i

Chapter 5
PILES
CHAPTER 5

5.1 Piles
- For piles the length to width (diameter) ratio i.e. Lp/d > 4 , where Lp is the
pile length and d is pile diameter.
- The basic situation for a pile foundation is where soft soil exists near the
ground surface which underlain by rock formation e.g.

Figure 5-1 Pile foundation resting on hard stratum underlying a soft soil
layer
5.2 Uses of Piles
Piles are commonly used for the following purposes (Figure 5-2).
- To carry superstructure loads into or through a soil stratum. Both vertical
and lateral loads may be involved.
Building
Soft Soil
Piles
Firm Soil

2
- To resist uplift or overturning forces such as for basement mats below the
W.T. or to support the tower legs subjected to overturning from lateral loads
such as wind.
- To compact loose, cohesionless deposits through a combination of pile
volume displacement and driving vibration, thus increasing their bearing
capacity.
- To carry the foundation through the depth of scour to provide safety in the
event the soil is eroded away.
- To stiffen the soil beneath machine foundations to control both amplitudes
of vibration and the natural frequency of the system.
- In offshore construction to transmit the loads above the water surface
through the water and into the underlying soil. This case is one in which
partially embedded piling is subjected to vertical (and buckling) as well as
lateral loads.


Figure 5-2 (a) Tension pile to resist overturning movements in tall buildings (b) Shear pile to
resist horizontal forces or movements Friction pile (c) raking piles in harbor and river
(a)
(b)
(c)
tension
compression
Wind

3
5.3 Classification of Piles
5.3.1 Classification according to the mechanism of load transfer
End/Point Bearing Piles
If a bedrock or rocklike material is present at a site within a reasonable depth,
piles can be extended to the rock surface (figure 5-3(a)). In this case, the
ultimate bearing capacity of the pile depends entirely of the underlying
material; thus the piles are called end or point bearing piles. In most of these
cases the necessary length of the pile can be fairly well established.
Instead of bedrock, if a fairly compact and hard stratum of soil is encountered at
a reasonable depth, piles can be extended a few meters into the hard stratum.
Friction Piles (figure 5-3 b)
When no layer of rock or rocklike material is present at a reasonable depth at a
site, point/end bearing piles become very long and uneconomical. For this type
of subsoil condition, piles are driven through the softer material to specified
depth. These types of piles are called friction piles because the load on the pile
is resisted mainly by skin/friction resistance along the side of the pile (pile
shaft). Pure friction piles tend to be quite long, since the load-carrying capacity
is a function of the shaft area in contact with the soil.
In cohesionless soils, such as sands of medium to low density, friction piles are
often used to increase the density and thus the shear strength.
Friction cum end bearing piles
In the majority of cases, however, the load-carrying capacity is dependent on
both end-bearing and shaft friction (figure 5-3 c).




4

5.3.2 Classification of piles according to their method of
installation (figure 5-4)
Driven or displacement piles
They are usually preformed before being driven, jacked, screwed or hammered
into ground. This category consists of driven piles of steel or precast concrete
and piles formed by driving tubes or shells which are fitted with a driving shoe.
The tubes or shells which are filled with concrete after driving. Also included in
this category are piles formed by placing concrete as the driven piles are
withdrawn.
Bored or Replacement piles
They require a hole to be first bored into which the pile is then formed usually
of reinforced concrete. The shaft (bore) may be cased or uncased depending
upon type of soil.
Soft
ground
hard
Soft to
firm
Soft to
firm
Firm to
hard
Soft
Figure 5-3(a) End bearing pile (b) Friction pile (c) friction cum end bearing pile
(a) (b)
(c)

5


5.3.3 Classification of Piles according to Materials
Timber piles
- Timber piles are made of tree trunks driven with small end as a point
- Maximum length: 35 m; optimum length: 9 20m
- Max load for usual conditions: 450 kN; optimum load range = 80240
kN
- Disadvantages: difficult to splice, vulnerable to damage in hard driving,
vulnerable to decay unless treated with preservatives (If timber is below
permanent W.T. it will apparently last for ever), if subjected to alternate
(a) (b) (c)
(d)
(e) (f)
Figure 5-4 Principal types of pile: (a) precast RC pile (b) steel H pile (c) shell
pile (d) concrete pile cast as driven tube withdrawn (e) bored pile (cast in
situ), (f) under-reamed bored pile (cast in situ)

6
wetting & drying, the useful life will be short, partly embedded piles or
piles above W.T. are susceptible to damage from wood borers and other
insects unless treated.
- Advantages: comparatively low initial cost, permanently submerged piles
are resistant to decay, easy to handle, best suited for friction piles in
granular material.

Steel Piles
- Max length: practically unlimited,
- optimum length: 1250 m
- load for usual conditions = maximum allowable stress x-section area,
- Optimum load range = 3501050 kN
- The members are usually rolled HP shapes/pipe piles. Wide flange beams
& I beams proportioned to withstand the hard driving stress to which the
pile may be subjected, In HP pile the flange thickness= web thickness,
pipe piles are either welded or seamless steel pipes, which may be driven
either open ended or closed end. Closed end piles are usually filled with
concrete after driving. Open end piles may be filled but this is not often
necessary.
- Advantages: easy to splice, high capacity, small displacement, able to
penetrate through light obstructions, best suited for end bearing on rock,
reduce allowable capacity for corrosive locations or provide corrosion
protection.
- Disadvantages: Vulnerable to corrosion, HP section may be
damaged/deflected by major obstruction
Concrete Piles
- Concrete piles may be precast, prestressed, cast in place, or of composite
construction.
- Precast concrete piles may be made using ordinary reinforcement or they
may be prestressed.

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- Pecast piles using ordinary reinforcement are designed to resist bending
stresses during picking up & transport to the site & bending moments
from lateral loads and to provide sufficient resistance to vertical loads
and any tension forces developed during driving.
- Prestressed piles are formed by tensioning high strength steel prestress
cables, and casting the concrete about the cable. When the concrete
hardens, the prestress cables are cut, with the tension force in the cables
now producing compressive stress in the concrete pile. It is common to
higher-strength concrete (35 to 55 MPa) in prestressed piles because of
the large initial compressive stresses from prestressing. Prestressing the
pile tends to counteract any tension stresses during either handling or
driving.
- Max length: 1015 m for precast, 2030 m for prestressed
- Optimum length: 1012 m for precast, 1825m prestressed
- Loads for usual conditions 900 for precast, 8500 kN for prestressed
- Optimum load range: 3503500 kN
- Disadvantages: difficult to handle unless prestressed, high initial cost,
considerable displacement, prestressed piles are difficult to splice.
- Advantages: high load capacities, corrosion resistance can be attained,
hard driving possible
- Remarks: cylinder piles in particular are suited for bending resistance.
- Cast in place concrete piles are formed by drilling a hole in the ground &
filling it with concrete. The hole may be drilled or formed by driving a
shell or casing into the ground.
- Disadvantages of Concrete piles: Concrete piles are considered
permanent, however, certain soil (usually organic) contain materials that
may form acids that can damage the concrete. Salt water may also
adversely react with the concrete unless special precautions are taken
when the mix proportions are designed. Additionally, concrete piles used
for marine structures may undergo abrasion from wave action and
floating debris in the water. Alternate freezing & thawing can cause
concrete damage in any exposed situation.

8
Composite piles
- In general, a composite pile is made up of two or more sections of
different materials or different pile types. The upper portion could be
cased cast-in-place concrete combined with a lower portion of timber,
steel H or concrete filled steel pipe pile. These piles have limited
application and are employed under special conditions.
5.4 Load Capacity of Piles
Three general methods are available to establish load capacity:
(1) Static Analysis (2) Dynamic Analysis (3) Load Testing (4) Correlation
with field tests (SPT, CPT etc)
Dynamic formulae are used for driven piles. Static formulae are used both for
bored and driven piles. Load testing is the most reliable method to determine
the load capacity of the pile in the field. They should be performed on all piling
projects. However, they are considerably more expensive than the other
methods used to determine pile capacity, and economic consideration
sometimes preclude their use on projects. Field tests like SPT, CPT are also
used to correlate to load carrying capacity particularly for cohesionless soils.
5.5 Driven Piles
5.5.1 Dynamic Pile Formulas
Piles are usually forced into the ground by a pile driver or pile hammer. In
medieval times piles were driven by men manually swinging hammer, which
consists of a weight raised by ropes or cables and allowed to drop freely
striking the top of the pile. After the drop hammer came the single acting
hammer, double acting hammer, differential acting hammer, diesel pile
hammer, vibratory driver.
Dynamic pile formulas are widely used to determine the static capacity of the
driven pile. These formulas are derived starting with the relation
Energy Input = Energy Used + Energy Lost
The Energy used equals the driving resistance (Pu) the pile movement (s).

9
Energy lost is due to friction, heat, hammer rebound, vibration and elastic
compression of the pile, the pacing assembly, and the soil.
Energy News Record (ENR) Formula:
This formula takes into account the energy lost due to temporary compression
(C) resulting from elastic compression of the pile. Thus
Energy Input = Energy Used + Energy Lost
Wr h = Pu s + Pu C
Pu = Wr h / (s + C)
Where Wr = weight of the ram, h= height of fall of the ram, s = penetration of
pile per hammer blow, Pu = average resistance of soil to penetration.
C= 25 mm (1 inch) for drop hammer, and
C= 2.5 mm (0.1 inch) for steam hammer (single acting/double acting)
Pa = Pu / SF where Pa = allowable load on pile, and SF(factor of safety) = 6
For single/double acting hammer, the term (Wr h) can be replaced by q
h
E
where q
h
=hammer efficiency (table-1) and E=rated energy of hammer. Thus
Pu = q
h
E / (s + C)
Table-1: Hammer efficiency q
h

Table 5-1 Hammer efficiency q
h


Hammer type Efficiency
q
h

Single and double acting
hammer
0.7-0.85
Diesel hammers 0.8-0.9
Drop hammers 0.7-0.9



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Example: A precast concrete pile 12in 12 in in cross section is driven by a
steam hammer. The maximum rated hammer energy = 26 kips-ft, hammer
efficiency = 0.8 and the number of blows for the last 1 inch of penetration = 5.
Estimate the allowable pile capacity by using (a) ENR formula using SF=6.0
Solution:
ENR formula:
q
h
= 0.8, E=26 kip-ft, s=1/5 = 0.2 inch/blow. SF=6.0
SF C s
E
Pa
h
) ( +
=
q
= 0.8 26 12 / [ (0.2 + 0.1) 6 ] = 836 kips
5.5.2 PILE DRIVING EQUIPMENT
Piles are installed by a special pile driving device know as a pile hammer. The
hammer may be suspended from the boom of a crawler crane, supported on a
large frame called a pile driver or carried on a barge for construction in water.
In all cases, the hammer is guided between two parallel steel members called
leads. The leads may be adjusted at various angles for driving vertical and
batter piles.
Several types of hammers are in use and each of which are different sizes. The
hammer types are:
Drop hammer
The drop hammer consists of a heavy ram in between the leads. The ram is
lifted up to a certain height and released to drop on the pile. This type is slow
and therefore not in common use. It is used in the cases where only a small
number of piles are driven.
Single-acting hammer
In single acting hammer a heavy ram is lifted up by steam or compressed air but
dropped by its own weight. The energy of a single acting hammer is equal to
the weight of the ram times the height of fall.
Double-acting hammer
The double-acting hammer employs steam or air for lifting the ram and for
accelerating the downward stroke. The energy of a double-acting hammer is

11
equal to the (weight of the ram + mean effective pressure x the effective area of
ram) x times the height of fall.
Diesel hammer
The diesel hammer is a small, light weight and highly mobile. They use
gasoline for fuel. To start the operation, the ram is raised, and the fuel is
injected. As the ram is released, the ram falls and compresses air and fuel. The
air and fuel becomes hot because of the compression and the air-fuel mixture is
ignited. The resulting explosion (1) advances the pile and (2) lifts the ram. If the
pile advance is very great as in soft soils, the ram is not lifted by the explosion
sufficiently to ignite the air-fuel mixture on the next cycle, requiring that the
ram be again manually lifted.
Vibratory hammer
The principle of the vibratory driver is two counter-rotating eccentric weights.
The driving unit vibrates at high frequency and provides two vertical impulses-
one up and one down. The downward pulse acts with the pile weight to increase
the apparent gravity force. These hammers have reduced driving vibrations,
reduced noise, and great speed of penetration.
5.5.3 HAMMER SELECTION
Generally the size of hammer is more important factor than type of hammer.
A heavy pile should be driven by a heavy hammer delivering large energy.
Preferably the weight of the hammer should be at least on-half the total weight
of the pile, and the deriving energy should be at least one foot-pound for each
pound of pile weight.
Each type of hammer has its use under suitable conditions. The advantages and
disadvantages of each type are summarized below:
Single-acting hammer
They are advantageous when driving heavy piles in compact or hard soils; the
heavy ram striking at low velocity produces least damage due to impact. The
disadvantages are low driving speed and large headroom requirement.
Double-acting hammer

12
They are generally used to drive piles of light or moderate weight in soils of
average resistance against driving. This type of hammer can drive piles at fast
speed, requires less headroom and can be used to extract piles by turning them
[i.e. the double-acting hammer] upside down.
Diesel hammer
They are similar in application as double-acting hammers, but driving may
become difficult in extremely soft ground.
Vibratory hammer
They have fairly good results in silty and clayey deposits. They are used in
heavy clays or soils with appreciable numbers of boulders. These hammers
have reduced driving vibrations, reduced noise, and great speed of penetration.
5.6 STATIC PILE FORMULAS
The ultimate load which can be carried by a pile is equal to the sum of the base
resistance and the shaft resistance (figure 5-5).
P
u
+ W
p
= A
b
q
b(gross)
+ A
s
q
s


P
u
is the ultimate load that can be carried at top of pile, q
b
ultimate (gross)
bearing capacity at base level, A
b
= base area of pile, q
s
=ultimate shearing/skin
resistance per unit area, A
s
= perimeter area of pile, and Wp = weight of the pile.
Subtracting Ws from both sides of the equation. Where Ws is effective soil
weight replaced/displaced due to pile volume. Ws = 'LA
b
where ' is the
effective weight of soil, and L is pile length.
P
u
+ (W
p
Ws)= A
b
q
b(gross)
+ A
s
q
s
-Ws
P
u
+ (W
p
Ws) = A
b
q
b(gross)
+ A
s
q
s
- 'LA
b


P
u
+ (W
p
Ws) = (q
b(gross)
- 'L)A
b
+ A
s
q
s

P
u
+ (W
p
Ws) = (q
b(gross)
- oo')A
b
+ A
s
q
s

Where oo'='L is effective vertical stress at pile base
P
u
+(W
p
Ws) = A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s


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P
u
= A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s
(W
p
Ws)
P
u
= A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s
W
P
u
is the ultimate load that can be carried at top of pile, q
b
ultimate (net) bearing
capacity at base level, A
b
= base area of pile, q
s
=ultimate shearing/skin
resistance per unit area, A
s
= perimeter area of pile, W= Wp Ws = weight of
the pile effective weight of soil replaced. In most cases Wp~ Ws and hence
W~0.
P
u
= A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s

However in the case of under-reamed piles (figure 5-4 f) the reduction in
pressure on the soil at base level due to the removal of soil is greater than the
subsequent increase in pressure due to the weight of the pile and hence use
equation-1 (i.e. do not assume that W
p
~ W
s
)


5.6.1 COHESIONLESS SOILS
End bearing Resistance (q
b
)
q
s

q
b

W
P

Figure 5-5 Free body diagram of a pile
P
u


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The ultimate B.C. and settlement of a pile depends mainly on the relative
density of sand. However, if a pile is driven into sand the relative density
adjoining the pile is increased by compaction due to soil displacement (except
in dense sands, which may be loosened). The soil characteristics governing
ultimate bearing capacity and settlement, therefore, are different from the
original characteristics prior to driving. This fact, in addition to the
heterogeneous nature of sand deposits, makes the prediction of pile behavior by
analytical methods extremely difficult.
The ultimate (net) B.C. at base level can be expressed as
q
b
= cN
c
+ o
o
' N
q
+ B N

-o
o
' [o
o
' is subtracted to get net value of q
b
]
Where o
o
' is the effective overburden pressure at base level of pile.
q
b
= cN
c
+ o
o
'(N
q
-1) + B N

c=0 for sand and 1/2BN

term can be neglected because the B (width/diameter

of pile) is small compared to the length of pile. so
q
b
= o
o
' (N
q
-1) ~ o
o
'N
q
(N
q
-1) ~ N
q
[because reduction of N
q
by 1 is a
substantial refinement not justified by estimated soil parameters]. N
q
is a B.C.
factor (figure 5-6)














15



Figure 5-6: Values of Nq for pile formulae (After Berezantsev et al. 1961)

16
Friction/Shaft Resistance (qs):
The average value of skin resistance (q
s
) over the length of pile embedded in
sand can be expressed as
o o tan ' ' + = c q
s

Where
'
'
o s
K o o = and c=0
o o tan
'
o s s
K q =
K
s
a coefficient of earth pressure dependent largely on the relative density of
the soil, ' o = average effective pressure in the layer perpendicular to q
s
(i.e.
horizontal).
'
o
o = average effective vertical overburden pressure in the layer, and
o=angle of friction between the pile and the soil.

Table 5-2 K
s
and o values
Pile Type o
K
s

Loose Sand Dense Sand
Concrete 3/4 | 1.0 2.0
Steel 20 0.5 2.0
Wood 2/3 | 1.5 4.0

Variation of q
b
and q
s
with depth
The above equations for q
b
and q
s
indicate a linear increase with depth of q
b
and
q
s
. However, tests on full scale and model piles have shown that these equations
are valid up to certain depth called critical depth (z
c
). Below this depth z
c
(=15d
to 20d, conservatively take z
c
= 15 d), base (q
b
) and shaft/skin (q
s
) resistances
do not develop linearly [i.e. become constant]. This is because the vertical
effective stress adjacent to the pile is not necessarily equal to the effective
overburden pressure (away from the effect of pile) but reaches a limiting value
at critical depth z
c
(figure 5-7).

17

q
b
and q
s
from SPT Test
Ultimate base resistance q
b
Due to the critical depth limitation and to the difficulty of obtaining values of
the required parameters, the above equations are difficult to apply in practice. It
is preferable to use empirical correlations
The following empirical correlations have been proposed by Meyerhof for
driven piles in sand.
q
b
= (40N
55
)L
b
/B s 400N
55
(kN/m
2
)
N= is the value of standard penetration resistance in the vicinity of the pile base.
Use any applicable SPT N corrections discussed in earlier chapter-3.
B = width or diameter of pile point
L
b
= the length of pile embedded in sand
Skin friction resistance
W.T.
d
o
oc
'
d
o
oc
'
z
c
=15 d
z
c
=15d
Figure 5-7 Effective vertical stress distribution diagram adjacent to pile

18
Skin friction resistance is N q
s
2 = [kN/m
2
]
Where N is the average value of standard penetration resistance over the
embedded length of the pile within the sand stratum.
The values of q
s
should be halved in the case of small displacement piles such
as steel H piles. For bored piles the values of q
b
and q
s
are approximately 1/3
and 1/2, respectively, of the corresponding values for driven piles.
5.7 COHESIVE SOILS
5.7.1 Driven Piles
In the case of driven piles, the clay adjacent to the pile is displaced both
laterally and vertically. Upward displacement of the clay results in heaving of
the ground surface around the pile and can cause a reduction in the bearing
capacity of adjacent piles already installed. The clay in the disturbed zone
around the pile is completely remoulded during driving. The excess porewater
pressure set up by the driving stresses dissipates within a few months as the
disturbed zone is relatively narrow (of the order B): in general, dissipation is
virtually complete before significant structural load is applied to the pile.
Dissipation is accompanied by an increase in skin friction. Thus the skin
friction at the end of dissipation is normally appropriate in design.
5.7.2 Bored Piles
In the case of bored piles, a thin layer of clay (of the order of 25 mm)
immediately adjoining the shaft will be remoulded during boring. In addition, a
gradual softening of the clay will take place adjacent to the shaft due to stress
release, pore water seeping from the surrounding clay towards the shaft. Water
can also be absorbed from wet concrete when it comes in contact with the clay.
Softening is accompanied by a reduction in shear strength and a reduction in
skin friction. Construction of a bored pile, therefore, should be completed as
quickly as possible. Limited reconsolidation of the remoulded and softened clay
takes place after installation of the pile.
Base Resistance

19
The relavent shear strength for the determination of the base resistance of a pile
in clay is the undrained strength at base level. The ultimate bearing capacity is
expressed as
q
b
= c
u
N
c
+ o
o
' N
q
+ B N

-o
o
' [o
o
' is subtracted to get net value of q
b
]
1/2BN

term can be neglected because the B (width/diameter of pile) is small

compared to the length of pile and for |u=0, Nq=1, we get
q
b
= c
u
N
c
where N
c
= 9, and cu is undrained shear strength at pile base
Skin Resistance
Total Stress (Undrained Conditions |
u
=0)
) tan(
u a s
c q | o + = [where c
a
is average adhesion]
0 ) tan( =
u
| o as |
u
=0
Hence
u a s
c c q = = o is a coefficient depending on type of clay, the method of
installation, and the pile material. The appropriate value of o is obtained from
load tests. Values of o range from 0.3 to 1.
u
c is the average undrained shear
strength. One difficulty with this approach is that there is usually a considerable
scatter in the plot of undrained shear strength against depth and it may be
difficult to define the value of
u
c . See figure 5-8 for different values of o.
Effective Stress (drained conditions)
An alternative approach is to express skin friction in terms of effective stress.
The zone of soil disturbance around the pile is relatively thin, therefore
dissipation of the positive or negative excess pore water pressure set up during
installation should virtually be complete by the time the structural load is
applied. In principle, therefore, an effective stress approach has more
justification than one based on total stress. In terms of effective stress the skin
friction can be expressed as
) ' tan( '
'
| o
o s s
K c q + =
) ' tan(
'
| o
o s s
K q = [c=0 for saturated clay under drained conditions]

20
Where K
s
is the average coefficient of earth pressure and
'
o
o is the average
effective overburden pressure adjacent to the pile shaft. Failure is assumed to
take place in the remoulded soil close to the pile shaft, therefore the angle of
friction between the pile and the soil is represented by the angle of shearing
resistance in terms of effective stress (|) for the remoulded clay: the cohesion
intercept for remoulded clay will be zero. The above equation can also be
written as
'
o s
q o | = [where ) ' tan(| |
s
K = ]
Approximate value of | can be deduced by making assumptions regarding the
value of K
s
, especially in the case of normally consolidated clays. However, the
coefficient is generally obtained empirically from the results of load test carried
out a few months after installation. Correlations with loading tests have shown
that for soft clays | falls within a narrow range of values (0.25 to 0.4),
irrespective of the clay type.



21



Figure 5-8 Relationship between the adhesion factor o and undrained
shear strength s
u
(c
u
).
5.8 FACTOR OF SAFETY
The base resistance requires a larger deformation for full mobilization than the
shaft resistance, therefore different values of load factor may be appropriate for
the two components, the higher factor being applied to the base resistance.
In the case of large-diameter bored piles, including underreamed piles, the shaft
resistance may be fully mobilized at working load and it is advisable to ensure a

22
load factor of 3 for base resistance, with a factor of 1 for shaft resistance, in
addition to the specified over all load factor (generally 2) for the pile.
5.9 NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION
When piles are driven through a layer of fill material which slowly compacts or
consolidates due to its own weight, or if the layers underlying the fill
consolidate under the weight of the fill, a downward drag is imposed in the pile
shaft (figure 5-9).
The skin friction between the pile and soil therefore acts in a downward
direction. The force due to this downward or negative skin friction is thus
carried by the pile instead of helping to support the external load on the pile.
Negative skin friction increases gradually as consolidation of the clay layer
proceeds, the effective overburden pressure gradually increasing as the excess
pore water pressure dissipates.

P
u
+ q
sN
As = q
b
A
b
+ q
s
A
s
where q
sN
is negative skin friction
(downward), A
sN
is the corresponding surface area of pile, q
s
is the skin friction
q
sN

q
b

q
sN

q
s

Fill: consolidating
under own weight
Soft clay: consolidating
under weight of fill
Firm or Hard bearing
layer
Figure 5-9 Negative skin friction
P
u


23
(upward) and A
s
is the corresponding surface areas of pile, A
b
is the end bearing
area of pile.
To calculate negative skin friction equation
'
o N s
q o | = can be used. In normally
consolidated clays, a value of |=0.25 represents a reasonable upper limit to
negative skin friction for preliminary design purposes.
It should be noted that there will be a reduction in effective overburden pressure
adjacent to the pile in the bearing stratum due to the transfer of part of the
overlying soil weight to the pile: if the bearing stratum is sand, this will result in
a reduction in bearing capacity above the critical depth.
5.10 PILE GROUP
Rarely is the foundation likely to consist of a single pile. Generally, there will
be a minimum of two of three piles under a foundation element or footing to
allow for misalignments and other inadvertent eccentricities.
The group of piles is installed fairly close together (typically 2B-4B where B is
the width or diameter of a single pile) and joined by a slab, known as the Pile
Cap, cast on top of the piles.
The cap is usually in contact with the soil in which case part of the structural
load is carried directly on the soil immediately below the surface. The group of
piles in this case is called piled foundation. If the cap is clear of the ground
surface, the piles in the group are referred to as free-standing (figure 5-10).


24

5.10.1 Load Distribution in Pile Group
It is generally assumed that the load distribution between the piles in an axially
loaded group is uniform.
However experimental evidence indicates that for a group in sand the piles at
the center of the group carry greater loads than those on the perimeter.
In clay, on the other hand, the piles on the perimeter of the group carry greater
loads than on those at the center.
5.10.2 Efficiency of Pile Group
In general the ultimate load which can be supported by a group of N piles is not
equal to N times the ultimate load of a single isolated pile of the same
dimensions in the same soil. Where N is the number of piles in a group. So
[in general] Ultimate load of Pile Group = N Ultimate load of a single pile

The ratio of the average load per pile in a group at failure to the ultimate load
for a single pile is defined as the efficiency of the group ().
Average load per pile in a group at failure = Ultimate group load / N
= ( Ultimate group load ] / ( N Ultimate Individual load )
Pile Cap
Pile Cap
(a) (b)
Figure 5-10 (a) A group of free-standing piles (b) A group of piled foundation

25
5.10.3 Pile Group in Cohesionless Soils
Driven Piles
The driving of a group of piles into loose sand or medium-dense sand causes
compaction of the sand between the piles, provided that the spacing is less than
about 8B: consequently the efficiency of the group is greater than unity. The
maximum efficiency is reached at a spacing of 2 to 3 diameters and generally
ranges between 1.3 to 2. It is recommended that in this case the design value
of =1 be taken.
In the case of piles driven into dense sand, the group efficiency is less than
unity due to loosening of the sand and the overlapping of zones of shear (figure
5-11).
Bored Piles
However, for a group of bored piles the efficiency may be as low as 2/3 because
the sand between the piles is not compacted during installation but the zones of
shear of adjacent piles will overlap.

26











Figure 5-11 Stress surrounding a friction pile and the summing effects of a
pile group
5.10.4 Pile Group in Cohesive Soils
A closely spaced group of piles (spacing = 2B to 3B) in clay may fail as a
unit, with shear failure taking place around the perimeter of the group and
Four piles contributing
to this stress zone
Three piles contributing to
this stress zone
Two piles contributing to
this stress zone

27
below the area covered by the piles and the enclosed soil. This is referred to as
Block Failure. (figure 5-12)
The ultimate load in the case of a pile group which fails as a block is given by
u sg b bg ug
c A q A P + =
A
bg
= base are of the group = Bg Lg; A
sg
= perimeter area of the group =
2D(B
g
+ L
g
); c
u
= undrained shear strength at depth D
u
c = average undrained shear strength between 0 and D below the ground.
qb=cuNc where N
c
=5.14 (1+0.2B
g
/L
g
) [ 1 + \(0.053D/B
g
) ] s 9
) ( 2
g g u g g u c ug
L B D c L B c N P + + =
Design Ultimate Load
Piled Foundation
The ultimate load should be taken as the lesser of the
Block Failure value (2) The sum of the individual pile values
Free Standing Group of Piles
The ultimate load should be taken as the lesser of the
(1) Block Failure value (2) 2/3 of the sum of the individual pile values
5.11 Settlement of Pile Group
The settlement of pile group is always greater than the settlement of a
corresponding single pile, as a result of the overlapping of the individual zones
of influence of the piles in the group. The bulbs of pressure of a single pile and
a pile group (with piles of the same length as the single pile) are of the form
illustrated in figure 5-13.
In order to estimate settlement for a pile group, it is assumed that the total load
is carried by an Equivalent raft located at a depth of 2L/3 where L is the
length of piles (figure 5-14). It may be assumed as shown in figure 5-14 that the
load is spread from the perimeter of the pile group at a slope of 1 horizontal to 4
vertical to allow for that part of the load transferred to the soil by skin friction.
The vertical stress increment at any depth below the equivalent raft may be

28
estimated by assuming in turn that the total load is spread to the underlying soil
at a slope of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical.


29
Pile Cap
Pile Cap
(a) A group of free-standing piles
(b) A group of piled foundation
L
g

B
g

D
D
L
g

B
g

D
Figure 5-12Block failure of pile group in clay
(c ) Dimensions of Failure block

30




















Figure 5-13 Bulbs of pressure for a single and a pile group







31


Figure 5-14 Equivalent raft concept
5.12 Pile Load Test
The loading of a test pile enables the ultimate load to be determined directly
and provides a means of assessing the accuracy of predicted values.
Tests may also be carried out in which loading is stopped when the proposed
working load has been exceeded by a specified percentage.
Figure 5-15 shows a schematic diagram of the pile load test arrangement for
testing in axial compression in the field. The load is applied to the pile by a
hydraulic jack. The load is applied in suitable increments, allowing sufficient
time between increments for settlement to be substantially complete. According
to ASTM D1143, the test pile is loaded in eight equal increments up to a
maximum load, usually twice the predetermined working (allowable) load.
Unloading stages are normally included in the test program. This testing
procedure is Maintained load test (or Controlled load test).
In constant rate of penetration (CRP) test the pile is jacked into the soil at a
constant speed, the load applied in order to maintain the penetration being
continuously measured. Suitable rates of penetration for tests in sands and clays
are 1.5 mm/min and 0.75 mm/min respectively.
Another type of pile load test is cyclic loading, in which an increment load is
repeatedly applied and removed.
Driven piles in clays should not be tested for at least a month after installation
to allow most of the increase in skin friction (a result of dissipation of the
excess pore water pressure due to the driving stresses) to take place. Load tests
on piles in sand can be carried out immediately after the piles are driven.
5.12.1 Ultimate Load
Figure 5-15 shows load settlement diagram obtained from fried loading and
unloading. For any load Q, the pile settlement can be calculated as follows.
When Q=Q1,
net settlement, s
net(1)
= s
t(1)
s
e(1)


32
When Q=Q2
net settlement, s
net(2)
= s
t(2)
s
e(2)

and so on.
Where s
net
= net settlement
s
e
= elastic settlement of the pile itself
s
t
= total settlement
These values of Q can be plotted in a graph against the corresponding net
settlement, s
net
as shown in figure 5-15 (c). The ultimate load of the pile can be
determined from this graph. Pile settlement may increase with load to a certain
point, beyond which the load settlement curve becomes vertical. The load
corresponding to the point where Q-snet becomes vertical is the ultimate load,
Qu, for the pile. It is shown by curve 1 of the figure 5-15 (c ).
In many cases, the latter stage of the load-settlement curve is almost linear,
showing large degree of settlement for a small increment of load; it is shown by
curve 2 in figure 5-15 ( c). The ultimate load for such cases is determined from
the point of the curve where this steep linear portion starts.
5.12.2 Disadvantages
The performance of single pile does not correspond to actual conditions of
performance underneath the structure within the entire group of piles. (2) The
loading test must be performed at the actual construction site and under real
conditions of the blueprint conditions which are often difficult to fulfill and to
execute. (3) This method of test requires specially heavy, sturdy equipment and
platforms, precise settlement measuring devices, large quantities of dead load,
or powerful hydraulic jacks. (4) The aforementioned conditions and factors
make this kind of pile bearing capacity test very expensive.

33




























34
Figure 5-15 (a) Schematic diagram of pile load test arrangement; (b) plot
of load against total settlement (c) plot of load against net settlement

35

Figure 5-16 Schematic setup for applying vertical load to the test pile using
a hydraulic jack acting against an anchored reaction frame


36
Problem 5-1Single Pile in Sand
A 12m long, 305mm square section pile is to be embedded in sand. Water table
is encountered at 3m depth below the ground surface. Sand has the following
properties: =16.8 kN/m
3
above WT, sat=18 kN/m
3
, |'=35. Angle of friction
between soil and pile is taken to be o=0.6|', lateral earth pressure coefficient
Ks=1.4. Calculate the ultimate compressive load.
Solution:
End-bearing resistance:
q
b
= o
o
'Nq from figure 5-6, L/B=12/0.305=40, and |'=35, Nq=42
q
b
= 54.742=2297.4 kPa
Friction resistance:
o o tan
'
o s s
K q =
First find average vertical effective stress along the pile length, it is
equal to the area under vertical effective stress distribution diagram
divided by the length of pile.
2 '
kN/m 46 = 4.575) - (12 54.7 + 2) - (4.575 54.7)/2 + (33.6 + 2)/2 (33.6 12 / 1 =
o
o
kPa k K q
o s s
7 . 24 ) 35 6 . 0 tan( 46 4 . 1 tan
'
= = = o o
L=12m








zc=150.305
=4.575 m
16.82=33.6 kPa
(18-9.81)(4.575-2)+33.6
=54.7 kPa
o
o
'=54.7 kPa
2m

37
Ultimate compressive load (Pu)
Pu = A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s

A
b
=0.305
2
= 0.093 m
2
, A
s
= 40.30512= 14.64 m
2

Pu= 0.0932297.4 + 14.6424.7 = 213.6 + 361.6 = 575.2 kN
Example 5-2 Single Pile Capacity in Sand using SPT
A precast concrete pile 450 mm square in section and 9 m long is to be driven
into a river bed which consists of a depth of sand. The standard penetration
resistance (N) at the pile base is 24, and the average value of N along the pile
length is 13. Calculate the ultimate compressive and tensile load carrying
capacity of the pile.

Solution
N = 24
13 = N
L
b
= 9.0 m
Ultimate compressive load capacity = A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s

Ultimate tensile load capacity = A
s
q
s

q
b
= (40N)Lb/B s 400N (kN/m
2
)
qb = 40 24 9/ 0.45 =
N q
s
2 = [kN/m
2
]
=2 13 = 26 kN/m
2


Problem 5-3, Single Pile in Clay
L=12









38
A 400mm, square section concrete pile is driven to an embedded depth of 12m
in a cohesive soil, which has the following properties, |u=0, =20 kN/m
3
both
above & below W.T., cu at 12m depth is 85.4 kPa. The water table is at a depth
of 3m. Assume |=0.4. Calculate safe load capacity for the pile adopting a FOS
of 3 for the base shear and factor of safety of 2.5 for skin resistance.
Solution
End bearing resistance
kPa cN q
c b
6 . 768 4 . 85 9 9c = = = =
Skin/friction resistance:
'
=
o s
q o |
Let us find average effective overburden pressure
kPa
o
9 . 86 )] 3 12 ( 2 / ) 60 7 . 151 ( 2 / ) 60 3 [( 12 / 1 = + + =
'
o
kPa q
o s
7 . 34 9 . 86 4 . 0 = =
'
= o |
Ultimate & Allowable Compressive loads:

s s b b u
q A q A P + =
kN P
u
792 2 . 666 8 . 125 7 . 34 12 ) 4 . 0 4 ( 6 . 786 ) 4 . 0 4 . 0 ( = + = + =
L=12m







203=60 kPa
(20-9.81)(12-3)+60=151.7 kPa
3m

39
kN P
a
308
5 . 2
2 . 666
3
8 . 125
= + =
Problem 5-4Pile Group in Clay
Determine the safe load capacity for a square group of 9 piles in cohesive soil.
Safety factor 2.5 against block failure. =20 kN/m
3
, cu at the base 85.4 kPa,
average undrained shear strength =60.2 kPa, |u=0. Pu for single pile is equal to
819 kN.
Given Data
No of piles = n = 9, =20 kN/m3, cu (base) = 85.4 kN/m2, cu (avg.) = 60.2 kPa
P
u
(single pile) = 819 kN
Required
Safe Load Capacity of pile group = Pug
Solution
s s b b gp u
q A q A P + =
) (

2
/ 2 . 60 m kN c q
u s
= =
c u b
N c q =
Find N
c
by using the relation:-
9 053 . 0 1 2 . 0 1 14 . 5 s
(
(

+
(
(

+ =
g g
g
c
B
D
L
B
N
9
25 . 2
12
053 . 0 1
25 . 2
25 . 2
2 . 0 1 14 . 5 s
(

+
(

+ =
c
N
9 45 . 9 > =
c
N
So take 9 =
c
N
kPa N c q
c u b
6 . 768 9 4 . 85 = = =

40
2
0625 . 5 25 . 2 25 . 2 m A
b
= =
depth Parameter A
s
=

2
108 12 ) 25 . 2 25 . 2 ( 2 m A
s
= + =
kN P
gp u
10392 2 . 60 108 6 . 768 0625 . 5
) (
= + =

Ultimate load for piled foundation (Pile cap resting over group).
(a) Base Failure Value=10392 kN
(b) Such as of induced pile cap=8199=7371 kN

Minimum of (a) & (b) is selected for Pu(group)= 7371 kN
kN
FOS
P
P
u
allowable
4 . 2948
5 . 2
7371
= = =




12 m
2.25 m
2.25 m