KZ3023

Living in a Network Centric World
Network Fundamentals – Chapter 1

Objectives
• Describe how networks impact our daily

lives.
• Describe the role of data networking in the
human network.
• Identify the key components of any data
network.
• Identify the opportunities and challenges
posed by converged networks.
• Describe the characteristics of network
architectures: fault tolerance, scalability,
quality of service and security.
I t ll d IRC li t d Wiki
How Networks Impact Daily Life
• Explain the benefits of instantaneous

communication and how it supports and
improves our lives.
• Decide what to wear using online current weather conditions.

• Find the least congested route to your destination, displaying weather
and traffic video from webcams.
• Check your bank balance and pay bills electronically.
• Receive and send e-mail, or make an Internet phone call, at an
Internet cafe over lunch.
• Obtain health information and nutritional advice from experts all over
the world, and post to a forum to share related health or treatment
information.
• Download new recipes and cooking techniques to create a
spectacular dinner.
• Post and share your photographs, home videos, and experiences with
friends or with the world.
• Describe the characteristics and purpose of

popular communication media such as, IM,
Wikis , Blogs, Podcasting, and Collaboration
Tools
– Instant messaging
• Real time communication
• between 2 or more
• people based on typed text
– Weblogs (Blogs)
• Web pages created
• by an individual
– Podcasting
• Website that contains
• audio files available
• for downloading
• Explain ways that using information networks

to share and collaborate improves teaching
and learning
• Communication over a network changes the
way we work
– Intranet, private network
Business application can be accessed remotely as if the employees were on site

Example
• Consider these business scenarios.

– A wheat farmer in Australia uses a laptop enabled with
a Global Positioning System (GPS) to plant a crop with
precision and efficiency. At harvest time, the farmer can
co-ordinate harvesting with the availability of grain
transporters and storage facilities. Using mobile
wireless technology, the grain transporter can monitor
the vehicle in-route in order to maintain the best fuel
efficiency and safe operation. Changes in status can be
relayed to the driver of the vehicle instantly.
Example
• Remote workers, called teleworkers or telecommuters,

use secure remote access services from home or while
traveling. The data network enables them to work as if
they were on-site, with access to all the network-based
tools normally available for their jobs. Virtual meetings and
conferences can be convened which include people in
remote locations. The network provides audio and video
capability so all participants can both see and hear each
other. The information from the meetings can be recorded
to a wiki or blog. The latest versions of the agenda and
minutes can be shared as soon as they are created.
• Describe ways communication over a

network supports the way we play
• The widespread adoption of the Internet by the
entertainment and travel industries enhances the ability to
enjoy and share many forms of recreation, regardless of
location.
• It is possible to explore places interactively that previously
we could only dream of visiting, as well as preview the
actual destinations before making a trip.
• The details and photographs from these adventures may
be posted online for others to view.
Data Networking Role,
Components, and Challenges
• Basic characteristics of communication
– Rules or agreements are 1st established
– Important information may need to be repeated
– Various modes of communication may impact the
effectiveness of getting the message across.
Rules or agreements are 1st
established
• Before beginning to communicate with each other,

we establish rules or agreements to govern the
conversation.
• These rules, or protocols, must be followed in
order for the message to be successfully delivered
and understood.
• Among the protocols that govern successful
human communication are:
– An identified sender and receiver
– Agreed upon method of communicating (face-to-face,
telephone, letter, photograph)
– Common language and grammar
– Speed and timing of delivery
– Confirmation or acknowledgement requirements
• Describe the role of data networking in
communications
• Being able to reliably communicate to anyone,

anywhere, is becoming increasingly important to
our personal and business lives.
• In order to support the immediate delivery of the
millions of messages being exchanged between
people all over the world, we rely on a web of
interconnected networks.
• These data or information networks vary in size and
capabilities, but all networks have four basic elements in
common:
– Rules or agreements to govern how the messages are sent,
directed, received and interpreted.
– The messages or units of information that travel from one device
to another
– A means of interconnecting these devices - a medium that can
transport the messages from one device to another
– Devices on the network that exchange messages with each other
• Describe the various
elements that make up a
network
– Devices
• These are used to
communicate with one
another
– Medium
• This is how the
devices are connected
together
– Messages
• Information that
travels over the
medium
– Rules
• Governs how
• The standardization of the various elements of the
network enables equipment and devices created
by different companies to work together.
• Experts in various technologies can contribute
their best ideas on how to develop an efficient
network, without regard to the brand or
manufacturer of the equipment.
• Describe the role of converged networks in
communications
– Converged network
• A type of network that can carry voice, video & data
over the same network
Converged networks
• Technology advances are enabling us to consolidate these

disparate networks onto one platform - a platform defined
as a converged network.
• The flow of voice, video, and data traveling over the same
network eliminates the need to create and maintain
separate networks.
• On a converged network there are still many points of
contact and many specialized devices - for example,
personal computers, phones, TVs, personal assistants,
and retail point-of-sale registers - but only one common
network infrastructure.
Converged networks
Network Architecture
Characteristics
• Networks must support a wide range of

applications and services, as well as operate over
many different types of physical infrastructures.
• The term network architecture, in this context,
refers to both the technologies that support the
infrastructure and the programmed services and
protocols that move the messages across that
infrastructure.
Characteristics
• As the Internet, and networks in general,
evolve, we are discovering that there are four
basic characteristics that the underlying
architectures need to address in order to
meet user expectations
– Fault tolerance
– Scalability
– Quality of service
– Security
Fault Tolerance
• The expectation that the Internet is always available to the millions of

users who rely on it requires a network architecture that is designed
and built to be fault tolerant.
• A fault tolerant network is one that limits the impact of a hardware or
software failure and can recover quickly when such a failure occurs.
• These networks depend on redundant links, or paths, between the
source and destination of a message.
• If one link or path fails, processes ensure that messages can be
instantly routed over a different link transparent to the users on either
end.
• Both the physical infrastructures and the logical processes that direct
the messages through the network are designed to accommodate this
redundancy.
• This is a basic premise of the architecture of current networks.
Characteristics
• Describe how packet switching helps
improve the resiliency and fault tolerance of
the Internet architecture
Characteristics
• Describe characteristics of the Internet that
help it scale to meet user demand
– Hierarchical
– Common standards
– Common protocols
Characteristics
• Explain the factors that necessitate Quality of
Service and the mechanisms necessary to
ensure it
Characteristics
• Describe how QoS mechanisms work to ensure
quality of service for applications that require it.
Characteristics
• Describe how to select the appropriate QoS strategy
for a given type of traffic
Characteristics
• Describe why networks must be secure
Characteristics
• Describe basic measures to secure data
networks
– Ensure confidentiality through use of
• User authentication
• Data encryption
– Maintain communication integrity through use of
• Digital signatures
– Ensure availability through use of
• Firewalls
• Redundant network
• architecture
• Hardware without a single
• point of failure
Summary
Communicating over the
Network
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Chapter 1 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 1
Objectives
Describe the structure of a network, including the
devices and media that are necessary for successful
communications.
Explain the function of protocols in network
communications.
Explain the advantages of using a layered model to
describe network functionality.
Describe the role of each layer in two recognized
network models: The TCP/IP model and the OSI
model.
Describe the importance of addressing and naming
schemes in network communications.
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Introduction
In this chapter, we focus on these aspects of the

information network:
• Devices that make up the network
• Media that connect the devices
• Messages that are carried across the network
• Rules and processes that govern network communications
• Tools and commands for constructing and maintaining
networks
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Network Structure
Define the elements of communication
• Communication begins with a message, or information, that
must be sent from one individual or device to another. People
exchange ideas using many different communication methods.
• 3 common elements of communication
¾ message source
¾ the channel
¾ message destination
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Define a network
• data or information networks capable of carrying many
different types of communications including traditional
computer data, interactive voice, video, and entertainment
products.
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Network Structure
In theory, a single communication, such as a music video
or an e-mail message, could be sent across a network
from a source to a destination as one massive continuous
stream of bits.
A better approach is to divide the data into smaller, more
manageable pieces to send over the network.
This division of the data stream into smaller pieces is
called segmentation.
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Network Structure
Describe how messages are communicated
• Data is sent across a network in small “chunks” called
segments
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Segmentation
Segmenting messages has two primary benefits.
1. By sending smaller individual pieces from source to destination, many
different conversations can be interleaved on the network.
• The process used to interleave the pieces of separate
conversations together on the network is called multiplexing.
2. Segmentation can increase the reliability of network communications.

The separate pieces of each message need not travel the same
pathway across the network from source to destination.
If a particular path becomes congested with data traffic or fails,
individual pieces of the message can still be directed to the
destination using alternate pathways.
If part of the message fails to make it to the destination, only the
missing parts need to be retransmitted.
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Segmentation
In network communications, each segment of the

message must go through a similar process to ensure
that it gets to the correct destination and can be
reassembled into the content of the original message.
Various types of devices throughout the network

participate in ensuring that the pieces of the message
arrive reliably at their destination.
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Network Structure
Define the components of a network
•Network components
hardware – devices, media
software – process, services
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Hardware – Devices, Media
Devices and media are the

physical elements or hardware
of the network.
Hardware is often the visible
components of the network
platform such as a laptop, a PC,
a switch, or the cabling used to
connect the devices.
Occasionally, some
components may not be so
visible. In the case of wireless
media, messages are
transmitted through the air
using invisible radio frequency
or infrared waves.
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Software – Services, Processes
Services and processes are the
communication programs, called
software, that run on the networked
devices.
A network service provides
information in response to a
request.
Services include many of the
common network applications
people use every day, like e-mail
hosting services and web hosting
services.
Processes provide the functionality
that directs and moves the
messages through the network.
Processes are less obvious to us
but are critical to the operation of
networks.
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Network Structure
End Devices and their Role in the
Network
•End devices form interface with
human network & communications
network
Computers (work stations,
laptops, file servers, web
servers)
Network printers
VoIP phones
Security cameras
Mobile handheld devices (such
as wireless barcode scanners,
PDAs)
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End Devices
In the context of a network, end devices are referred to as hosts.

A host device is either the source or destination of a message
transmitted over the network. In order to distinguish one host from
another, each host on a network is identified by an address.
When a host initiates communication, it uses the address of the
destination host to specify where the message should be sent.
Role of end devices:
• client - Clients are hosts that have software installed that enables them
to request and display the information obtained from the server.
• server - Servers are hosts that have software installed that enables
them to provide information and services, like e-mail or web pages, to
other hosts on the network
• both client and server
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Network Structure
Identify the role of an intermediary device in a data
network and be able to contrast that role with the role of
an end device
•Role of an intermediary device
provides connectivity and ensures data flows
across network
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Intermediary Device
Intermediary device provide connectivity and to work

behind the scenes to ensure that data flows across the
network.
These devices connect the individual hosts to the network
and can connect multiple individual networks to form an
internetwork.
Examples of intermediary network devices are:
• Network Access Devices (Hubs, switches, and wireless access
points)
• Internetworking Devices (routers)
• Communication Servers and Modems
• Security Devices (firewalls)
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Network Structure
Communication across a network is carried on a
medium.
The medium provides the channel over which the
message travels from source to destination.
Modern networks primarily use three types of media to
interconnect devices and to provide the pathway over
which data can be transmitted.
These media are:
•Metallic wires within cables
•Glass or plastic fibers (fiber optic cable)
•Wireless transmission
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Network Types
Define Local Area Networks (LANs)
•- A network serving a home, building or campus is considered
a Local Area Network (LAN)
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LAN
Networks infrastructures can vary greatly in terms of:

•The size of the area covered
•The number of users connected
•The number and types of services available
An individual network usually spans a single geographical area,
providing services and applications to people within a common
organizational structure, such as a single business, campus or
region.
This type of network is called a Local Area Network (LAN).
A LAN is usually administered by a single organization.
The administrative control that governs the security and access
control policies are enforced on the network level.
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Network Types
Define Wide Area Networks (WANs)
•- LANs separated by geographic distance are connected by a
network known as a Wide Area Network (WAN)
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WAN
WANs use specifically designed network devices to make the

interconnections between LANs.
Because of the importance of these devices to the network,
configuring, installing and maintaining these devices are skills that
are integral to the function of an organization's network.
LANs and WANs are very useful to individual organizations.

They connect the users within the organization.
They allow many forms of communication including exchange e-
mails, corporate training, and other resource sharing.
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Network Types
Define the Internet
•The internet is defined as a
• global mesh of interconnected networks
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The Internet – A network of networks
Although there are benefits to using a LAN or WAN, most

of us need to communicate with a resource on another
network, outside of our local organization.
Examples of this type of communication include:
• Sending an e-mail to a friend in another country
• Accessing news or products on a website
• Getting a file from a neighbor's computer
• Instant messaging with a relative in another city
• Following a favorite sporting team's performance on a cell phone
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Network Types
Describe network representations
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network representations
Network Interface Card - A NIC, or LAN adapter, provides the

physical connection to the network at the PC or other host device.
The media connecting the PC to the networking device plugs directly
into the NIC.
Physical Port - A connector or outlet on a networking device where

the media is connected to a host or other networking device.
Interface - Specialized ports on an internetworking device that

connect to individual networks. Because routers are used to
interconnect networks, the ports on a router are referred to network
interfaces.
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Rules that govern communications
All communication, whether face-to-face or over a

network, is governed by predetermined rules called
protocols.
These protocols are specific to the characteristics of the
conversation.
In our day-to-day personal communication, the rules we
use to communicate over one medium, like a telephone
call, are not necessarily the same as the protocols for
using another medium, such as a sending a letter.
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Function of Protocol in Network
Communication
The importance of protocols and how they are used to
facilitate communication over data networks
•A protocol is a set of predetermined rules
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Successful communication between hosts on a network
requires the interaction of many different protocols.
A group of inter-related protocols that are necessary to
perform a communication function is called a protocol
suite.
These protocols are implemented in software and
hardware that is loaded on each host and network device
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Communication
Explain network protocols
•Network protocols are used
to allow devices to
communicate
successfully
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Communication
Describe Protocol suites and industry standards
•A standard is
• a process or protocol that has been endorsed by the
networking industry and ratified by a standards organization
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Communication
Define different protocols and how they interact
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Protocol Suite
An example of the use of a protocol suite in network communications

is the interaction between a web server and a web browser.
This interaction uses a number of protocols and standards in the
process of exchanging information between them.
The different protocols work together to ensure that the messages
are received and understood by both parties.
Examples of these protocols are:
•Application Protocol
•Transport Protocol
•Internetwork Protocol
•Network Access Protocol
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Application Protocol:
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a common protocol

that governs the way that a web server and a web client
interact.
HTTP defines the content and formatting of the requests
and responses exchanged between the client and server.
Both the client and the web server software implement
HTTP as part of the application.
The HTTP protocol relies on other protocols to govern
how the messages are transported between client and
server
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Transport Protocol:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the transport

protocol that manages the individual conversations
between web servers and web clients.
TCP divides the HTTP messages into smaller pieces,
called segments, to be sent to the destination client.
It is also responsible for controlling the size and rate at
which messages are exchanged between the server and
the client.
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Internetwork Protocol:
The most common internetwork protocol is Internet

Protocol (IP).
IP is responsible for taking the formatted segments from
TCP, encapsulating them into packets, assigning the
appropriate addresses, and selecting the best path to the
destination host.
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Network Access Protocols:
Network access protocols describe two primary functions,

data link management and the physical transmission of
data on the media.
Data-link management protocols take the packets from IP
and format them to be transmitted over the media.
The standards and protocols for the physical media
govern how the signals are sent over the media and how
they are interpreted by the receiving clients.
Transceivers on the network interface cards implement
the appropriate standards for the media that is being
used.
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Communication
Technology independent Protocols
•-Many diverse types of devices can communicate using the
same sets of protocols. This is because protocols specify
network functionality, not the underlying technology to support
this functionality.
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Networking protocols describe the functions that occur
during network communications.
In the face-to-face conversation example, a protocol for
communicating might state that in order to signal that the
conversation is complete, the sender must remain silent
for two full seconds.
However, this protocol does not specify how the sender is
to remain silent for the two seconds.
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Looking at the web server example, HTTP does not
specify what programming language is used to create the
browser, which web server software should be used to
serve the web pages, what operating system the software
runs on, or the hardware requirements necessary to
display the browser.
It also does not describe how the server should detect
errors, although it does describe what the server should
do if an error occurs.
This means that a computer - and other devices, like
mobile phones or PDAs - can access a web page stored
on any type of web server that uses any form of operating
system from anywhere on the Internet
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Layers with TCP/IP and OSI Model
Explain the benefits of using a layered model
•Benefits include
assists in protocol design
fosters competition
changes in one layer do not affect other layers
provides a common language
•
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Benefit :
Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate

at a specific layer have defined information that they act
upon and a defined interface to the layers above and
below.
Fosters competition because products from different
vendors can work together.
Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer
from affecting other layers above and below.
Provides a common language to describe networking
functions and capabilities.
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Protocol and Reference Model
There are two basic types of networking models: protocol

models and reference models.
A protocol model provides a model that closely matches
the structure of a particular protocol suite.
The hierarchical set of related protocols in a suite
typically represents all the functionality required to
interface the human network with the data network.
The TCP/IP model is a protocol model because it
describes the functions that occur at each layer of
protocols within the TCP/IP suite.
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Describe TCP/IP Mode
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Describe the Communication Process
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Explain protocol data units (PDU) and encapsulation
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Describe the process of sending and receiving
messages
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Explain protocol and
reference models
•A protocol model
• provides a model that
closely matches the
structure of a particular
protocol suite.
•A reference model
• provides a common
reference for
maintaining
consistency within all
types of network
protocols and services.
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Define OSI
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Compare OSI and TCP/IP model
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Addressing and Naming Schemes
Explain how labels in encapsulation headers are used
to manage communication in data networks
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Describe examples of Ethernet MAC Addresses, IP
Addresses, and TCP/UDP Port numbers
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Explain how labels in encapsulation headers are used
to manage communication in data networks
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Describe how information in the encapsulation header
is used to identify the source and destination processes
for data communication
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Summary
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Application Layer
Functionality and
Protocols
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Objectives
Define the application layer as the source and
destination of data for communication across
networks.
Explain the role of protocols in supporting
communication between server and client
processes.
Describe the features, operation, and use of
well-known TCP/IP application layer services
(HTTP, DNS, SMTP).
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Introduction
Most of us experience the Internet through the World
Wide Web, e-mail services, and file-sharing programs.
These applications, and many others, provide the
human interface to the underlying network, enabling us
to send and receive information with relative ease
Typically the applications that we use are intuitive,
meaning we can access and use them without knowing
how they work.
However, for network professionals, it is important to
know how an application is able to format, transmit and
interpret messages that are sent and received across
the network.
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Applications – The Interface Between
Human and Data Networks
applications provide the means for generating and receiving data
that can be transported on the network
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OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection reference model is

a layered, abstract representation created as a
guideline for network protocol design.
The OSI model divides the networking process into
seven logical layers, each of which has unique
functionality and to which are assigned specific
services and protocols.
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OSI Model
In this model, information is passed from one layer to

the next, starting at the Application layer on the
transmitting host, proceeding down the hierarchy to the
Physical layer, then passing over the communications
channel to the destination host, where the information
proceeds back up the hierarchy, ending at the
Application layer.
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Applications – The Interface Between
Human and Data Networks
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Application Layer
The Application layer, Layer seven, is the top layer of

both the OSI and TCP/IP models. It is the layer that
provides the interface between the applications we use
to communicate and the underlying network over which
our messages are transmitted.
Application layer protocols are used to exchange data
between programs running on the source and
destination hosts.
There are many Application layer protocols and new
protocols are always being developed.
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TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Although the TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the
definition of the OSI model, the functionality of the TCP/IP
application layer protocols fit roughly into the framework of the top
three layers of the OSI model: Application, Presentation and
Session layers.
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TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Most TCP/IP application layer protocols were

developed before the emergence of personal
computers, graphical user interfaces and multimedia
objects.
As a result, these protocols implement very little of the
functionality that is specified in the OSI model
Presentation and Session layers.
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OSI & TCP/IP Protocol Suite
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Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer has three primary functions:
1. Coding and conversion of Application layer data to ensure
that data from the source device can be interpreted by the
appropriate application on the destination device.
2. Compression of the data in a manner that can be
decompressed by the destination device.
3. Encryption of the data for transmission and the decryption of
data upon receipt by the destination.
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Presentation Layer
Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated
with a particular protocol stack.
The standards for video and graphics are examples. Some well-
known standards for video include QuickTime and Motion Picture
Experts Group (MPEG).
QuickTime is an Apple Computer specification for video and audio,
and MPEG is a standard for video compression and coding.
Among the well-known graphic image formats are Graphics

Interchange Format (GIF), Joint Photographic Experts Group
(JPEG), and Tagged Image File Format (TIFF).
GIF and JPEG are compression and coding standards for graphic
images, and TIFF is a standard coding format for graphic images.
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Session Layer
As the name of the Session layer implies, functions at this layer

create and maintain dialogs between source and destination
applications.
The Session layer handles the exchange of information to initiate
dialogs, keep them active, and to restart sessions that are
disrupted or idle for a long period of time.
Most applications, like web browsers or e-mail clients, incorporate

functionality of the OSI layers 5, 6 and 7.
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OSI and TCP/IP Model
Describe the role protocols play in networking and be able to
identify several message properties that can be defined by a
protocol
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OSI and TCP/IP Model
The most widely-known TCP/IP Application layer protocols are
those that provide for the exchange of user information.
These protocols specify the format and control information
necessary for many of the common Internet communication
functions.
Among these TCP/IP protocols are:
Domain Name Service Protocol (DNS) is used to resolve Internet
names to IP addresses.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to transfer files that make
up the Web pages of the World Wide Web.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for the transfer of mail
messages and attachments.
Telnet, a terminal emulation protocol, is used to provide remote access
to servers and networking devices.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for interactive file transfer between
systems.
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Application Layer
Software
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Application vs Application Layer Software
Application is any computer program that is used to

complete a task
Application layer software is the software necessary to
format data for the network
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Application Layer Software
The functions associated with the Application layer

protocols enable our human network to interface with
the underlying data network.
When we open a web browser or an instant message
window, an application is started, and the program is
put into the device's memory where it is executed.
Each executing program loaded on a device is referred
to as a process.
Within the Application layer, there are two forms of
software programs or processes that provide access to
the network: applications and services.
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Network-Aware Applications
Applications are the software programs used by people

to communicate over the network.
Some end-user applications are network-aware,
meaning that they implement the application layer
protocols and are able to communicate directly with the
lower layers of the protocol stack.
E-mail clients and web browsers are examples of these
types of applications.
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Application layer Services
Other programs may need the assistance of Application

layer services to use network resources, like file
transfer or network print spooling.
Though transparent to the user, these services are the
programs that interface with the network and prepare
the data for transfer.
Different types of data - whether it is text, graphics, or
video - require different network services to ensure that
it is properly prepared for processing by the functions
occurring at the lower layers of OSI model.
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Making
Provisions for
Applications
and Services
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The Client/Server model
In the client/server model, the device requesting the information is

called a client and the device responding to the request is called a
server.
Client and server processes are considered to be in the Application
layer.
The client begins the exchange by requesting data from the server,
which responds by sending one or more streams of data to the
client.
Application layer protocols describe the format of the requests and
responses between clients and servers.
In addition to the actual data transfer, this exchange may also
require control information, such as user authentication and the
identification of a data file to be transferred.
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The Client/Server model
Describe the roles of client and server processes in data networks
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Server
In a general networking context, any device that

responds to requests from client applications is
functioning as a server.
A server is usually a computer that contains information
to be shared with many client systems.
For example, web pages, documents, databases,
pictures, video, and audio files can all be stored on a
server and delivered to requesting clients.
In other cases, such as a network printer, the print
server delivers the client print requests to the specified
printer
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Application Layer Services and Protocols
List common Application Layers services and protocols
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A single application may employ many different

supporting Application layer services; thus what
appears to the user as one request for a web page
may, in fact, amount to dozens of individual requests.
And for each request, multiple processes may be
executed.
For example, a client may require several individual
processes to formulate just one request to a server.
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Additionally, servers typically have multiple clients

requesting information at the same time.
For example, a Telnet server may have many clients
requesting connections to it.
These individual client requests must be handled
simultaneously and separately for the network to
succeed.
The Application layer processes and services rely on
support from lower layer functions to successfully
manage the multiple conversations.
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The Peer-to-Peer Model
In addition to the client/server model for networking,

there is also a peer-to-peer model.
Peer-to-peer networking involves two distinct forms:
peer-to-peer network design and peer-to-peer
applications (P2P).
Both forms have similar features but in practice work
very differently.
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Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, two or more computers are

connected via a network and can share resources
(such as printers and files) without having a dedicated
server.
Every connected end device (known as a peer) can
function as either a server or a client.
One computer might assume the role of server for one
transaction while simultaneously serving as a client for
another.
The roles of client and server are set on a per request
basis.
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Peer-to-peer networking
Unlike the client/server model, which uses dedicated servers, peer-

to-peer networks decentralize the resources on a network.
Instead of locating information to be shared on dedicated servers,
information can be located anywhere on any connected device.
Most of the current operating systems support file and print sharing
without requiring additional server software.
Because peer-to-peer networks usually do not use centralized user
accounts, permissions, or monitors, it is difficult to enforce security
and access policies in networks containing more than just a few
computers.
User accounts and access rights must be set individually on each
peer device.
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P2P Application
Compare and contrast client server networking with peer-to-peer
networking and peer-to-peer applications
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Peer-to-Peer Applications
A peer-to-peer application (P2P), unlike a peer-to-peer network,

allows a device to act as both a client and a server within the same
communication.
In this model, every client is a server and every server a client.
Both can initiate a communication and are considered equal in the
communication process.
However, peer-to-peer applications require that each end device
provide a user interface and run a background service.
When you launch a specific peer-to-peer application it invokes the
required user interface and background services.
After that the devices can communicate directly.
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Peer-to-Peer Applications
Some P2P applications use a hybrid system where

resource sharing is decentralized but the indexes that
point to resource locations are stored in a centralized
directory.
In a hybrid system, each peer accesses an index server
to get the location of a resource stored on another peer.
The index server can also help connect two peers, but
once connected, the communication takes place
between the two peers without additional
communication to the index server.
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DNS Services and Protocols
The Transport layer uses an addressing scheme called

a port number.
Port numbers identify applications and Application layer
services that are the source and destination of data.
Server programs generally use predefined port
numbers that are commonly known by clients.
As we examine the different TCP/IP Application layer
protocols and services, we will be referring to the TCP
and UDP port numbers normally associated with these
services.
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DNS Services and Protocols
Some of these services are:

–Domain Name System (DNS) - TCP/UDP Port 53
–Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - TCP Port 80
–Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - TCP Port 25
–Post Office Protocol (POP) - UDP Port 110
–Telnet - TCP Port 23
–Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - UDP Port 67
–File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - TCP Ports 20 and 21
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DNS
In data networks, devices are labeled with numeric IP

addresses, so that they can participate in sending and
receiving messages over the network.
However, most people have a hard time remembering
this numeric address.
Hence, domain names were created to convert the
numeric address into a simple, recognizable name.
On the Internet these domain names, such as
www.cisco.com , are much easier for people to
remember than 198.132.219.25, which is the actual
numeric address for this server
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DNS
The Domain Name System (DNS) was created for domain name to
address resolution for these networks.
DNS uses a distributed set of servers to resolve the names
associated with these numbered addresses.
The DNS protocol defines an automated service that matches
resource names with the required numeric network address.
It includes the format for queries, responses, and data formats.
DNS protocol communications use a single format called a
message.
This message format is used for all types of client queries and
server responses, error messages, and the transfer of resource
record information between servers.
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DNS
Describe the features of the DNS protocol and how this protocol
supports DNS services
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nslookup
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DNS
The Domain Name System uses a hierarchical system to create a
name database to provide name resolution. The hierarchy looks
like an inverted tree with the root at the top and branches below.
At the top of the hierarchy, the root servers maintain records about
how to reach the top-level domain servers, which in turn have
records that point to the secondary level domain servers and so
on.
The different top-level domains represent the either the type of
organization or the country or origin. Examples of top-level
domains are:
.au - Australia
.co - Colombia
.com - a business or industry
.jp - Japan
.org - a non-profit organization
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HTTP Protocol
When a web address (or URL) is typed into a web

browser, the web browser establishes a connection to
the web service running on the server using the HTTP
protocol.
URLs (or Uniform Resource Locator) and URIs
(Uniform Resource Identifier) are the names most
people associate with web addresses.
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Browsers can interpret and present many data types,
such as plain text or Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML, the language in which web pages are
constructed).
Other types of data, however, may require another
service or program, typically referred to as plug-ins or
add-ons.
To help the browser determine what type of file it is
receiving, the server specifies what kind of data the file
contains.
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HTTP Protocol
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HTTP Protocol
Describe the features of the HTTP protocol and how this protocol
supports the delivery of web pages to the client
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HTTP Process
First, the browser interprets the three parts of the URL:
1. http (the protocol or scheme)
2. www.cisco.com(the server name)
3. web-server.htm (the specific file name requested).
The browser then checks with a name server to convert

www.cisco.com <http://www.cisco.com > into a numeric address,
which it uses to connect to the server.
Using the HTTP protocol requirements, the browser sends a GET
request to the server and asks for the file web-server.htm.
The server in turn sends the HTML code for this web page to the
browser.
Finally, the browser deciphers the HTML code and formats the
page for the browser window.
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HTTP Protocol
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), one of the protocols in
the TCP/IP suite, was originally developed to publish and retrieve
HTML pages and is now used for distributed, collaborative
information systems.
HTTP is used across the WWW for data transfer and is one of the
most used application protocols.
HTTP specifies a request/response protocol.
When a client, typically a web browser, sends a request message
to a server, the HTTP protocol defines the message types the
client uses to request the web page and also the message types
the server uses to respond.
The three common message types are GET, POST, and PUT.
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E-mail Services
E-mail, the most popular network service, has

revolutionized how people communicate through its
simplicity and speed.
Yet to run on a computer or other end device, e-mail
requires several applications and services.
Two example Application layer protocols are Post
Office Protocol (POP) and Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), shown in the figure.
As with HTTP, these protocols define client/server
processes.
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E-mail Server Processes - MTA and MDA
The e-mail server operates two separate processes:
–Mail Transfer Agent (MTA)
–Mail Delivery Agent (MDA)
The Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) process is used to forward e-mail.

The MTA receives messages from the MUA or from another MTA
on another e-mail server.
Based on the message header, it determines how a message has
to be forwarded to reach its destination.
If the mail is addressed to a user whose mailbox is on the local
server, the mail is passed to the MDA.
If the mail is for a user not on the local server, the MTA routes the
e-mail to the MTA on the appropriate server.
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Pop and SMTP Protocols
Describe the features of the POP and SMTP protocols, and how
these protocols support e-mail services
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Telnet
Describe the features of the Telnet protocol and identify several of
its uses in examining and managing networks
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SMB
Describe the features of the SMB protocol and the role it plays in
supporting file sharing in Microsoft-based networks
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Gnutella
Describe the features of the Gnutella protocol and the role it plays
in supporting P2P services
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Summary
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Tea Break
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Q and A
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Lucky Draw
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Thank You
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OSI Transport Layer
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Objectives
Explain the role of Transport Layer protocols and
services in supporting communications across data
networks
Analyze the application and operation of TCP
mechanisms that support reliability
Analyze the application and operation of TCP
mechanisms that support reassembly and manage
data loss.
Analyze the operation of UDP to support
communicate between two processes on end devices
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Transport Layer Role and Services
Explain the purpose of the Transport layer
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Major functions of the transport layer and the role it
plays in data networks
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Supporting Reliable Communication
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Identify the basic characteristics of the UDP and TCP
protocols
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Identify how a port number is represented and describe
the role port numbers play in the TCP and UDP
protocols.
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Describe the role of segments in the transport layer and
the two principle ways segments can be marked for
reassembly.
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Application and Operation of TCP Mechanisms
Trace the steps that show how the TCP reliability
mechanism works as part of a session
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Describe the role of port numbers in establishing TCP
sessions and directing segments to server process
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Trace the steps in the handshake in the establishment
of TCP sessions
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Trace the steps in the handshake in the termination of
TCP sessions
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Managing TCP Sessions
Describe how TCP sequence numbers are used to
reconstruct the data stream with segments placed in
the correct order
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Trace the steps used by the TCP protocol in which
sequence numbers and acknowledgement numbers are
used to manage exchanges in a conversation
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Describe the retransmission.remedy for lost data
employed by TCP
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Describe the mechanisms in TCP that manage the
interrelationship between window size, data loss and
congestion during a session
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UDP Protocol
Describe the characteristics of the UDP protocol and
the types of communication for which it is best suited
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UDP Protocol
Describe in detail the process specified by the UDP
protocol to reassemble PDUs at the destination device
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UDP Protocol
Describe how servers use port numbers to identify a
specified application layer process and direct segments
to the proper service or application
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UDP Protocol
Trace the steps as the UDP protocol and port numbers
are utilized in client-server communication.
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Summary
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OSI Network Layer
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Objectives
Identify the role of the Network Layer, as it describes
communication from one end device to another end device
Examine the most common Network Layer protocol, Internet
Protocol (IP), and its features for providing connectionless and
best-effort service
Understand the principles used to guide the division or grouping
of devices into networks
Understand the hierarchical addressing of devices and how this
allows communication between networks
Understand the fundamentals of routes, next hop addresses and
packet forwarding to a destination network
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Network Layer Protocols and Internet Protocol
(IP)
Define the basic role of the Network Layer in data
networks
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(IP)
Identify the basic characteristics and the role of the
IPv4 protocol
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(IP)
Describe the implications for the use of the IP protocol
as it is connectionless
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(IP)
Describe the implications for the use of the IP protocol
as it is considered an unreliable protocol
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(IP)
Describe the implications for the use of the IP as it is
media independent
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(IP)
Describe the role of framing in the Transport Layer and
explain that segments are encapsulated as packets
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(IP)
Identify the major header fields in the IPv4 protocol and
describe each field's role in transporting packets
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Grouping Devices into Networks and
Hierarchical Addressing
List several different reasons for grouping devices into
sub-networks and define several terms used to identify
the sub-networks
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List several ways in which dividing a large network can
increase network performance
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List several ways in which dividing a large network can
increase network security
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Explain the communication problems that emerge when
very large numbers of devices are included in one large
network
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Describe how hierarchical addressing solves the
problem of devices communicating across networks of
networks
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Describe the purpose of further subdividing networks
into smaller networks
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Fundamentals of Routes, Next Hop Addresses
and Packet Forwarding
Describe the role of an intermediary gateway device in
allowing devices to communicate across sub-divided
networks
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Trace the steps of an IP packet as it traverses
unchanged via routers from sub network to sub-network
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Describe the role of a gateway and the use of a simple
route table in directing packets toward their ultimate
destinations
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Define a route and its three key parts
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Describe the purpose and use of the destination
network in a route
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Describe the purpose and use of the next hop in a route
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Trace the steps of several IP packets as they are
routed through several gateways from devices on one
sub network to devices on other sub networks
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Describe the purpose of routing protocols and the need
for both static and dynamic routes
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Explain how routes are manually configured to build
routing table
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Explain the role of routing protocols in building the
routing table
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Summary
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Addressing the Network
– IPv4
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Objectives
Explain the structure IP addressing and demonstrate the ability
to convert between 8-bit binary and decimal numbers.
Given an IPv4 address, classify by type and describe how it is
used in the network
Explain how addresses are assigned to networks by ISPs and
within networks by administrators
Determine the network portion of the host address and explain
the role of the subnet mask in dividing networks.
Given IPv4 addressing information and design criteria, calculate
the appropriate addressing components.
Use common testing utilities to verify and test network
connectivity and operational status of the IP protocol stack on a
host.
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IP Addressing Structure
Describe the dotted decimal structure of a binary IP
address and label its parts
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Describe the general role of 8-bit binary in network
addressing and convert 8-bit binary to decimal
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Practice converting 8-bit binary to decimal
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Convert decimal to 8-bit binary
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Practice converting decimal to 8-bit binary
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Classify and Define IPv4 Addresses
Name the three types of addresses in the network and
describe the purpose of each type
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Determine the network, broadcast and host addresses
for a given address and prefix combination
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Name the three types of communication in the Network
Layer and describe the characteristics of each type
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Identify the address ranges reserved for these special
purposes in the IPv4 protocol
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Define public address and private address
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Describe the purpose of several special addresses
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Identify the historic method for assigning addresses
and the issues associated with the method
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Assigning Addresses
Explain the importance of using a structured process to
assign IP addresses to hosts and the implications for
choosing private vs. public addresses
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Assigning Addresses
Explain how end user devices can obtain addresses
either statically through an administrator or dynamically
through DHCP
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Assigning Addresses
Explain which types of addresses should be assigned
to devices other than end user devices
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Assigning Addresses
Describe the process for requesting IPv4 public
addresses, the role ISPs play in the process, and the
role of the regional agencies that manage IP address
registries
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Assigning Addresses
Identify different types of ISPs and their roles in
providing Internet connectivity
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Assigning Addresses
Identify several changes made to the IP protocol in
IPv6 and describe the motivation for migrating from
IPv4 to IPv6.
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Determine the network portion of the host
address and the role of the subnet mask
Describe how the subnet mask is used to create and
specify the network and host portions of an IP address
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Use the subnet mask and ANDing process to extract
the network address from the IP address.
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Use ANDing logic to determine an outcome.
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Observe the steps in the ANDing of an IPv4 host
address and subnet mask
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Calculating Addresses
Use the subnet mask to divide a network into smaller
networks and describe the implications of dividing
networks for network planners
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Extract network addresses from host addresses using
the subnet mask
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Calculate the number of hosts in a network range given
an address and subnet mask
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Given a subnet address and subnet mask, calculate the
network address, host addresses and broadcast
address
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Given a pool of addresses and masks, assign a host
parameter with address, mask and gateway
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Given a diagram of a multi-layered network, address
range, number of hosts in each network and the ranges
for each network, create a network scheme that
assigns addressing ranges to each network
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Testing the Network Layer
Describe the general purpose of the ping command,
trace the steps of its operation in a network, and use
the ping command to determine if the IP protocol is
operational on a local host
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Use ping to verify that a local host can communicate
with a gateway across a local area network
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Use ping to verify that a local host can communicate via
a gateway to a device in remote network
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Use tracert/traceroute to observe the path between two
devices as they communicate and trace the steps of
tracert/traceroute's operation
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Describe the role of ICMP in the TCP/IP suite and its
impact on the IP protocol
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Summary
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OSI Data Link Layer
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Objectives
Explain the role of Data Link layer protocols in data transmission.
Describe how the Data Link layer prepares data for transmission
on network media.
Describe the different types of media access control methods.
Identify several common logical network topologies and describe
how the logical topology determines the media access control
method for that network.
Explain the purpose of encapsulating packets into frames to
facilitate media access.
Describe the Layer 2 frame structure and identify generic fields.
Explain the role of key frame header and trailer fields including
addressing, QoS, type of protocol and Frame Check Sequence.
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Data Link Layer – Accessing the Media
Describe the service the Data Link Layer provides as it
prepares communication for transmission on specific
media
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Describe why Data Link layer protocols are required to
control media access
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Describe the role of framing in preparing a packet for
transmission on a given media
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Describe the role the Data Link layer plays in linking the
software and hardware layers
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Identify several sources for the protocols and standards
used by the Data Link layer
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Media Access Control Techniques
Explain the necessity for controlling access to the
media
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Identify two media access control methods for shared
media and the basic characteristics of each
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Define Full Duplex and Half Duplex as it relates to
Media Access Control for non-shared media
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Describe the purpose of a logical topology and identify
several common logical topologies
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Contrast logical and physical topologies
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Identify the characteristics of point-to-point topology
and describe the implications for media access when
using this topology
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Identify the characteristics of multi-access topology and
describe the implications for media access when using
this topology
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Identify the characteristics of ring topology and describe
the implications for media access when using this
topology
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Media Access Control Addressing and
Framing Data
Describe the purpose of encapsulating packets into
frames to facilitate the entry and exit of data on media
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Media access control addressing and framing
data
Describe the role of the frame header in the Data Link
layer and identify the fields commonly found in
protocols specifying the header structure
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data
Describe the role of addressing in the Data Link layer
and identify cases where addresses are needed and
cases where addresses are not needed
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data
Describe the importance of the trailer in the Data Link
layer and its implications for use on Ethernet, a "non-
reliable" media
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Summary
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OSI Physical Layer
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Objectives
Explain the role of Physical layer protocols and
services in supporting communication across data
networks.
- Describe the role of signals used to represent bits as a frame
as the frame is transported across the local media
Describe the purpose of Physical layer signaling and

encoding as they are used in networks
Identify the basic characteristics of copper, fiber and
wireless network media
Describe common uses of copper, fiber and wireless
network media
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Physical Layer Protocols & Services
Describe the purpose of the Physical layer in the
network and identify the basic elements that enable this
layer to fulfill its function
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Describe the role of bits in representing a frame as it is
transported across the local media.
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Describe the role of signaling in the physical media.
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Distinguish who establishes and maintains standards
for the Physical layers compared to those for the other
layers of the network
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Identify hardware components associated with the
Physical layer that are governed by standards
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Physical Layer Signaling and Encoding
Explain that network communication at this layer
consists of individual bits encoded onto the Physical
layer and describe the basic encoding techniques.
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Describe the role of encoding as it applies to the
transmission of bits and explain the value of treating a
collection of bits as a code.
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Define the terms bandwidth, throughput, and goodput
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Characteristics & Uses of Network Media
Identify several media characteristics defined by
Physical layer standards.
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Describe the impact interference has on throughput and
the role of proper cabling in reducing interference
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Identify the basic characteristics of UTP cable
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Identify the basic characteristics of STP and Coaxial
cable
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Identify types of safety issues when working with
copper cabling
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Identify several primary characteristics of fiber cabling
and its main advantages over other media
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Describe the role of radio waves when using air as the
media and the increased need for security in wireless
communications
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Identify the characteristics used to categorize
connectors, describe some common uses for the same
connectors, and identify the consequences for
misapplying a connector in a given situation
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Summary
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Ethernet
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Objectives
Identify the basic characteristics of network media used in
Ethernet.
Describe the physical and data link features of Ethernet.
Describe the function and characteristics of the media access
control method used by Ethernet protocol.
Explain the importance of Layer 2 addressing used for data
transmission and determine how the different types of
addressing impacts network operation and performance.
Compare and contrast the application and benefits of using
Ethernet switches in a LAN as apposed to using hubs.
Explain the ARP process.
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Characteristics of Network Media used in
Ethernet
Identify several characteristics of Ethernet in its early
years.
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Ethernet
Describe the emergence of the LAN switch as a key
innovation for managing collisions on Ethernet-based
networks
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Ethernet
Identify the characteristics of state-of-the-art Ethernet
and describe its utilization of cabling and point-to-point
topography
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Physical and Data Link Features of Ethernet
Standards and Implementation
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Describe how the Ethernet operates across two layers
of the OSI model
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Logic Link Control – Connecting the Upper Layers
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Media Access Control (MAC)
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Physical Implementations of the Ethernet
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Function and Characteristics of the Media
Access Control Method
MAC in Ethernet
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Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
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Ethernet Timing
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Layer 2 addressing and its Impact on Network
Operation and Performance
The Frame – Encapsulating the Packet
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The Ethernet MAC Address
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Hexadecimal Numbering and Addressing
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Another Layer of Addressing
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Ethernet Unicast, Multicast and Broadcast
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Compare and Contrast the Use of Ethernet
Switches versus Hubs in a LAN.
Legacy Ethernet – Using Hubs
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Ethernet – Using Switches
ITE PC v4.0
Describe how a switch can eliminate collisions,
backoffs and re- transmissions, the leading factors in
reduced throughput on a hub-based Ethernet network
ITE PC v4.0
Explain the Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) process.
Mapping IP to MAC Addresses
ITE PC v4.0
(ARP) process.
ARP – Destinations Outside the Local Network
ITE PC v4.0
(ARP) process.
ARP – Removing Address Mappings
ITE PC v4.0
(ARP) process.
ARP Broadcasts - Issues
ITE PC v4.0
Summary
ITE PC v4.0
ITE PC v4.0
Planning and Cabling
Networks
ITE PC v4.0
Objectives
Identify the basic network media required to make a LAN
connection.
Identify the types of connections for intermediate and end device
connections in a LAN.
- Identify the pin out configurations for straight-through and crossover
cables.
- Identify the different cabling types, standards and ports used for
WAN connections.
- Define the role of device management connections when using
Cisco equipment.
Design an addressing scheme for an inter-network and assign
ranges for hosts, network devices and the router interface.
Compare and contrast the importance of network designs
ITE PC v4.0
Basic Network Media Required to Make a LAN
Connection.
Select the appropriate hardware, including the cabling,
to install several computers together in a LAN
ITE PC v4.0
Connection.
To identify some key aspects of the devices they will be
employing in a LAN
ITE PC v4.0
Connection.
Connect two computers with a switch
ITE PC v4.0
Types of Connections in a LAN
Given a specific network connection, identify the type of
cable required to make the connection
ITE PC v4.0
Identify the correct cable to use in connecting
intermediate and end devices in a LAN.
ITE PC v4.0
Identify the pinout of the straight-through and cross-
over cables
ITE PC v4.0
Recognize that a different class of cables is used to
connect WANs, and that the cables, standards and
ports are different than those in use by LANs.
ITE PC v4.0
Define the role of device management connections
when using Cisco equipment.
ITE PC v4.0
Design an Addressing Scheme for an Inter-
network.
Design an address scheme for an internetwork and
assign ranges for hosts, network devices and the router
interface
ITE PC v4.0
Design an Addressing Scheme for an Inter-
network.
Calculate the address ranges for sub networks
ITE PC v4.0
Importance of Network Designs
Given a network scenario, develop an appropriate
networking scheme
ITE PC v4.0
Determine the total number of hosts in a network,
accounting for present and future requirements
ITE PC v4.0
Given a network requirement, determine the optimum
number of sub networks in the larger internetwork.
ITE PC v4.0
Describe how to count the segments between router
interfaces.
ITE PC v4.0
Summary
ITE PC v4.0
ITE PC v4.0

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Living in a Network Centric World

Network Fundamentals – Chapter 1

• Describe how networks impact our daily

• Explain the benefits of instantaneous

• Decide what to wear using online current weather conditions.

• Describe the characteristics and purpose of

• Explain ways that using information networks

Business application can be accessed remotely as if the employees were on site

• Consider these business scenarios.

• Remote workers, called teleworkers or telecommuters,

• Describe ways communication over a

• Before beginning to communicate with each other,

• Being able to reliably communicate to anyone,

• Technology advances are enabling us to consolidate these

• Networks must support a wide range of

• The expectation that the Internet is always available to the millions of

Network Fundamentals – Chapter 2

 In this chapter, we focus on these aspects of the

2. Segmentation can increase the reliability of network communications.

 In network communications, each segment of the

 Various types of devices throughout the network

 Devices and media are the

 In the context of a network, end devices are referred to as hosts.

 Intermediary device provide connectivity and to work

 Networks infrastructures can vary greatly in terms of:

 WANs use specifically designed network devices to make the

 LANs and WANs are very useful to individual organizations.

 Although there are benefits to using a LAN or WAN, most

 Network Interface Card - A NIC, or LAN adapter, provides the

 Physical Port - A connector or outlet on a networking device where

 Interface - Specialized ports on an internetworking device that

 All communication, whether face-to-face or over a

 An example of the use of a protocol suite in network communications

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a common protocol

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the transport

 The most common internetwork protocol is Internet

 Network access protocols describe two primary functions,

 Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate

 There are two basic types of networking models: protocol

Network Fundamentals – Chapter 3

 The Open Systems Interconnection reference model is

 In this model, information is passed from one layer to

 The Application layer, Layer seven, is the top layer of

 Most TCP/IP application layer protocols were

 Among the well-known graphic image formats are Graphics

 As the name of the Session layer implies, functions at this layer

 Most applications, like web browsers or e-mail clients, incorporate

 Application is any computer program that is used to

 The functions associated with the Application layer

 Applications are the software programs used by people

 Other programs may need the assistance of Application

 In the client/server model, the device requesting the information is

 In a general networking context, any device that

 A single application may employ many different

 Additionally, servers typically have multiple clients

 In addition to the client/server model for networking,

 In a peer-to-peer network, two or more computers are

 Unlike the client/server model, which uses dedicated servers, peer-

 A peer-to-peer application (P2P), unlike a peer-to-peer network,

 Some P2P applications use a hybrid system where

 The Transport layer uses an addressing scheme called

 Some of these services are:

 In data networks, devices are labeled with numeric IP

In this chapter, we focus on these aspects of the

In network communications, each segment of the

Various types of devices throughout the network

Devices and media are the

In the context of a network, end devices are referred to as hosts.

Intermediary device provide connectivity and to work

Networks infrastructures can vary greatly in terms of:

WANs use specifically designed network devices to make the

LANs and WANs are very useful to individual organizations.

Although there are benefits to using a LAN or WAN, most

Network Interface Card - A NIC, or LAN adapter, provides the

Physical Port - A connector or outlet on a networking device where

Interface - Specialized ports on an internetworking device that

All communication, whether face-to-face or over a

An example of the use of a protocol suite in network communications

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a common protocol

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the transport

The most common internetwork protocol is Internet

Network access protocols describe two primary functions,

Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate

There are two basic types of networking models: protocol

The Open Systems Interconnection reference model is

In this model, information is passed from one layer to

The Application layer, Layer seven, is the top layer of

Most TCP/IP application layer protocols were

Among the well-known graphic image formats are Graphics

As the name of the Session layer implies, functions at this layer

Most applications, like web browsers or e-mail clients, incorporate

Application is any computer program that is used to

The functions associated with the Application layer

Applications are the software programs used by people

Other programs may need the assistance of Application

In the client/server model, the device requesting the information is

In a general networking context, any device that

A single application may employ many different

Additionally, servers typically have multiple clients

In addition to the client/server model for networking,

In a peer-to-peer network, two or more computers are

Unlike the client/server model, which uses dedicated servers, peer-

A peer-to-peer application (P2P), unlike a peer-to-peer network,

Some P2P applications use a hybrid system where

The Transport layer uses an addressing scheme called

Some of these services are:

In data networks, devices are labeled with numeric IP

When a web address (or URL) is typed into a web

The browser then checks with a name server to convert

E-mail, the most popular network service, has

The Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) process is used to forward e-mail.

Describe the purpose of Physical layer signaling and