unified power flow controllers are expected to be used
extensively once they are shown to offer better technical fea-
tures at reasonable costs.
Because system planning under deregulation will be more
difficult due to uncertainty in the generation and load loca-
tions, fast solutions will be needed to improve the operating
conditions, and FACTS controllers can offer such solutions
with short delivery and installation times.
FACTS and its distribution equivalent, custom power, have
the potential to improve various aspects of power quality
[10]. Power electronics control at distribution level may mit-
igate voltage variations, harmonics, and voltage sags. How-
ever, the increased use of power-electronics controllers may
introduce new problems, like additional harmonic voltage
distortion, especially for higher order harmonics.
At the same time, there will be reluctance to expand
the distribution system (or a drive to minimize distribution
system margin), leading to increased customer interaction.
Also, at the loads themselves, increased awareness of power
costs will create an emphasis on local compensation with
corresponding passive or active components. Some of these
changes tend to degrade power quality. Fast local com-
pensation will create loads of a constant-power type. The
controller will keep the voltage constant by drawing more
current when the voltage drops. This will cause additional
voltage drops for noncompensated customers. Widespread
use of compensation equipment may even become a voltage
stability issue.
ARRILLAGA et al.: POWER QUALITY FOLLOWING DEREGULATION
Most of these issues are not exclusive to deregulation. For
example, there continues to be a significant increase in non-
linear loads, including adjustable speed drives, office equip-
ment, and high-efficiency fluorescent lighting. At the same
time, sensitive information technology equipment, such as
PC’s, continues to be dispersed into power locations that pre-
viously were restricted to lights, motors, and heaters. There
is no reason to believe that this trend will reverse. The effects
of this trend will certainly overlay the power quality effects
of deregulation, so it may therefore be difficult to segregate
them.
C. Other Effects
An important possible effect of deregulation may be a re-
duction in maintenance and in new investments. Lack of in-
vestment in new transmission and generation facilities, to-
gether with a continuing growth in electricity consumption,
will reduce the margins in the system and thus increase the
risk for a large-scale blackout. Deregulation has already led
to a large increase in the inter-regional transport of electricity.
This will further decrease the available margins.
Reduced maintenance and inspection may lead to an in-
creased number of short-circuit faults. A fault at distribution
level will lead to an interruption for some customers and a
voltage sag for others. A fault at transmission level will only
lead to a voltage sag, but often for many customers. The
number of voltage sags will further increase with the use of
transport of power over longer distances. Large-scale genera-
tion is moving further away from the customers so that more
of them are affected by a voltage sag when a fault occurs on
the transmission systems [11].
Deregulation disperses responsibility for power quality. In
the past it was clear, for the most part, that the utility was re-
sponsible for delivering some level of power quality to the
customer. After deregulation, however, who is responsible
for the customer’s power quality? The generator? The eco-
nomic supplier? The distributor? The aggregator? The cus-
tomer himself? These blurred power quality boundaries will
lead to confusion and possibly to an increase in disputes.
Some studies have shown that customer expectations rise
unreasonably immediately after deregulation. Although most
of these studies have concentrated on price expectations, the
same effect may occur for quality expectations as well [12],
[13].
Once a customer has a choice of electric suppliers, the
human relationship between individuals at the electric
supplier and the customer becomes more important. Power
quality can affect this relationship in surprising ways.
Several utilities have found unexpected benefits from moni-
toring power quality at key customers and sharing real-time
power quality data with individuals at those customers via
pagers. A sense of partnership develops, and that sense of
partnership becomes a competitive advantage for that utility.
This sense of partnership is a somewhat surprising benefit
of deregulation on power quality.
On the downside, in regions where utilities have been
deregulated, there has generally been a reduced exchange
of information and cooperation between utilities. This is an
247
inevitable result of competition, but it has an unfortunate
effect on the development of power quality technology, tools
and standards.
There are some indications that information about power
quality itself will become a valuable commodity after dereg-
ulation, subject to negotiations, pricing, ownership, and all of
the other practical characteristics of valuable commodities.
Both regulated and deregulated utilities may develop
power quality contracts with their major industrial and
commercial customers, either in preparation for competition
or as an ordinary improvement of service. As deregulation
progresses, these types of contracts may well become
more widespread (Detroit Edison, EdF’s Emerald Contract,
ESKOM’s Quality of Service contract, etc.) [14].
Many utilities have responded to deregulation by seeking
out new, profitable power quality business opportunities [15],
often unsuccessfully [16].
II. NEED FOR ADEQUATE STANDARDS
First, the industry needs to establish uniform and com-
plete power quality measurement standards so that data can
be compared (over location, over time, etc.) and disputes re-
solved. Standards such as IEC 61000-4-7, which covers har-
monics measurements, are a good model. IEC 77A Working
Group 09 has made enormous progress in this area [17].
Utility-oriented power quality standards are under contin-
uous development [18]–[45]. These types of standards can
be used to set a common quality basis for competition be-
tween suppliers, and they should create a minimum-accept-
able level of power quality. The European standard already
contains some well-defined margins for harmonic distortion
and other variations. Much work, however, still needs to be
done to set acceptable levels for events like voltage sags and
interruptions, a subject discussed in greater detail in the fol-
lowing section. The voltage characteristics by themselves are
not sufficient for equipment immunity requirements and a
maximum-permissible number of equipment trips needs to
be decided on. A decision on such a value is a task for inter-
national standard-setting bodies and is outside the scope of
this paper.
Finally, more work is needed on power quality standards
that can be used by equipment manufacturers. It is far less ex-
pensive to inform manufacturers about the real level of power
quality that is available than it is to attempt to improve the
level of power quality. Some industries, such as the semi-
conductor industry, have already developed their own stan-
dards [46]. This kind of power compatibility standard will
ultimately minimize all power quality issues, including those
introduced by deregulation. Next to these industrial initia-
tives, a serious effort is needed from standard setting organi-
zations like IEC and IEEE, to publish requirements for equip-
ment immunity against voltage sags and short interruptions.
III. VOLTAGE SAGS
A voltage sag is a sudden reduction (between 10–90%) in
the voltage magnitude, such as shown in Fig. 1, and lasting
248
Fig. 1. Voltage sag.
for 0.5 cycle to several seconds. Sags with durations of less
than half a cycle are regarded as transients.
A voltage sag may be caused by switching operations as-
sociated with temporary disconnection of supply, the flow of
heavy current associated with the start of large motor loads
or the flow of fault currents. These events may emanate from
customers’ systems or from the public supply network.
In terms of duration, sags tend to cluster around the typ-
ical fault-clearing times in the system, e.g., four cycles (the
typical clearing time for faults) 30 cycles (the instantaneous
reclosing time for breakers), and 120 cycles (the delayed
reclosing time of breakers). The effect of a voltage sag on
equipment depends on both its magnitude and its duration;
in about 40% of the cases observed to date, they are severe
enough to exceed the tolerance standard adopted by com-
puter manufacturers.
Possible effects are: extinction of discharge lamps; incor-
rect operation of control devices; speed variation or stopping
of motors; tripping of contactors; computer system crash; and
commutation failure in line commutated inverters.
Among the actions available for voltage sag mitigation are
[5]:
• reducing the fault-clearing time;
• changing the system design such that a fault leads to a
less severe sag at the equipment terminals;
• installing mitigating equipment such as uninterruptible
power supplies, either at the equipment terminals or at
the customer–utility interface;
• improving equipment immunity (voltage tolerance).
Two different scenarios are considered here. The first ac-
cepts the transmission and distribution as natural monopo-
lies. The second permits full competition on all aspects of
the power supply.
As long as transmission and distribution remain so-called
“natural monopolies” the incentive will be low for invest-
ments aimed at an overall reduction of the sag frequency.
Even though customers are able to choose supplier, their
physical connection will not change.
There are indications that the number of sag events will
increase in the future. Still, some customer will demand a re-
duction of sag frequency. One option is to introduce “power-
quality guarantees” whereby the customer receives compen-
sation for each event exceeding a certain severity (in magni-
tude, duration or frequency). Such an additional service may
be offered by the (monopolized) distribution company, by
the supplier, or by any other player in the market (e.g., an
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 88, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2000
insurance company). Next to these “bilateral agreements,” a
regulatory body may decide to enforce a basic compensation
scheme for all customers as part of the connection fee. Such
a scheme is already in place in the United Kingdom [47].
A second option is for the utility to offer high-quality
power to a small group of customers. These customers
will experience less voltage sags than similar customers
elsewhere. Certain customers may not be satisfied with a
compensation scheme only, e.g., when safety is concerned.
Most likely this additional service will consist of the in-
stallation of mitigation equipment at the service entrance.
Again it may be offered by the distribution company, by the
supplier, or by any other player in the market. Additional
regulation is needed here to prevent unfair competition by
the (monopoly) distribution company.
Full competition at transmission and distribution level is
not currently viewed as a feasible scheme. It may, however,
become an option in the future. Such a situation will enable a
customer to physically choose between different levels of re-
liability and quality. Note that such a situation already exists
in some large industrial and commercial power systems. Next
to the regular supply, the customer may decide to connect
all or some load to a high-quality supply, a dc low-voltage
supply, a “dirty supply” allowing the connection of heavily
polluting equipment, a high-frequency supply, etc.
In the existing natural-monopoly scheme, additional regu-
lations are needed to guarantee a minimum level of compat-
ibility between equipment and supply (however, these regu-
lations may become obsolete if competition is introduced for
the distribution systems as well).
• Requirements for equipment immunity must be pro-
duced by standard-setting organizations. The IEC is
obviously the best platform for the development of
such a standard. In the United States, the IEEE may
take the lead. Standards for equipment testing, like
IEC 61000-4-11 [48], are needed to obtain and verify
equipment immunity.
• As a complement to equipment immunity require-
ments, voltage characteristics for the supply must
be made available to the customers. The European
standard EN 50160 should be extended with voltage
characteristics for voltage sags and other events.
Equivalent documents should be written for other parts
of the world as well as local standards for individual
countries or even cities [49].
• Regulatory bodies should publish statistics on the
power quality performance of utilities. Such a scheme
is already in place in the United Kingdom for long
interruptions [50].
• Voltage sag characterization is an important basis for
the above standards and regulations. Standardization
on this issue is under development both in the IEC
[12] and in the IEEE [51]. Current activities concen-
trate on sags experienced by single-phase equipment.
A proposal for the characterization of voltage sags
experienced by three-phase equipment is described
below. This scheme can be the basis for, among others,
a testing protocol for three-phase equipment [52].
ARRILLAGA et al.: POWER QUALITY FOLLOWING DEREGULATION
IV. ANALYSIS OF THREE-PHASE UNBALANCED SAGS
All existing standard documents on voltage sags charac-
terize the event through one magnitude (remaining voltage or
voltage drop) and one value for the duration [48], [58], [59].
Obvious limitations to this method are that it neglects the
phase-angle jump [53] and the postfault sag [54]. For the ma-
jority of sensitive single-phase equipment, the existing char-
acterization enables a prediction of the behavior of the equip-
ment during and after the event. Further, the phase-angle
jump can be incorporated by using a complex sag voltage;
the postfault sag can be incorporated by giving the magni-
tude as a function of time.
Three-phase equipment will typically experience three dif-
ferent magnitudes, as the majority of sags are due to single-
phase or phase-to-phase faults. The commonly used method
of characterization uses the lowest of the three voltages and
the longest duration.
Sag characterization is often part of the voltage character-
istics/power quality in general. In that case, the results should
be applicable both to single-phase and three-phase equip-
ment. Using the lowest of the three voltages to characterize
the sag will result in erroneous results for both single-phase
and three-phase equipment.
The alternative technique described here enables a charac-
terization through one complex voltage, without significant
loss of information. The method is based on the decompo-
sition of the voltage phasors into symmetrical components.
An additional characteristic is introduced to enable exact re-
construction of the three complex voltages. The mathematics
behind the method and additional examples are described in
[9], [55]–[57], and [60].
A. Basic Classification
The basic classification considers three-phase,
single-phase, and phase-to-phase faults, star and delta-con-
nected equipment, and all types of transformer connection.
It is further assumed that positive and negative-sequence
source impedances are equal. This results in the four types
of three-phase unbalanced sag shown as a phasor diagram
in Fig. 2. Type A is due to three-phase faults and types B,
C and D are due to single-phase and phase-to-phase faults.
Type B contains a zero-sequence component which is rarely
transferred down to the equipment terminals.
Three-phase equipment is normally connected in delta or
in star without neutral connection. Single-phase, low-voltage
equipment is connected between phase and neutral but the
number of sags originating in the low-voltage system is
small. Therefore, the vast majority of three-phase unbal-
anced sags at the equipment terminals are of types C or D,
so that a distinction between type C and D is sufficient,
together with a characteristic magnitude and phase-angle
jump.
The definition of characteristic magnitude and
phase-angle jump is such that these do not change when
the sag transfers from one voltage level to the other. The
characteristic magnitude and phase-angle jump are defined
as the absolute value and the argument of the complex
249
 Table 1
Complex Voltages for Voltage Sags with Symmetrical Phase B or C

Fig. 2. Four types of three-phase unbalanced voltage sags in

phasor-diagram form.

These relations are used to obtain the characteristic com-

phasor representing the voltage in the lowest phase for a
plex voltage . As the underlying assumptions are never ex-
type D sag, and the voltage between the two lowest phases
actly correct, for a number of reasons, a second sag charac-
for a type C sag.
teristic is introduced: the PN-factor . For a sag of type C,
The complex voltages for a three-phase unbalanced sag of
the definitions are
type C with characteristic voltage are as follows:

(7)
and for a sag of type D
(1)
For a sag of type D, the complex voltages are (8)

C. Symmetrical Phase

(2) Expression (4) gives the symmetrical components with

reference to phase a. Expressions (1) and (2) are valid for
a fault in phase a or between phases b and c, i.e., with phase
B. Generalization a as the symmetrical phase. Considering the three possible
The three (complex) phase voltages in an unbalanced symmetrical phases results in six (sub)types of three-phase
three-phase system can be completely described through unbalanced sags: , , and , , . Expression (1)
symmetrical components of positive , negative , and describes a sag of type ; (2) describes a sag of type .
zero-sequence , which are calculated from the complex Expressions for the complex voltages of the four remaining
phase voltages , , and as follows: types are given in Table 1.
Transforming the six different three-phase unbalances
sags to symmetrical components results in the expressions
(3)
given in Table 2. Note that in all cases the positive real axis
is along the a-phase pre-event voltage and (3) has been used
where , and from the complex se- to obtain the positive and negative-sequence voltages.
quence voltages, the voltages in the three phases are From Table 2 it follows that the positive-sequence voltage
is type independent. The direction of the positive-sequence
(4) voltage is along the reference axis (phase a pre-event voltage
in this case) if the argument of the characteristic complex
voltage is neglected. The direction of the negative-sequence
From (1), (2), and (4), the following relations hold for a voltage depends on the type of sag. By rotating the nega-
sag of type C: tive-sequence voltage over an integer multiple of 60 , all sag
types can be obtained from one prototype sag. When type
is chosen as prototype sag, the following relation between
positive and negative sequence voltage is obtained:
(5)
(9)
The equivalent expressions for a sag of type D are
D. Obtaining Sag Characteristics
The sag type can be obtained from the angle between the
(6) negative-sequence voltage of the measured sag and the neg-

250 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 88, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2000

Table 2
Symmetrical Components for the Six Types of Three-Phase
Unbalanced Sags
ative-sequence voltage of the prototype sag. Due to various
approximations made and measurement errors, this angle is
not exactly an integer multiple of 60 so that the following
expression may be used to obtain the sag type:
angle
round (10)
where round ( ) returns the nearest integer to and angle
( ) returns the angle between and in degrees. The value
of gives the sag type and the symmetrical phase
type type
type type
type type
Knowing the sag type, the negative sequence voltage can
be calculated back to the corresponding value for the proto-
type sag
(11)
where
is obtained according to (10);
negative sequence voltage of the measured sag.
Characteristic voltage and PN-factor are obtained from
the expressions for the prototype sag (8)
(12)
E. Overview of Characterization
This method has been applied to recorded sags in both
transmission (220 and 400 kV) and distribution (11 and 33
kV). It is found that the PN-factor is very close to unit in
transmission systems and less than unity in distribution sys-
tems, due to the effect of induction motor load. However,
even in distribution systems, the PN-factor is rarely less than
90% in absolute value.
ARRILLAGA et al.: POWER QUALITY FOLLOWING DEREGULATION
Thus, the characteristic magnitude (the absolute value of
the characteristic complex voltage ) can be used to char-
acterize three-phase unbalanced sags without loss of essen-
tial information. Using characteristic magnitude and dura-
tion, corresponds to the existing classification (through mag-
nitude and duration) for single-phase equipment.
Where needed, the characterization for three-phase unbal-
anced sags may be extended in several ways.
• The characteristic phase-angle jump may be defined
as the argument of the complex characteristic voltage;
it is also used as an additional characteristic for sags
experienced by single-phase equipment.
• The PN-factor may be used as an additional character-
istic when positive and negative-sequence source im-
pedances differ significantly. This is the case in systems
with a large content of induction motor loads.
• The zero-sequence voltage is needed as an additional
characteristic for specific system configurations in
combination with three-phase star-connected load.
• Characteristic magnitude, characteristic phase-angle
jump and PN-factor may all be given as a function of
time.
V. INTERRUPTIONS
Interruptions can be considered voltage sags with 100%
amplitude. Supply interruptions of a few cycles (in the case of
a glass factory) or a few seconds (at a major computer center)
may cost hundreds of thousands of dollars. The main protec-
tion of the customer against such events is the installation of
uninterruptible power supplies. Interruptions are mainly due
to short-circuit faults being cleared by the protection. The
same short-circuit that leads to a voltage sag for some cus-
tomers will lead to an interruption for a smaller number of
customers when the fault takes place in a radial part of the
system. Short-circuit faults in meshed parts of the system will
normally only lead to voltage sags.
For a given system design and fault location, a certain
number of customers will be affected and there is no way to
prevent this process without major system structural changes.
However, interruptions due to overload are somewhat
more predictable. These include overload of the whole
system (due to lack of generation) as well as individual lines
and cables.
Voltage collapse can also be viewed as an overload situa-
tion, but in this case it can be alleviated by load shedding. In
the prederegulation era, load shedding took place according
to utility rules. Deregulation allows utilities to offer interrupt-
ible and noninterruptible supply. During times of overload or
overload risk, utilities may decide to increase the incentive
for customers to be interrupted [61], [62]. At present, this
action only covers a very small fraction of the interruptions,
but this will obviously change if the congestion in the system
increases.
VI. CBEMA AND ITIC CURVES
The well-known “Computer Business Equipment Manu-
facturer Association (CBEMA) curve” [63], shown in Fig. 3,
251
Fig. 3. CBEMA curve.
can be used to evaluate the voltage quality of a power system
with respect to voltage interruptions, sags or undervoltages
and swells or overvoltages. This curve was originally pro-
duced as a guideline to help CBEMA members in the design
of the power supply for their computer and electronic equip-
ment. By noting the changes of power supply voltage on the
curve, it is possible to assess if the supply is reliable for oper-
ating electronic equipment, which is generally the most sus-
ceptive equipment in the power system.
The curve shows the magnitude and duration of voltage
variations on the power system. The region between the two
sides of the curve is the tolerance envelope within which elec-
tronic equipment is expected to operate reliably. Rather than
noting a point on the plot for every measured disturbance, the
plot can be divided into small regions with certain range of
magnitude and duration. The number of occurrences within
each small region can be recorded to provide a reasonable
indication of the quality of the system.
CBEMA has been renamed Information Technology In-
dustry Council (ITIC), and a new curve [64], as shown in
Fig. 4, has been developed to replace CBEMA’s. However,
due to the prominence of the CBEMA among the computer
and electronic industries, the ITIC curve is being regarded
as the new CBEMA curve within the high technology circle.
The main difference between them is that the ITIC version is
piecewise and hence easier to digitize than the continuous
252
CBEMA curve. The tolerance limits at different durations
are very similar in both cases. Although currently only the
CBEMA curve has been officially endorsed in IEEE Std. 446,
it is anticipated that the ITIC curve will also be endorsed by
various standard bodies in the near future.
The boundary of the ITIC curve is defined by seven pos-
sible disturbance events.
• Steady-state tolerances: This range describes an rms
variation between ±10% from the nominal voltage,
which is either very slowly varying or is constant. Any
voltages in this range may be present for an indefinite
period and are function of normal loadings and losses
in the system.
• Line voltage swell: This region describes an rms
voltage rise of up to 120% of the rms nominal voltage,
with duration of up to 0.5 s. This event may occur
when large loads are removed from the system and
when a single-phase fault occurs in the distribution
part of the system.
• Low-frequency decaying ringwave: This region de-
scribes a decaying ringwave transient, which typically
results from the connection of power-factor-correction
capacitors to a distribution system. The transient may
have a frequency ranging from 200 Hz to 5 kHz,
depending on the resonant frequency of the system. It
is assumed to have completely decayed by the end of
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 88, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2000
Fig. 4. ITIC curve.
the half-cycle in which it occurs, and it occurs near the
peak of the nominal voltage waveform. Its amplitude
varies from 140% for 200-Hz ringwaves to 200% for
5-kHz ringwaves with a linear increase in amplitude
with frequency.
• High-frequency impulse and ringwave: This region de-
scribes the transients which typically occur as a result
of lightning strikes, and it is characterized by both peak
value and duration (energy) rather than by rms value
and duration.
• Long duration voltage sags down to 80% of nominal:
These sags are the result of application of heavy loads,
as well as fault conditions, at various points in the dis-
tribution system. They have a typical duration of up to
10 s.
• Voltage sags down to 70% of nominal: These also result
from heavy loads switching and system faults. Their
typical duration is up to 0.5 s.
• Dropout: This transient is typically the result of oc-
currence and subsequent clearing of faults in the dis-
tribution system. It includes both severe rms voltage
sags and complete interruptions, followed by imme-
diate re-application of the nominal voltage; a total in-
terruption (i.e. zero voltage) should be tolerated by the
equipment for up to 20 ms.
Outside this bounded tolerance region, two other unfa-
vorable regions are defined. The no-damage region includes
sags and dropouts that are more severe than those described
above. The voltages applied continuously are less than the
ARRILLAGA et al.: POWER QUALITY FOLLOWING DEREGULATION
lower limit of the steady-state tolerance range. Information
technology equipment is not expected to function normally in
this region, but no damage to the equipment should result. In
the other region, called prohibited region, the voltage swells
exceed the upper limit of the curve boundary; damage to the
equipment is expected if it is subjected to voltages with these
characteristics.
Both the CBEMA and ITIC curves were specifically de-
rived for use in the 60-Hz 120-V distribution voltage system.
To our knowledge, no study has been carried out to find if
they are suitable for use in the 50-Hz 240-V distribution
voltage system. The guideline expects the user to exercise
their own judicial decision when applying those curves on
equipment operating under different voltage level than those
specified.
VII. WAVEFORM DISTORTION
Power quality baseline studies must be completed so
improvements and degradation can be tracked. EPRI’s
three-year distribution power quality study in the United
States is an excellent model of how this can be accomplished
[65], [66].
However, prevention is better than cure, and extensive
system simulation at the design stage goes a long way to
achieve that target. This is particularly important in the area
of harmonic distortion, which in the past has been largely
ignored.
Good harmonic prediction requires understanding of two
closely related topics. One is the accurate location and char-
253
acteristics of the harmonic sources and the other the interac-
tion of these sources via the predominantly linear ac system
that interconnects them. This task is made difficult by insuffi-
cient information on the composition of the system loads and
their damping to harmonic frequencies. Further impediments
to accurate prediction are the existence of many distributed
nonlinearities, phase diversity, the varying nature of the load,
etc.
Simulation of the interaction between large static power
converters and the ac systems is a complex issue considering
the large size of the converter plant in many applications and
their sophisticated switching control. The operation of the
converter is highly dependent on the quality of the power
supply, which is itself heavily influenced by the converter
plant.
System nodes containing nonlinear components are often
represented as harmonic current sources, which are estimated
from their power conversion characteristics. The equivalent
harmonic impedances of the nonlinear devices are normally
neglected, and the only justification given for such approxi-
mation is the limitation of present commercial models to cal-
culate those impedances.
A. Characterization of Harmonic Sources
Mathematical models with various levels of complexity
are appearing in the literature to represent individual non-
linear components, such as ac/dc converters, in the form
of harmonic Norton equivalents. They involve iterative
harmonic analysis to represent the interaction between the
converter and the linear system. Further work is needed,
however, to represent simultaneously the effect of multiple
interconnected nonlinear components. The system steady
state is substantially, but not completely, described by the
harmonic voltages throughout the network. In many cases, it
is assumed that there are no other frequencies present apart
from the fundamental frequency and its harmonics. This
type of analysis can be viewed as a restriction of frequency
domain modeling to integer harmonic frequencies but
with all nonlinear interactions modeled. Harmonic domain
modeling may also encompass a solution for three-phase
load flow constraints, control variables, power electronic
switching instants, transformer core saturation, etc.
There are two important aspects to the Harmonic Domain
modeling of the power system:
• the derivation, form, and accuracy of the nonlinear
equations used to describe the system steady state;
• the iterative procedure used to solve the nonlinear equa-
tion set.
Many methods have been employed to obtain a set of ac-
curate nonlinear equations, which describe the system steady
state. After partitioning the system into linear regions and
nonlinear devices, the nonlinear devices are described by
isolated equations, given boundary conditions to the linear
system. The system solution is then predominantly a solu-
tion for the boundary conditions for each nonlinear device.
Device modeling has been by means of time domain simula-
tion to the steady state [67], analytic time domain expressions
254
Fig. 5. Unbalanced current injections into an unbalanced ac
system.
[68], [69], waveshape sampling and fast Fourier transform
(FFT) [70], and, more recently, by harmonic phasor analytic
expressions [71].
In the past, harmonic domain modeling has been hampered
by insufficient attention given to the solution method. Ear-
lier methods used the Gauss–Seidel type fixed point itera-
tion, which frequently diverged. Improvements made since
then have been to include linearizing RLC components in
the circuit to be solved in such a way as to have no effect
on the solution itself [69], [72]. A more recent approach has
been to replace the nonlinear devices at each iteration by a
linear Norton equivalent chosen to mimic the nonlinearity
as closely as possible, sometimes by means of a frequency
coupled Norton admittance. The progression with these im-
provements has let toward Newton-type solutions, as em-
ployed successfully in the load flow for many years. When
the nonlinear system to be solved is expressed in a form suit-
able for solution by Newton’s method, the separate problems
of device modeling and system solution are completely de-
coupled and the wide variety of improvements to the basic
Newton method, developed by the numerical analysis com-
munity, can readily be applied.
B. Harmonic Flows [5]
In its simplest form the frequency domain provides a direct
solution of the effect of specified individual harmonic or non-
harmonic frequency injections throughout a linear system,
without explicit consideration of the harmonic interaction be-
tween the network and the nonlinear component(s).
The sources of harmonic injection, depending on the avail-
able information of the nonlinear components, can be current
sources or Norton or Thevenin harmonic equivalents.
A common experience derived from harmonic field tests is
the asymmetrical nature of the readings. Asymmetry, being
the rule rather than the exception, justifies the need for multi-
phase harmonic models, illustrated in Fig. 5. The basic com-
ponent of a multiphase algorithm is the multiconductor trans-
mission line, which can be accurately represented at any fre-
quency by means of an appropriate equivalent PI-model, in-
cluding mutual effects as well as earth return, skin effect,
etc. The transmission line models are then combined with
the other network passive components to obtain three-phase
equivalent harmonic impedances.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 88, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2000
 The system harmonic voltages are calculated by direct so-
lution of the linear equation
(13)
where is a reduced system admittance matrix of order
equal to (three times) the number of injection busbars.
C. Harmonic State Estimation
An important issue in the deregulated environment is the
allocation of financial responsibilities to guarantee agreed
levels of power quality. The main requirement in this respect
is the availability of accurate and sufficiently discriminating
measurements. The use of conventional indexes such as the
total harmonic distortion (THD) are not suitable for this pur-
pose because they do not distinguish between “injected” and
“absorbed” harmonic currents. Such discrimination requires
measuring the displacement angle between each harmonic
current and its corresponding bus voltage.
A simplistic philosophy, the “first come first served,” al-
though easy to implement, is unfair with new customers. At
the same time, the addition of a new plant, linear or non-
linear, can magnify the harmonic content in other parts of the
system. Therefore, criteria based purely on measurements at
the connection points may be disastrous to other system com-
ponents. The problem arises from the interaction between
the nonlinear plant and other network components; this is a
system-wide problem and has no unique and objective solu-
tion. The location of each individual harmonic source must
be taken into account to apportion financial responsibility
among the interconnected users of the grid.
However, it is impractical to simultaneously measure har-
monic voltages and currents at a large number of locations
because harmonic instruments are generally much more ex-
pensive than fundamental frequency meters.
System-wide harmonic state estimation (HSE) is capable
of providing information on harmonic generation and pene-
tration throughout the power network. The main applications
of state estimation to electric power quality are described in
[4]. HSE is a reverse process of harmonic simulation that an-
alyzes the response of a power system to the given injection
current sources at harmonic frequencies, while the HSE uses
the measurements from the power system to identify the har-
monic sources [73], [74].
In a harmonic state estimator [75], the three-phase power
system is partitioned into two parts: an ac backbone con-
taining no harmonic sources and a set of suspicious har-
monic sources. The ac backbone, surrounded by a boundary
line, is defined as the interconnected linear network part of
the power system, consisting of the individual linear com-
ponents (such as generators, transformers, and transmission
lines). The suspicious nodes could be unknown passive loads
or nonlinear devices.
In the context of deregulation, each point of connection
between the independent network components must be con-
sidered a “suspicious bus.”
ARRILLAGA et al.: POWER QUALITY FOLLOWING DEREGULATION
Fig. 6. Physical components of the harmonic state estimator.
A number of multichannel measurement points are then
placed at selected suspicious buses and lines within the
backbone, to perform partial, synchronized, and asym-
metric harmonic measurements of suspicious node voltages,
suspicious node injection currents, and line currents.
Synchronization is achieved by time stamping via Global
Positioning System (GPS) [76]. An illustration of the
physical components of HSE and a typical measurement
placement are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively, and
Fig. 8 shows the framework of a harmonic state estimator.
The measurement placement can be modified by observ-
ability analysis (OA) [77], which is an essential tool for
system-wide HSE to identify its solvability. Observability is
dependent on the number, locations, and types of available
measurements, network topology, as well as the system
primitive admittance matrix.
Generally, the measurement values obtained from the har-
monic instruments are close to their true values, but they
differ by some unknown system measurement errors, such
as inaccurate transducer calibration, effect of A/D conver-
sion, and noise in communication channels. Gaussian noise
models usually provide an adequate description for the un-
certainties present.
Harmonic phasor voltages at all buses within the back-
bone are chosen as the state variables to be estimated. Based
on the system bus admittance matrix and the measurement
placement, a set of linear equations formulates how the mea-
surements are functionally related to the state variables. The
system-wide HSE using partial measurements is usually un-
derdetermined. That is, the number of independent measure-
ment equations is less than the number of state variables.
To overcome this difficulty, the HSE transforms the un-
derdetermined problem into an overdetermined one by sub-
stantially reducing the number of unknown state variables
to match the limited measurements available. The reduction
starts from harmonic voltages at all buses within the back-
bone to the voltages at suspicious buses, then to the voltages
at unmeasured suspicious buses, and finally to the real part
of the voltages at unmeasured suspicious buses. The size of
the HSE problem (e.g., the dimensions of matrices to be in-
verted) becomes much smaller.
255
Fig. 7. Example of measurement placement.
Fig. 8. Framework of HSE: 1) partial and synchronized
measurements of phasor bus voltages, bus injection currents, and
line currents at each harmonic and 2) phasor bus voltages, bus
injection currents, line currents, and power flows at each harmonic
throughout the system.
Although the information available is still relatively small,
i.e., the reduced harmonic admittance matrices and the par-
tial harmonic measurement values, that is sufficient for the
system-wide estimation to be carried out at a central com-
puter. The harmonic state estimator will use this limited data,
to generate the “best” estimate of harmonic spectra for all
the bus voltages, injection currents, and line currents (in-
cluding measured and unmeasured) throughout the backbone
256
network. The criterion used to judge if an estimate is the
“best” can be one of the following: maximum likelihood;
weighted least-squares; minimum variance; conditional ex-
pected value; weighted least absolute value; or least median
of squares.
The harmonic voltages at the suspicious buses and har-
monic currents injected from the suspicious sources to the
backbone are provided by the estimator at the end of HSE.
Thus, each suspicious source can be clarified as a harmonic
injector or a harmonic absorber.
As an illustration of HSE application, Fig. 9 shows a three-
dimensional (3-D) display of the harmonic current injections
(or absorptions) at 27 nodes, and up to the twenty-fifth har-
monic, for the nine bus test system of Fig. 7 with only two
measuring points and nine measuring channels placed distant
from the harmonic sources.
VIII. MONITORING OF POWER QUALITY
A. Event Recording
As explained earlier, the main power quality concerns of
customers are voltage sags and short interruptions. In the
past, detection of these events provided imperfect informa-
tion. Lack of reporting, inaccuracies in network mapping and
changes in the operating schemes, combined to reduce the
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 88, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2000
Fig. 9. Harmonic current injections in the test system.

Fig. 10. An illustration of the definition of events.

Fig. 11. Major subsystems making up a monitoring system.

ARRILLAGA et al.: POWER QUALITY FOLLOWING DEREGULATION 257

Fig. 12. Conventional centralized processing architecture.
monitoring reliability. An example of new technology for
general use by customers is the Indicateur de qualite de four-
niture (IQF) concept, used by Electricite de France.
This instrument operates in two modes, as illustrated in
Fig. 10. In normal mode, the “instant rms value” defined
as 10 ms[ (1/2)period 50 Hz] rms value of the voltage
is permanently compared to thresholds. When the voltage
exceeds the upper ascending threshold, a timer is activated
till the voltage goes under the upper descending threshold.
The elapsed time is then compared to a time threshold. If the
threshold is trespassed, an event is declared and recorded
with time, duration, and mean value of the “instant rms
value” computed on this duration. A similar process is
defined for undervoltage. When the voltage goes below,
say, 10% of the nominal, the device switches to a “power
shortage mode” and the tracking of the voltage is inter-
rupted. This event is recorded after power recovery, with
time of occurrence and duration, with rms value. The voltage
is derived from a resistor divider, and a microprocessor
performs the necessary processing 90 times every half cycle.
B. Waveform Distortion Assessment
The variety of power electronic controlled devices ap-
pearing in the market for interfacing new generating sources
and increasing the controllability of power exchanges in the
deregulated environment requires broadening the scope of
the instrumentation. Ideally, these requirements are:
• continuous monitoring at points of interface and energy
exchange between different parties;
• synchronization between geographically separated
monitors;
• ability to determine the location of the distorting
sources;
• ability to detect nonharmonic signals (e.g., sub, inter-
mittent and interharmonics).
Most digital instruments in existence use the FFT, and the
processing of information can be continuous or discontin-
uous depending on the characteristic of the signals under
measurement with reference to waveform distortion.
The required monitoring system can be broadly divided
into three subsystems of: input signal conditioning and acqui-
258
Fig. 13. A possible distributed processing architecture.
sition subsystem; digital processing and storage subsystem;
and the user interface subsystem as shown in Fig. 11.
Many existing data acquisition systems used in power
systems such as supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) inherit the centralized processing architecture
of the 1980’s as shown in Fig. 12. Despite the advances in
the computer hardware and software technology, the cen-
tralized processing structure places a constraint on the data
processing capability of the system. From the power quality
monitoring perspective, this limited real-time processing
capacity results in offline postprocessing of the acquired
data to derive the necessary information. The lack of online
analysis processing capability means large volumes of raw
data have to be acquired and stored. Consequentially, the
limited system throughput, bandwidth and storage volumes
only allow the system to record snapshots.
The configuration described above relies on the current
transformers and voltage transformers outputs being routed
to a central location, typically in the control or metering
room. Although this configuration is normally sufficient for
relay operation or metering purposes, the limited bandwidth
and electromagnetic susceptibility of the long analog com-
munication links create serious concerns over the integrity
of the measurements. In general, the designs of metering sys-
tems are optimized for precise operation at the system nom-
inal fundamental frequency while protection systems may
give some cognizance to fast transients.
The functions of the local acquisition modules are usually
confined to some signal conditioning and possibly A/D
conversion, leaving the data processing to be implemented in
a centralized system. Although the centralized system may
possess distributed processor architecture with industrial
standard high-speed bus systems, extensive use of the bus
system to shuffle large volumes of raw data through the
system is usually required. Ultimately this not only limits the
data acquisition to snapshots, but it also places constraints
on the number of data channels, with little opportunity for
expansion.
In order to overcome the above shortcomings due pri-
marily to insufficient online processing capability, some
form of distributed processing architecture is required.
Fig. 13 shows a possible configuration, but many variants of
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 88, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2000
Fig. 14. Simultaneous measurement of voltages and currents in a three-phase line.
it may suffice. There are two key features in this architecture
compared to the conventional one of Fig. 12. The first is
the shift of A/D conversion from the central location to the
switchyard close to the transducers. This enables the use of
digital communication link between the switchyard and the
central system, improving the bandwidth, dynamic range,
and noise immunity of the acquired signals. The fiber-optic
link also reduces the system’s susceptibility to electro-
magnetic noise, which can be significant in a switchyard
environment. The second key element is the provision of a
digital signal processor (DSP) (or CPU) for undertaking the
data processing for each individual channel. By dedicating
a single DSP/CPU to every data channel, computationally
intensive manipulations can be implemented online and
thereby reduce the traffic through the system.
A centralized source of sampling signals provides the op-
portunity to synchronize the samplings across all data chan-
nels. The real challenge in this configuration is a mechanism
for routing the sampling pulses from the central location to
the front end A/D in the switchyard. An efficient technique is
needed so that all the data acquisitions can be synchronized.
Furthermore, the modular structure provides flexibility for
future expansions. New A/D’s and DSP’s can be gradually
added to the system in more cost-effective and manageable
stages.
The DSP usually communicates with the central data
collection system through multiprocessing bus architectures.
This enables the DSP modules to be designed as plug-in
cards facilitating flexible expansion.
Multichannel three-phase real time monitoring is now be-
coming available. A recently proposed system [78], shown in
Fig. 14, includes remote data conversion modules (RDCM),
ARRILLAGA et al.: POWER QUALITY FOLLOWING DEREGULATION
digital fiber-optic transmission, GPS synchronization, cen-
tral parallel processing, and ethernet-connected PC’s for dis-
tant control and display.
Document IEC 1000-4.7 deals with harmonic monitoring
and list the following types:
• quasi-stationary harmonics;
• fluctuating harmonics;
• intermittent harmonics;
• interharmonics.
Only in the case of quasi-stationary waveforms can the use
of discontinuous monitoring be justified. In the remaining
categories and at points of power interchange between dif-
ferent companies it is necessary to perform real-time contin-
uous monitoring.
IX. SUMMARY
Electricity deregulation is not expected to introduce new
power quality problems but is likely to highlight the existing
ones. Accordingly, the paper has summarized the extent to
which power quality issues will be affected by deregulation
as well as the actions required to meet specified levels of
quality throughout the power system. The main issues are
the need to agree on adequate standards and the development
of suitable power quality simulation and monitoring tools
for their implementation. A review of power quality simu-
lation techniques has been attempted and the special needs
of power quality monitoring at points of energy interchange
have been discussed. Emerging power quality state estima-
tion techniques have also been described, with particular em-
phasis on their potential capability to pinpoint the sources of
waveform distortion.
259
 Although there is still room for improvement, the tools be-
coming available for power system quality assessment can do
their job once the, still uncertain, demands of the deregulated
industry become clear.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank A. McEachern and L.
Fickert for their contributions. They also acknowledge the
past contributions of all their colleagues to the development
of the simulation and monitoring tools described in the paper.
In particular, they wish to acknowledge the help received
from S. Chen, M. B. Dewe, B. C. Smith, A. R. Wood and
L. D. Zhang.
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Jos Arrillaga (Fellow, IEEE) was born in Spain in 1934. He received the
B.E. degree in Spain and the M.Sc., Ph.D., and D.Sc. degrees in Manchester,
U.K.
While in Manchester, he led the Power Systems Group of UMIST in
1970–1974. Since 1975, he has been a Professor at the University of Can-
terbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
Dr. Arrillaga is a recipient of the 1997 Uno Lamm High Voltage Direct
Current Award and of the 1997 John Mungenast International Power Quality
Award. He is a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEE) and of
the Academy of Sciences of New Zealand.
Neville R. Watson (Member, IEEE) was born in Dunedin, New Zealand, in
1961. He received the B.E. (Hons) and Ph.D. degrees in electrical and elec-
tronic engineering from the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New
Zealand.
He is currently a Senior Lecturer at the University of Canterbury. In addi-
tion to power quality, his interests include steady-state and dynamic analysis
of AC/DC power systems.
Math H. J. Bollen was born in The Netherlands
in 1960. He received the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees
from Eindhoven University of Technology, Eind-
hoven, The Netherlands.
He held a postdoctorate position at Eindhoven
University of Technology from 1989 to 1993, a
lecturer position at UMIST, Manchester, U.K.,
from 1993 to 1996, and is currently Associate
Professor at Chalmers University of Technology,
Gothenburg, Sweden. His current research
activities include power quality, reliability, and
protection.
Dr. Bollen is Co-Chair of the IEEE IAS Power System Reliability Sub-
committee. In 1998, he received the ABB Gunnar Engström prize for his
work on voltage sags.
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