Pu 1997-2004

ISSN : 1907-0004
International
ISSN : 1907-0004
International
PREFACE
Public Works International is an official journal of the Agency for Research and Development, Ministry of Public Works that had been published since 2005 as publications of research findings. This book presents some of research about Public Works sector, which have been already presented on International Seminars, Workshop or Conference during 2006. The editorial board greatly thanks all contributors who continuously submit their contributions for the generous support which makes this journal available in this form.
Jakarta, December 2006
Editorial Board
Writing Manuals
1. The scientific manuscript must be received in English, which have been presented for about the last one year on an International Forum either in or outside the countries. 2. Paper should be written at maximum of (10) ten-pages, A4 paper size format using Tahoma 10 pt font letter on a single paragraph. 3. The writing systematic is arranged in order as mention below: opening chapter main chapter ending chapter : : : title, writer/s, institution (with address), e-mail and abstract; introduction, main subject, conclusion (and suggestion); references and note (mention the name of the location, which it represented).
4. The title has to be written in capital letter as a center alignment. 5. The writers name is written below the title without the academic title and without word by If written . by more than one writer, names written at one line. 6. The abstract contains; problems background, solution and output must be written less than 250 words and contains of 3-5 words as keyword. 7. Using photos should be avoided except tables and graphics that support the writing or an observation result. 8. References must be in Harvard sistem on alphabetical and no numbering. 9. The writing method has to adjust to scientific writing standard. 10. Contains of writing is not editors responsibility. 11. Without changing the manuscript, editorial of contains and terminology could be edited without prior notice to the writer. Editor Address: Cooperation and Planning Division Secretariat of Agency for Research and Development Jl. Pattimura No. 20 - B.1.a Building 3th Floor Kebayoran Baru, Jakarta Selatan Phone: 021-7226307 Fax: 021-7395062 E-mail: infotek@pu.go.id, infotek@gawab.com
PUBLIC WORKS International 2006
CONTENTS
PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................................................ 2 WRITING MANUALS .......................................................................................................................................................... 2
WATER RESOURCES FLASH FLOOD AND ITS PROBLEM CASE STUDY ON SEVERAL RIVER BASIN IN INDONESIA .................... 5 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PRIORITY AREAS FOR WATER POLLUTION CONTROL STRATEGY IN THE UPSTREAM WATERSHED OF THE CITARUM RIVER BY AHP-GIS METHOD .................................................... 11 GREY WATER USED FOR ECOTECH GARDEN AS AN URBAN HOUSING DOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT ...................................................................................................................................................................... 17 REVITALIZATION OF LAKE PLUIT ............................................................................................................................... 25 EFFECT OF SEDIMENT RATE AT SAGULING RESERVOIR TO ITS LIFETIME ..................................................... 31
ROAD AND BRIGDES PREIDENTIFICATION STUDY OF TOLL ROAD NETWORK IN BANDUNG AREA, WEST JAVA, INDONESIA BY USING THE GIS AND DTM .............................................................................................................. 39 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC EFFECT OF ROAD NETWORK DEVELOPMENT ..................................................... 47
HUMAN SETLEMENTS CURRENT STATUS OF HALON PHASE-OUT IMPLEMENTATION IN INDONESIA .......................................... 53 DETECTING RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE USING ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING PERFORMANCE ON COASTAL AREAS ...................................................................................................................... 61 IDENTIFYING ASPECTS IN PLANNING AND DESIGN OF HOUSING AND SETTLEMENTS TO MITIGATE MACRO CLIMATE CHANGE REGARDING CO2 EMISSION................................................................ 71 MANUAL FOR FACILITATOR ORGANIZED SELF-HELP RENTAL FLAT HOUSING IN INDONESIA ............ 79 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN PUBLIC AREA TO ENHANCE ECOLOGICAL OPEN SPACE USE, IN URBAN TROPICAL SETTLEMENTS ........................................................................................................................ 89 THE UNDERSTANDING OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT FORCES FOR ESTIMATION OF ADMINISTRATIVE DEFINITION OF URBAN AREAS ............................................................................................... 95 DOMESTIC WASTEWATER REUSE............................................................................................................................. 105 INDONESIAS EXPERIENCE ON MANAGING PUBLIC-PRIVATE-PARTNERSHIP (PPP) INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS ................................................................................................................................... 109
WATER RESOURCES
1
WATER RESOURCES
FLASH FLOOD AND ITS PROBLEM

CASE STUDY ON SEVERAL RIVER BASIN IN INDONESIA
Eddy A. Djajadiredja*, Joesron Loebis** *Director of Research Centre for Water Resources, Agency for Research and Development, Ministry of Public Works Jl.Ir.H.Juanda 193, Bandung 40135, Indonesia. Tel. 62 22 250 4053 ; Fax. 62 22 250 0163. e-mail: eddyad@melsa.net.id **Indonesia National Representative for IAHS, President of Indonesia Hydrological Society, IHS Research Centre for Water Resources Jl.Ir.H.Juanda 193, Bandung 40135, Indonesia. Tel. 62 22 250 4053 ; Fax. 62 22 250 0163. e-mail: joesron@melsa.net.id
ABSTRACT
Indonesia is situated in the monsoon climate with typical mountainous rivers which has flash flood occurred every year. Last few years record shows that the flash flood occurred in Nias Island on 31 July 2001, causing 105 people are dead. Following year, in 11 December 2002 the flash flood occurred again in the tourism area Padusan, Pacet, Mojokerto causing 35 people are dead and 25 people declared to be missing. In the year 2003 exactly 2 November the flash flood occurred again in tourism area Bahorok, North Sumatera, 120 people are dead and hundreds of people are declare missing. In 1 June 2005 flash flood also occurred in Central Sulawesi, located in Palu River affected from tributaries Tomalo, Sibowintua, Nganganto and Pawanua Rivers, causing 5.000 Ha paddy field and hundreds of housing are deteriorating. Recently, first of January 2006 the flash flood occurred in Jember, West Java, 77 people are dead and many of them lost their houses and others properties. To overcome such problem, in order to avoid the lost of human being and reduced the lost of properties, river forecasting activities as a component of flood management is required. If hydrological data is available, the computation method can conduct with adopt the rainfall-runoff relationship. Rainfall runoff relation will provide an estimation of the volume of water accordingly with a given storm rainfall data. The unit hydrograph is a simple and generally effective method for accomplishing this river forecast activities. In order to deal effectively with uneven distribution of runoff in time, unit hydrographs for short periods are used, very often for 6 or 12-hr durations. When the time factor is short that forecast must be prepare locally, procedures of a rather specialized form have been developed. Flash flood warning procedure is derived from conventional rainfall-runoff relations and unit hydrographs will be described further in this paper. Keywords : Flood and Warning System
INTRODUCTION
The climate of Indonesia influenced by monsoons accompanies both the rainy and dry season, often causing floods but also droughts. The type of flood to be discussed in this paper is the excessive run off of a river body, such as river and or lake, which accordingly can cause death to human beings and livestock, and loss of property. More specifically, this paper will be discussing the phenomena of flash flood, a flood occurring very rapidly and at very short time, and generally caused by storm rainfall such flood is usually accompanied by river slope sliding or land sliding in the vicinity of disaster area.
The debris flow consists mainly of rocks, boulders and logs. Regularly, flash floods occur in relatively small river tributaries. Considering the water body flood absorption and storage capacity, storm rainfall exceeds often the basin characteristic. The hydrological and topographical conditions in Indonesia are such leaving the region very vulnerable to flash floods. Being aware of the condition, the government of Indonesia has implemented a number of policies dealing with the causes of flash flood and has built the supporting infrastructure. These policies are also backed-up by regulations and dissemination of information.
WATER RESOURCES
FLASH FLOOD
Only a few years ago, a number of unexpected disastrous flash floods had stricken various areas of Indonesia, some to mention are the flash flood at the island of Nias (NS) on 31 July, 2001, at Pacet (East Java) on 11 December, 2002 and the tourism area Bahorok (North Sumatera) on 2 November, 2003. The death toll in these areas was quite high. Above incidents had shocked the country because rainfall had not been extremely high and the storage pocket sufficient. These flash floods had transported materials such as rocks and logs as resulted by landslides and carried by river flow. This study starts with the damming up of river channel because of slope sliding and which had formed a reservoir due to accumulation of flood water ponding. During a heavy rainfall, water accumulation increased and collapsed the blockage forming a catastrophic flood runoff destroying everything on its routing. The scheme of the forming of a flash flood is illustrated on Fig. 1.
Dam up by Landslide (Natural dam)
Swollen water level in upstream submerged houses
Collapse of soil mass of Landslide Debris Flow, Flood
Figure 1. Scheme of the dammed river basin flash flood and debris Continuous alertness is to be given to above phenomena. Monitoring of rainfall storage pockets has particularly during the rainy season be intensified. Thus, water accumulation upstream can be detected and threat of flash flood avoided, or at least minimized the amount of victims and property.
Flash Flood At Nias Island (North Sumatera) In July 2001

The island Nias belongs to the administrative district of Kabupaten Nias of North Sumatera with Gunungsitoli at its capital. It is located between the
north latitude of 0 12" - 1 32" and east longitude of 97 98 with a region area of 5,625 square km, or + 7,82% of entire area of North Sumatera. Kabupaten Nias consists of 132 small island and among these island Nias is the largest. Only 95 island are inhabited. The disasterous flash flood occurred on 30 31 July, 2001, causing landslides and the transportation of logs. The death told reached 105. The incident was categorized as a natural disaster caused by extreme climate and not within human control. The weather forecast by the Geophysic and Meteorological Board a few days before the disaster had suggested the possibility of heavy rainfall above normal condition for the western coast of Sumatera including Nias (Kompas , Friday 30 August 2001) Based on field observation, the number of fully operating rainfall observation stations on Nias is very small. Of the 6 operating stations only Binaka station located + 80 km from place of disaster can to present date be fully relied on. The Tete-hosi station +40 km away from place of disaster, operated only up to May 2001. Available water level recorders were out of function. The vegetation coverage upstream the river basin is not in such bad condition as reported by the mass media which indicated land clearing for nilam (Pogostemon cablin) cultivation as cause of flood. Landslides were not caused by bare land as concluded by an observation team because the area is thickly covered by vegetation. In general, the place of disaster is located in South Nias covering the Kecamatan of Teluk Dalam, Lahusa, Gomo, Amandraya, Lolomatua and Lolowan. Most victims were found at Kecamatan Lahusa, flood run-off from the river Masio and at Kecamatan Gomo with flood run-off from the river Susua. The Masio and Susua rivers have an atmost similar fan shaped river basin with steep slopes, so that change of hydrograph reach a peak very quickly, but also a soon decline. Downstream the river Masio, the flood plain is adequately wide with almost perpendicular sloes and with a depth of 1-2 meters, however + 5 km from the estuary upstream ward the Masio is intersecting the steep hill causing a narrowing of river channel and likewise the damming of
flow. If a sliding of slopes occurs, material carried by the slide may possibly dam the river flow and form a small water pocket storage upstream. Many had setup their dwellings in the flood plain and cultivated the land with the consequence that the flash flood at the end of July 2001 which had occurred in the night has taken numerous lives of elder people and children in particular.
Flash Flood At Padusan, Pacet on 11 December 2002

The warm water bathing place Padusan is a top tourism area in Kabupaten Mojokerto and is located at Desa Padusan, Kecamatan Pacet about 60 km from Surabaya the capital of East Java. This place is situated in Kali Dawuhan, a tributary of the river Cumpleng which its spring on the slope of Mt. Welirang. Kali Cumpleng empties into Kali Gembolo which empties into Kali Sadar, a tributary of Kali Porong which its river mouth at the straits of Madura. The bathing place is managed by the State Forest nterprise (Perhutani) in cooperation with the regional government of Kabupaten Mojokerto. On Wednesday, 11 December 2002 a flash flood carried rock material from river bed destinating the weir and pitching that cross the old river causing the transported rock to hit and bury the hot water bathing place which at that moment had been crowded by visitors on holiday. The informatioin and post flood observation data collected after the disaster showed that flood water had reached a head of 2 m. above weir structure estimating a river discharge of 47.5 m/ sec. Rainfall rate was estimated greater than 80 mm/ 2 hrs, whereas recorded rainfall at Pacet climatological station read 8 mm/2 hrs. The number of victims had not been small. Recorded were 35 people dead and 25 missing. Main cause was charged to the bare land in the river basin which did not absorb rain water but alter it into surface water. This statement is perhaps true, but a further study should be put into the case. Based on field observation results, following analysis should be regarded as a contribution to the cause of flash flood. Rain that fell for five whole days, 1-5 December 2002, with highest recorded rainfall rate of 77 mm/ day caused a saturated storage pocket and instable soil structure. When rain fell again, a slope sliding occurred and soil absorption had decreased such to
that considering the 60 - 70 sloping area, the runoff had increased. Being the start of the rainy season, the run-off had added with carried the branches and humus from soil surface and river slope pieces of sliding material which at narrow parts of rivers had blocked the channel and dammed the river flow. On 11 December according to the readings at the Pacet station, rainfall showed a rate of 8 mm. Although rainfall rate has not been high but due to accumulation of water in the storage pocket formed by the dammed channel, the blockage collapsed.
Flash Flood At Bahorok, Langkat on 2 November 2003

Another flash flood struck on 2 November 2003 around seven aclock at night. Carrying thousands of culic meter of uprooted trees, the flash flood hit the tourism area Bukit Lawang on the Bahorok iver. It took 120 lives and hundreds are still missing. The river Bahorok is located in Kabupatedn Langkat, North Sumatera and is a tributary of the Wampu River which is managed and under the control of the Office for Water Resources Management Sungai Wampu Besintang. The Bohorok River situated upstream the place of disaster, Desa Bukit Lawang, has a catchment area of 65.22 square km with a river slope of + 0.006 and sloping of 30 - 45 (Source Analysis and Topographical Map). Its water spring is located in Gunung Leuser National Park. The river Bahorok flowing through Desa Bukit Lawang + 85 km from Medan, capital of North Sumatera, is natural tourism area. The orang utan Rehabilitation Centre managed by the World Wild Life (WWF) is located in the area Bukit Lawang lies on a flat plain near Bahorok River where steep river structure shifts into more flat slopes. The flood plain is 50 m 100 m. wide and local dwellings as well as hotels/inns are built along the river. Field inspection was done three days after the disaster on 5 November 2003. Remains of the rage were still to be seen through the high heap of logs with diameter of 0.50 m and length of 30 meters. Of the area which was formerly densely populated nothing was left. Most of the dead trunks or uprooted trees showed signs of rock scouring (Fig 6) making identification difficult whether trees were felt for illegal logging or not. However, the possibility still remains.
WATER RESOURCES
From the 1:50.000 scaled topographical map can be seen that some parts of river have narrowed, and such condition has to be kept on the alert because of its potential of blocking the river channel. Such parts are usually steeply sloping with a river bed and walls of hard rock causing logs easily to be stuck and damming river flow.
environment. Implementing flood forecasting and the early warning system among the community residing the vicinity of flood plain.
FLASH FLOOD MANAGEMENT Flash Flood Control

The policy on flash flood control is implemented according to two methods namely by building an infra-structures are among others hydraulic structures such as dykes, reservoirs, flood ways retarding basins, and works of widening and dredging river channels. Non-structural apparatuses are regulations, guidelines, manuals, procedures and specifications. The non-structural method has to be informed intensively to the community which should participate in resolving the flash flood problem. A routine activity to be carried out is supplementing the community with flood forecasting and early warning results so that at least loss of lives and property can be suppressed to minimum.
PREVENTIVE POLICIES
Prevention measures are needed to anticipate aforesaid disasters. From the analysis on flash flood disaster process can be concluded that emphasis is to be given to the water resources usage plan which is to be followed by activities as follows : - monitoring of illegal logging activities at river basin because such activity can weaken said structure and facilitate river wall sloping. - Monitoring of river reach up to upstream part for early countermeasure action when river channel is blocked up and causing ponding. The blockage is not a strong structure and when ponding capacity increases such structure will be vulnerable to collapse. Monitoring can be done manually or using satellite facilities. - Socializing such phenomena to activity organizers within the vicinity of river area in order to be alert. - Rivers crossing densely populated areas or because of activities concentrating a great number of people, should be equipped with a flood warning system. The preventive policy on resolving the flash flood problem refers to Law No. 7, 2004 concerning Water Resources which among others aims at one river, one plan and one management, should consider the following : - Maintain balance between environmental bearing force and population load - Lay-out and flood plain management should conform to flash flood possibilities. These efforts should be backed-up by Flood Risk Maps and Flood Plain Zoning. - Land use development activities at river basin should be supported by water and land conservation which concerns among other a forestation, reforestation, and construction of water recharge, terracing, check dam, reservoir and retarding basin. - Determining the river boundary to be followed by law enforcement and protection of the
Evacuation Guidelines
Flash flood control measures by building hydraulic structures keep actually a time bomb because when these structures are malfunctioning great loss of human lives, livestock and property is unavoidable. A community evacuation system should thus be introduced
Dissemination Of Information
Dissemination and socialization of both control measures should be done intensively making not only the community aware of the danger of flash flood but also motivate participation. Dissemination of information can be done through mass media, publication of norms, standards, guidelines, manuals, brochures, posters and organizing seminars.
FLASH FLOOD DAMAGE MITIGATION POLICY

The policy on damage mitigation before disaster can be implemented through monitoring, prediction and mitigation.
Monitoring
Monitoring related to flash flood pre-disaster anticipation is among others done by monitoring the construction activities within the river basin and
hydrological data collection. Monitoring on the flash flood phenomena needs real time data supplemented by a telemetric communication system. This system can be applied through the telephone, radio and satellite.
RECOMMENDATION
It is recommended to establish an institutional organization with prime concern on river basin management through one river, one plan and one management, and set-up a hydrological data and water resources information system network.
Prediction
Next activity to be carried out is conducting a hydrological analysis, particularly on flash flood possibilities. The hydrological analysis determines the relationship between rainfall intensity and river discharge and is dependable on rainfall and real time river discharge data. Prediction analysis can be implemented through statistical and hydrographic unit approach.
REFERENCE
Isnugroho and Hermono, 2001, Laporan Peninjauan Lapangan Bencana Alam Pulau Nias, Puslitbang Sumber Daya Air, Bandung. Isnugroho and Hermono, 2002, Laporan Bencana Banjir di Pemandian Air Panas Padusa, Kecamatan Pacet, Mojokerto, Puslitbang Sumber Daya Air, Bandung. Isnugroho dan Hernomo, 2003, Laporan Peninjauan Lapangan Bencana Banjir Bandung, S Bahorok, Langkat, Sumatera Utara, Puslitbang Sumber Daya Air, Bandung. Isnugroho, 2003, The Sediment Related Issue in Indonesia, Sabo Technical Center, Solo. Loebis, Joesron, 2002, Prakiraan Debit dan Peringatan Dini Sebagai Pelayanan Kepada Masyarakat Menghadapi Masalah Banjir dan Kekeringan,, Seminar Sehari Mengelola/ Memperlakukan Banjir untuk Kesejahteraan Masyarakat, Jakarta, 30 April, 2002. Siswoko, 2002, Masalah Banjir dan Upaya Mengatasinya, HATHI, Jakarta. Sutcliffe, J.V., 1978, Method of Flood Estimation, Institute of Hydrology, Wallingford Oxon.
Mitigation
Results obtained from the monitoring and prediction activities are compiled in standards, operation and procedure methods such as flood risk maps, flood plain zooming, flood warning and evacuation system.
DISCUSSION
Flash floods can occur in each river basin particularly at rivers with steep river beds during rainfall of high intensity and relatively long duration. Indonesia as an archipelago with many mountains is very ulnerable to flash floods especially during the rainy season. In its effort of anticipating flash flood disaster, the Government has set-up a coordination board to overcome social and economical aspects of such disaster. The board is known as BAKORNAS (National Coordination Board) and is headed by the President of Indonesia. Next in structure is SATKORLAK (Suplementing Coordination Unit) headed by related ministers or governors, whereas field imlementation is carried oukt by SATGAS (Task Units).
NOTE
This paper was presented in 3rd Symposium Asia Pasific Hydrology and Water Resources, Bangkok-Thailand, 16-17 October 2006.
CONCLUSION
Flash floods are possibly to occur in each river basin and cause tremendous loss in all sectors which accordingly shall disturb the country economical system and community living pattern. To the present the only institutional organization concerned with flash flood control is the aforesaid coordinating board which is only prepared at time of disaster.
WATER RESOURCES
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IDENTIFICATION OF THE PRIORITY AREAS FOR WATER POLLUTION CONTROL STRATEGY IN THE UPSTREAM WATERSHED OF THE CITARUM RIVER BY AHP-GIS METHOD
E.W. Irianto*, A.Yuasa**, P. Sudjono***, A.Heriansyah**** *Research Center for Water Resources, Agency for Research and Development, Ministry of Public Works Jl. Ir.H.Juanda 193 Bandung, 40153, Indonesia E-mail: ekowinar@yahoo.com **River Basin Research Center, Gifu University 1-1, Yanagido, Gifu, 501-1193, Japan E-mail: yuasa@green.gifu-u.ac.jp ***Department of Environmental Engineering, Bandung Institute of Technology, Jl. Ganesha, Bandung, 40132, Indonesia E-mail: memteq@bdg.centrin.net.id ****On the job training (2004) at Research Centre for Water Resources, Indonesia, Jl. Ir.H.Juanda 193 Bandung, 40153, Indonesia E-mail: A.Heriansyah@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Development that did not consider the influence on ecology of the receiving water body system has had negative effects on the receiving water bodies. The potential areas exporting the pollutants into surface water should be recognized to facilitate the water pollution control strategy at watershed scale. To Identify the main priority areas exporting the pollutants into the upstream of the Citarum river, AHP-GIS method are utilized. Fifty interviewee who involved in the catchment management for the upstream watershed of the Citarum river derive the criterions, score and weighting factors. The thematic map describing the priority areas for water pollution control in the upstream watershed of the Citarum river is the product of this study. Result of this method used in this catchment confirms that areas which has high polluting risk are relatively similar with the strategy of water pollution control program carried out by Research Institute for Water Resources. For that reason, watersheds decision makers could be assisted by AHP-GIS method to prepare the strategy of water quality management at watershed scale. In addition, identification of the main concern areas for water pollution control strategy can be formulated rationally by this method through the public participation and stake-holder involved. Keywords : Analytical Hierarchie Process, Geographical Information System, the upstream of the Citarum river, watershed scale.
INTRODUCTION
Development that did not consider about the effect on ecology of the recipient of water body system has had injurious effects on the receiving water bodies (Novotny.et al, 2003). That condition can be influenced by water pollution caused by point source and non-point sources. Benetton (1984) at Pyradou (2003) explained that each land used or activity has a specific nutrient generation rate . Consequently, this problem needs the unique strategy for water pollution control mainly on the pollutant sources identification. Identification of the priority areas which export the pollutants into surface water should be prepared
for determining the strategy of water pollution control at watershed scale.The quality of receiving water bodies could be affected by the spatial characteristics. Pyradou, et.al (2003) explained that Geographical Information System (GIS) can integrate spatial information on land use, topography and point source locations (urban and industrial). Nevertheless, discussions and recommendations with the expert or stakeholder concerned, mainly on criterions and its scores determination are required. Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) emerges to be an adaptable tool for a decision making derived from multiple-criterion problems. The evaluation processes of a problem integrate both qualitative
WATER RESOURCES
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and quantitative aspects. Decomposition of a problem into the hierarchy also can be made by AHP (Saaty, 1980). The processes are based on the conciliation of the stakeholder involved (Abdini, Chairul, 2002). Therefore, weighting factors of each criteria could be obtained by AHP method logically and consistently. AHP method has also been used for water resources management regionally. AHP method was applied to calculate and categorize the urban groundwater ponds of the Novi Sad City in Yugoslavia derived from the approved criterions (Jandric and Srjdevic, 2000). Whereas, Abdini, Chairul (2002) interest with this method to verify the river basins priority for watersheds improvement programs in Indonesia. Integration between AHP and GIS to evaluate the aquifer vulnerability of Palar Watershed was employed by Thirumalaivasan and Karmegam (2001). The purpose of this study is to make known the option on water quality management at watershed scale particularly to recognize the priority areas to make the strategy of water pollution control in the upstream watershed of the Citarum River.
PI: Priority index of the area, Ci: polluting risk index, analyzed by GIS wi: weighting factors derived from AHP The study area i.e. the upstream of the Citarum River are shown at Figure 2. While, the spatial data are taken from West Java Planning Board. To analyze and manage spatial data processes, Arc View 3.1 version is primary employed. Whereas, the decision hierarchy to recognize the main priority areas exporting the pollutants into the upstream watershed of the Citarum river can be seen at Figure 3.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Scores and criterions

High rainfall intensity can increase infiltration rate in the upstream watershed of the Citarum River. (Wibowo, Mardi, 1999). On the other hand, based on Rational Method Martha and Adidarma (1985) , describes that high rainfall intensity will lift up surface run off in the area of the catchment. Topographies, higher than 750 usl (up sea level) is recharge zone for Bandung plain aquifer (Sabar,Arwin.,1995 at Wibowo, Mardi.,1999). So, it could be estimated that lower topographies has higher runoff than the higher. Supriyo, A (1998) at Wibowo, Mardi.(1999) explains that built area has lower infiltration than forest areas both natural and productive forest. Hence, it might be predicted that runoff in the forest areas is lower than built area. For that reason, the export on the organic and nutrient pollutants generated from the areas could be affected by those conditions. Table 1 shows the criterions and scores resulted by literatures study and confirmed by questionnaire survey as shown at Table 2. The scores are divided 5 classes, in order to I the field problems. Table 2 shows the questionnaire results for criterions determination. The table shows that 100% of interviewee agree that both industries and population density have affected to the surface
METHODS
Figure 1 shows the flow chart to obtain the criterions, score and weighting factors which are derived from literatures study and verified by opinion poll. For analyzing the questionnaire results, Expert Choice for Windows 1.0 version is utilized. The study involves 50 interviewee consisted of environmental researcher (14%), West Java provincial offices (32%), and universities (54%). While, the formula to determine the priority area is the following:
PI : C i * w i ; (1)
i
In which:
Figure 1. Flow chart to determine the criterions, score and weighting factors
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water pollution. While, Table 3 explains that the aspirant opinions about the pollution impact of each criterion to surface water pollution mainly into the upstream of the Citarum river. Then, the data obtained from questionnaire are evaluated by Pairwise comparisons analysis attached in Expert Choice for Windows 1 version (Figure 4).
Objective Estimation of Potential Polluting Areas
Criterions
Industrial Area Objects Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area etc
Population Density
Landuse
Rainfall Intensity
Land-Slope
Land-Elevation
Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area etc
Figure 3. Decision hierarchy to identify the priority areas for water pollution control in the upstream watershed of the Citarum river
Figure 2. The upstream watershed of the Citarum River as a study location Figure 4. Pairwise assessment results for weighting factors of each criteria Table 1. Criterions and scores affecting the pollution into the upstream of Citarum River
Score 1 2 3 4 5 Polluting Risk Very low Low Fair High Very high Pop-Dens (pop/Ha) 0-93 94-243 244-654 655-1582 >1583 Industries (Factories) 0-2 3-9 10-20 21-36 >36 Land-used (type) Forestry Plantations Irrigation Field Open Field Built Area Rainfall (mm/year) <1500 1500-2000 2000-2500 2500-3000 >3000 Land-Slope (%) <8 8-15 15-25 25-45 >45 Elevation (metre usl) >1000 900-1000 800-900 700-800 600-700
Source : analysis and calculation results;Pop-Dens: Population Density; usl: up sea level
Table 2. Questionnaire results for criterions determination

Criterions Population Density Land-used Slope Rainfall Intensity Industries Topographics n= 50 Survey results (%) agree disagree
Table 3. Opinions result to identify the pollution impact of each criterion to the upstream of the Citarum river
Criterions Population Density Land-used Slope Rainfall Intensity Industries Topographics n= 50 0 0 0 10% 0 6% Pollution impact to upstream of Citarum River Very Low Low 0 8% 38% 10% 0 64% Fair 6% 40% 20% 40% 0 30% High 24% 18% 42% 30% 26% 0 Very High 70% 34% 0 10% 74% 0
100 82 80 80 100 58
0 18 20 20 0 42
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Figure 4 shows that the inconsistency index of the analysis is 0.1. While, weighting factors for industry, population density, land use, rainfall intensity, land slope, and topographies are 0.341, 0.326, 0.187, 0.1, 0.023 and 0.023 respectively. Saaty (1998) on Jandric and Srjdevic (2000) explained that inconsistency index less than 0.1 is acceptable. For that reason, the spatial analysis can use weighting factors resulted from Pairwise comparison result.
Spatial analysis
Figure 5.a to 5.e are shown the thematic maps to support the calculation of the priority index of each area (Equation 1). The simple calculation can employ the spreadsheet software. However, the computation at database system attached in GIS software is recommended. Table 4 illustrates the calculation related with the spatial characteristics of Cisirung village for example. Then, GIS software can
anagemently classify all of the calculation results and make the new thematic map. So, this method can operate easily by the officers who incharge in the watershed management. Figure 6 is the new thematic map resulted by the calculation and classification through the GIS software. Figure 6 describes the thematic maps explaining the product of AHP-GIS method applied in the upstream watershed of Citarum Catchment. In this research, three classifications of the priority index are used i.e low priority, consider priority and high priority. The classifications can clearly notify the recommend locations to build the integrated wastewater treatment plants (IWTP). As a result, IWTP should be built in the high priority areas as the main part of the water pollution control strategy in the upstream watershed of Citarum River. The high priority areas created by the AHP-GIS method is relatively suitable with previous strategy for water pollution control in the catchment based
Table 4. Illustration problem to determine the priority index of each area
Figure 5. Thematic maps as the inputs to calculate the priority index of each area in the upstream of the Citarum river: a. Population density; b. amount of industries; c. Rainfall Intensity; d.Elevations; e. Slopes; f. Land-used
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For above reason, the strategy of water pollution control programs can be prepared realistically by the AHP-GIS. Furthermore, decision makers of watershed can be supported to identify the priority area for water pollution control programs at a watershed scale concluded by the stake-holder involved.
CONCLUSIONS
The result of AHP-GIS method is the thematic map explaining the priority areas for water pollution control strategy in the watershed. In this research, three classifications of the priority index are used i.e low priority, consider priority and high priority. The classifications can clearly notify the recommend locations to build the integrated wastewater treatment plants (IWTP). As a result, IWTP should be built in the high priority area as the main part of the water pollution control strategy in the upstream watershed of Citarum River. Application of this method in the upstream
Figure 6. The result of AHP-GIS for water pollution control strategy in the upstream of the Citarum river on the field survey (GKW Consult,1990). The high priority also shows that integrated wastewater treatment plant is suggested to be built in the industrial areas of Majalaya, Banjaran and South Cimahi (Figure 6). While, for treating the wastewater discharged from Bandung area (high priority area), both domestics and industrial treatment plants have been built.
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watershed of the Citarum river explains that the high priority areas is relatively suitable with the planning of water pollution control program conducted by Research Institute For Water Resources based on the field survey analysis. Watershed decision maker can apply AHP-GIS method to prepare rationally mainly to identify the priority area for water pollution control programs at a watershed scale. The public opinions and stakeholder involved can be accommodated through this method. In addition, the method can operate easily by the officers who incharge in the watershed management.
Topographic Information. International Water Association (IWA). Paris. Pp 320 Saaty,TL.(1996). Analytic Hierarchy Process, RWS Publication, Pittsburg Sinclair Knight Merz-Waseco Tirta. (1995). Final Report: South Cimahi Industrial Pollution Control Project. Research Institute for Water Resources. Ministry of Public Work Indonesia. Bandung. Thirumalaivasan and Karmegam. (2001). 22nd Asian Conference on Remote Sensing : Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment Using Analytic Hierarchy Process and GIS for Palar Watershed. Asian Association on Remote Sensing. Singapore Wibowo,Mardi. (1999). Seminar Nasional Teknologi Pengelolaan Limbah dan Pemulihan Kerusakan Lingkungan: Pengkajian Daerah Resapan Air dengan Menggunakan Sistem Informasi Geografis (National seminar on waste management and environmental recovery: The assesment of water recharge using Geographical Information System). Environmental Technology Division, Ministry of Research and Technology Indonesia. Jakarta
REFERENCES
Abdini, Chaerul. (2002). Prioritas Penanganan Pengembangan Sumber Daya Air menurut Satuan Wilayah Sungai (Priority management on water resources development based on watershed system). Jurnal Litbang Pengairan (Water resources journal), 15(47), Research Institute for Water Resources Indonesia, Bandung GKW Consult-Indah Karya.(1990). Final Report: Water Quality Management Sector Project. Institute of Hydraulic Engineering, Ministry of Public Work Indonesia. Bandung Hariansyah,Arie.(2003). Pemetaan Tematik untuk Keperluan Pengelolaan Kualitas Air Sungai Citarum (Thematic mapping for water quality anagement in the Citarum river). Bachelor Thesis on Environmental Engineering ITENAS, Bandung Harmen and Mac Kichan. (1981). Hydrology and Quality of Water Resources, John Willey & Sons Inc, Canada. Pp.166 Jandric,Z and Szrdevic,B. (2000). 31th International Geological Congress: Analytical Hierarchy Process in Selecting Best Ground Water Pond, Rio De Janeiro, Brazil Martha and Adidarma. (1985). Mengenal dasar-dasar Hidrologi (Basics of Hidrology). Nova Publisher, Bandung. Pp 307 Novotny V, D. Clark, RJ Griffin and D Booth . (2000). 1st World Water Congress: Risk Based Urban Watershed Management Under Conflicting Objectives. International Water Association (IWA). Paris. Pp 144 Pyradeau, MG Tournoud, F Cernesson, B Picot.(2000). 1st World Water Congress: Annual Nutrients Export Modeling by Analysis of Landuse and
NOTE
This paper was presented in 3rd International Symposium on South East Asian Water Enviroment, Thailand, 4-5 December, 2005.
16
GREY WATER USED FOR ECOTECH GARDEN AS AN URBAN HOUSING DOMESTIC WATER TREATMENT
Ratna Hidayat Researcher on Water Quality and its Environment Research Centre of Water Resources Development, Public Work Department Jl.Ir.H.Juanda 193 - 40135, Bandung; Phone:62-22-2504053/Fax:62-22-2500163 Phone: 08122423134; E-mail: ratnahid@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Indonesia at present, the off site domestic waste treatment system with limited service against total population has been applied in six large cities, namely Surakarta (Central Java) 13%, Bandung (West Java) 20%, Cirebon (West Java) 42%, Tangerang (Banten) 4%, Medan (North Sumatera) 2.3% and the capital Jakarta at 2.6%. Such system directs black water (source: lavatory) and grey water (source: bath/shower, washing and kitchen sink) from a housing complex by pipe system to sewerage for further treatment at a Centralized Domestic Waste Water Treatment Installation. The limited off-site sanitation system has forced the housing complexes to treat its black-water with an on site system (septic tank) and direct the grey water through open channels straight into rivers. At present, the magnitude of grey water in comparison with the black water is roughly at about 70% to 30%, whereas the present estimate on pollution content in grey water against black water is about: COD 56%, Ammonium 3% and Phosphate 20% (Naoko Nakagawa, 2005). Based on its quantity of pollutants containing nutrients for plant growth with a daily continuity of waste discharge, grey water has been used in the aesthetical hydrophytes small scale irrigation system of a domestic ecotechnolo y garden (ecotech garden) at Bumi Asri a housing complex in North Bandung. The U shape ecotech garden has a length of 5.15 m, having the width of 0.40 m and depth 0.30 m. The hydrophytes (Casablanca, Pontedoria cordata, Water dop, Typha) have a periodic blooming season. The construction of this ecotech garden requires a total amount of about IDR. 300,000 or equivalent to US$ 30, of which 40% was used for plants expenses, and 60% for material and labor expenditures. And hence, the per-square meter unit of such ecotech garden is estimated at about US$ 14.6/m2.This ecotech garden proved also to be very efficient in reducing pollutants such as BOD (57%), COD (59%), N Total (28%), Detergent (39%) and SS (46%) with a reduction cost of: BOD at US$ 0.35 per mg/L, COD at US$ 0.13 per mg/L, Detergent at US$ 2.02 per mg/L and SS at US$ 0.66 per mg/L. Periodically, hydrophytes produced by an ecotech garden has a promising economic value because they can be widely applied to improve the micro-climate ecosystem. It is expected that the construction of ecotech gardens can apply for larger scale and contribute significantly to the conservation of water bodies such as lakes or reservoirs. Keywords : Ecotech garden, Grey water, Centralized Waste Water Treatment System.
INTRODUCTION
The conduct of research had been backed up by the intention to find a means of application for improvement of environment sanitation because grey water is usually disposed in open ditches at urban housing complexes. Limited of site waste treatment is pushing the habit of direct grey water disposal in urban areas. Black water is generally
treated in septic tanks. A housing scale grey water treatment by application of Ecotech Garden is a new innovation in the improvement of environment sanitation. This system absorbs pollutants through the roots of aquatic plants and is known as constructed wetland where two types of flow are applied, surface flow (SF) and sub surface flow (SSF), the EG-2006 uses the surface flow. Aesthetic aquatic
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plants with a periodic blooming season (purple,white and brown in colour) were used in this system and comprise among others species such as Pontedoria cordata;Casablanca;Water dopEchinodorus paleafolius, Arrowhead-Sagitiria japonica, Typha, and Cana sp and non blooming species as the Futoy and Cyperus papyrus. The aesthetic hydrophyte Cana sp with red flowers absorbs pollutants and proved to reduce Nitrogen and Ortho Phosphate from an observations done on tapioca wastewater (Awalina,2005). The objective of this research is to reduce the content of pollutant in grey water, and hence increase the environment sanitation and decrease pollutant content in river water. Research approach is done by using grey water flow for the growth of aesthetic aquatic plants.
Figure 1. Mechanism of Filtration by aquatic plants
2. Material and method

The household scaled Ecotech Garden research was done at one of the houses in the Bumi Asri housing complex, north Bandung, Indonesia, where grey water for treatment is conveyed through open ditches in front of the house, Scheme of method is shown in following pictures: .
OFF-SITE DOMESTIC WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEM

The off site system for the domestic waste treatment in Indonesia has been applied in five larges cities ( see Table 1), however with a very low service coverage 922,000 people or 0.42% of total population of 220,500,000 people (2003). The system conveys black and grey water into the piping network for later treatment at a centralized domestic wastewater treatment installation.
Figure 2. The Schematic Form of the Ecotech Garden Grey water from the housing complex is disposed without treatment into the open ditches whereas black water is being treated in respective septic tanks. Surface area of the EG-2006 is about 2.06 sqm with a length of 5.15 m, width of 0.40 m and depth of 0.30 m, and shaped in an U model. The research focused on the reduce of pollutants, estimated application of Ecotech Garden to improve the environment aesthetics and the support for water resources conservation.
Table 1. Present Domestic Wastewater Service through Piping Network in Indonesia
3. Results and discussions

Grey Water Feasibility per Household for Treatment by Ecotech Garden Method: Continuity of research into the Ecotech Garden for reducing pollution load and increase of household scaled environment aesthetics need to be backed up by a continuity of grey water flow. The magnitude of grey water quantity compared to black water is relatively high, namely 70% against 30%, and grey water pollutant content compared to black water 56% for COD (Naoko Nakagawa, 2005). In addition to the pollutant BOD and COD, plant nutrients are also found in grey water such as nitrate
1. Research hypothesis
Roots of aquatic plants absorb pollutants as contained in grey water, indicating a filtration mechanism so that water conveyed through the media used for planting aesthetic aquatic plants will be of better quality. See the following:
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and ortho phosphate which respectively are removed from Nitrogen and Phosphor. The Design Manual for Constructed Wetland (US.Environmental Protection Agency, 1988), issued the criterion for hydraulic loading rate of 0.014 0.047 cum/sqm.day, so that each household of 5 members produces 480 L of grey water per day or 0.01 L/sec,such being sufficient to provide water for an Ecotech Garden area of 1.5 5 sqm.
4. Ecotech Garden Treatment Performance

The Ecotech Garden performance include the ability of system to reduce pollutants determined by removal precentage measurable by comparing grey water quality at inlet and out let. In Figures 3. grey water quality changes are observed at inlet and outlet of the Ecotech Garden and its performance after three months planting. Sampling was done on November, 10,2005 at 07.00 a.m comprising measurement of the grey water pollutant parameters Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), TotalN, Total-P, Detergent (MBAS),Suspended Solid (SS). The research resulted into following removal precentage BOD 57%, COD 59%, Total-N 28%,Total-P 2%, MBAS 39% and SS 46%, at treatment discharge 0.070 L/sec.
As explained in Figure 4, treatment discharge per sqm of surface area in observation A-2005 had been 0.004 L/sec, where in observation EG-2006 : 0.034 L/sec, so that treatment discharge for EG-2006 is approximately 8.2 times the treatment discharge at A-2005. The difference of discharge had caused the decrease of removal percentage of the compound Total-N at EG-2006 to be smaller, namely 28% or 0.5 compared to A-2005. Unfortunately this research could compare only one parameter, because of the difference of parameter measurement in observation A-2005 and EG-2006. It is considered that the removal precentage per sqm for the other parameters (BOD,COD,Total-P, MBAS ,SS) will be higher when discharge is smaller.
Figure 4. The Total-N Discharge and Removal Precentage Correlation Observed at A-2005 and EG2006 Although absorption of Total-N and Total-P at EG-2006 is relatively low, the aesthetic aquatic plants are still blooming, Pontedoria cordata and Casablanca with periodic blooming of purple flowers and Water dop-Echinodorus paleafolius and ArrowheadSagitiria japonica with continuous blooming of white flowers. However, two other species that should actually give brown (Typha) and red (Cana sp) flowers did not bloom during the observation. Another unflowering species (Futoy) did grow abundantly only after two months of planting, probable because these plants endure a heavy shock. Another influencing factor on pollutant removal percentage besides system performance is the flow type of the system. In general, the surface flow (SF) produces a lower pollutant removal percentage than a sub surface flow (SSF). Removal percentage for the compound Total-N by SF is 55,39 % which increases to 82.19 % by SSF (Awalina, 2005).
Figure 3. Water Quality Changes at Inlet and Outlet and Performance of EG-2006 Compared to the observation done by Awalina in 2005 (A-2005), treating tapioka industrial waste by Cana sp (discharge 0.012 L/sec, surface area 3 sqm), results showed a different pollution removal percentage namely Total-N at EG-2006, 28 %, whereas at A2005, 55%, indicating a better performance. The difference of percentage at both observations, is caused by the completely different discharge system.
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The same condition was stated by Simon Brahmana (2002), who had observed the treatment of domestic waste from septik tanks by using the aqualic plant of Typha sp. The removal percentage of pollutant parameters was higher at SSF system, namely :(a). Total Ammonia, SF-58.6%, increased at SSF-98.2%; (b). Total-P SF-50.40% increased at SSF- 85.70%; (c). BOD SF-37.7% increased at SSF-79.6% and (d). COD, SF-23.5% increased SSF- 59.2%. However, observation by EG-2006 compared to NN-2005 (Naoko Nakagawa, 2005) did not show an extreme difference for COD parameter, although surface area in NN-2005 was exclude. COD removal percentage by EG-2006 had been :59% and by NN2005, 58%. Yet, removal percentage Total N by EG2006 had been higher (28%), compared to NN-2005 (15%), and an extreme difference for Total-P with removal percentage by EG-2006 being much smaller (2%) against NN-2005 (17%). The EG-2006 system has the ability to reduce the parameter MBAS up to 39%, with MBAS as an indicator of the use of detergent for laundry and the washing of kitchen utensils. This system is also able to reduce SS up to 46%. Performance of an Ecotech Garden that has been applied to the masses in every housing complex shall not only reduce the pollutant content in rivers but shall also preserve waterbodies functioning as a waste collecting basin.
aesthetis aquatic plants can have also an additional economic value because these plants can be sold.
Table 2. Comparison of Construction Cost Between EG2006 and NN-2005 Table.2. shows that construction cost for EG2006 per parameter is depending on the pollutant parameter removal percentage, BOD 57%, COD 59%, Total-N 28%, Total-P 2%, MBAS 39% and SS 46%. Highest pollutant parameter construction investment cost is needed for to Total--P, requiring US$ 1,618 per mg/L. The cost for pollutant parameters BOD, COD, Total-N, MBAS and SS, ranges between US$ 0.13-2.02 per mg/L. The correlation between construction cost and pollutant removal percentage is shown in following figure:
5. Ecotech Garden Construction Cost

Construction cost for EG-2006 with a surface area of 2.06 sqm, had required IDR 300,000 or equivalent to US$ 30, of which 40% was spend on the purchase of aesthetics aquatic plants and 60% for labour and expenditure of material. Cost of EG2006 per sqm unit is estimated at about US$ 14.6. As illustrated in Table 2, the construction cost per L/sec of EG-2006 is relatively cheap, that is US$ 429, where as the NN-2005 constructed wetland for treatment of grey water at Okinawa, Miyako Island required US$ 797,538 (Naoko Nakagawan, 2005). The extreme difference in construction cost is probably due to the cheap cost for labour and material in Indonesia. In addition, the EG-2006 relatively needs only a small operation cost, because the system is mainly activated by gravitation flow. The NN2005 on the contrary requires a high operation cost of 78 Kwh/ month for pumping. Excessive growth of the Figure 5. Correlation between Construction Cost and Pollutant Removal Percentage for EG-2006 Indicated by Figure.5, is that whenever the higher pollutant removal percentage the cheaper construction cost will be, therefore construction cost for Total-P which has a removal percentage of 2 % is the highest reaching, namely US $ 1618 per mg/L.
6. Improvement of EG-2006 Performance

The performance of EG-2006 is not only influenced by the type of flow and discharge rate per surface area, but also by decisive factors such as detention time, and hydraulic loading. To understand the further treatment performance of an Ecotech Garden, detention time and hydraulic loading, has to be computed and afterwards compared to the U.S. EPA, Constructed Wetland Criteria (1988)
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The detention time of 2.5 hrs or 0.1 day observed at EG-2006, is actually too small compared to the criteria of 4-15 days. Detention times is obtained by dividing discharge by EG-2006 capacity or by multiplying surface area with depth of EG2006. On the other hand, hydraulic loading, computed by discharge ration against surface area EG2006 resulting rate of 3 cum/sqm.day, is too large compared to the US EPA criteria (1988) of 0.014 0.047 cum/sqm.day The small detention time and large hydraulic loading rate observed at EG-2006 are prime factors contributing to the low treatment performance of the Ecotech Garden The performance can be improved by applying the following alternatives : a) reducing discharge by applying a simplified water gate structure b) changing flow pattern by SSF system with the possibility of additional cost for the piping structure c) enlarging the Ecotech Garden surface area which can only be done when sufficient land area is available or when land has not been fully used for housing settlement. If surface area of the Ecotech Garden can be enlarged, the exact criteria for detention time and hydraulic loading is possible to be fulfilled. At the end such shall increase the removal percentage of pollutant including TotalN and Total-P. The increase of growth of aesthetic aquatic plants when manage properly shall have an additional economic value.
reach for BOD 60%, Total-N 30% and Total-P 20%; (c). additional economic value from the sale of aquatic plants seedlings, although often occuring is that sale prices decreases with new species of aesthetic plants on the market.
Table. 3. Economic and Environmental Advantage of Ecotech Garden Application at Housing Complexes
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

A centralized domestic wastewater service conveying black and grey water through a piping system to a wastewater treatment installation has up to present only reached 0.42% of the total population of Indonesia. Such can be observed in five large cities : Surakarta (Central Java);Bandung and Cirebon (West Java); Tangerang (Banten) and Medan (North Sumatera). The result of this is that part of the urban housing complexes dispose its grey water without treatment. Nevertheless, black water is being treated in septic tanks. The main purpose of Ecotech Garden research (EG-2006) is to implement improvement measures on environment sanitation, because the reduce of pollutants shall increase river water quality. The research itself was done by conveying grey water to the EG2006 which was planted with aesthetic aquatic plants. Roots of such plants are able to absorb pollutants, although the compounds Nitrogen dan Phosphorus are needed for plant growth. The Bumi Asri housing complex in north Bandung was choosen as location of research and covered an area of 2.06 sqm (length 5.15 m, width 0.40 m and depth 0.30 m),made into an U model shape with water discharge obtain from surface flow (SF). Research was done in the year 2005 (JulyDecember),with observation of BOD, COD, Total-
7. Application of Ecotech Garden as a Contribution to the Conservation of Water Sources.

Economic and environmental aspects of the Ecotech Garden application to messes are very important for supporting the preservation of river water quality as illustrated on Table 3. By comparing housing complex areas without applying and those applying the Ecotech Garden system, several advantages have been observed: (a). Increased of aesthetics, (b). the lessen decrease of BOD, Total-N and Total-P pollution load into rivers. It is assumed that pollutant removal after grey water has undergone treatment by Ecotech Garden will
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N,Total-P, MBAS, and SS at inlet and outlet. Behaviour of the aquatic plants was also analysed. The decrease of pollutants observed were for BOD 57%, COD 59%, Total-N 28%, Total-P 2%, MBAS 39% and SS 46% at a treatment discharged of 0.070 L/sec. Compared to the research done by Naoko Nakagawa (2005) the reduction of COD is nearly similar(58 %), lower for Total-N (15 %) and much higher for Total-P (17%) Although the absorption of Total-N and Total-P by EG-2006 is relatively low,the aquatic plants were still able to bloom. Purple flowers (Pontedoria cordata and Casablanca), continuous blooming of white flowers (Water dop-Echinodorus p and Arrowhead-Sagitiria japonica),no brown flowers were observed during research of the Typha sp or red flowers of Cana sp. The non blooming aesthetic aquatic plant of Futoy sp started to grow after two months of planting.
Influencing factors on the pollutant removal percentage:

(1). treatment discharge; whenever the lower the greater pollutant removal. A treatment discharge of 0.012 L/sec is able to reduce 55% Total-N from tapioca wastewater treatment (Awalina, 2005), while the greater discharge of 0.070 L/sec of EG-2006 is only able to reduce 28% of Total-N. (2). flow type of the system; SF type produces a lower reduction percentage than SSF . Total-N reduction: 55.39%-SF becomes 82.19%-SSF at the tapioca wastewater treatment using Cana-sp (Awalina,2005), whereas Total Ammonia reduction : 58.6%- SF, increases to 98.2%-SSF, and Total-P: 50.40%-SF becomes 85.70%-SSF from domestic waste treatment using Typha sp (Simon Brahmana, 2002) (3).detention time, whenever the smaller the lower pollutant removal percentag, Detention time EG2006=2.5 hrs or 0.1 day (too small according to US EPA, 1988,criteria : 4 15 days).; (4).hydraulic loading, whenever the higher the lower pollutant removal percentage. Hydraulic loading EG-2006 :3 cum/sqm.day (too large according to US EPA, 1988,criteria : 0.014 - 0.047 cum/ sqm.day) Contruction cost per L/sec for treatment of discharge at EG-2006 is relatively cheap (US$ 429),
compared to research done Naoko Nakagawa (2005) at constructed wetland for treating grey water at Okinawa (US$ 797,538). The possible cause is that cost for material and labour is very cheap in Indonesia. In addition, the EG-2006 needs relatively less operation cost because of the gravitation activated system applied. The Naoko Nakagawa system uses a pump system (78 Kwh/month). Construction cost of EG-2006 per parameter depends on the pollutant parameter removal percentage, the higher pollutant removal percentage, the cheaper construction cost per parameter. Construction cost for Total-P is the highest :US$ 1618 per mg/L, this is due to the very low removal percentage of Total-P (2%), whereas BOD, COD, Total-N, MBAS and SS, ranges between US$ 0.13 - 2.02 per mg/L Alternatives to improve performance are :(a).decrease of discharge, by applying a simple water gate to control discharge; (b). flow system changed into SSF type, but with additional cost for piping; (c). enlarge Ecotech Garden surface area, when sufficient land is available, so that criteria of detention time and hydraulic Loading can be met and increase pollutant removal percentage including Total-N and Total-P, with the consequence that frequency of seedlings cultivation has to be improved. Advantage of Ecotech Garden application are: (a). improvement of aesthetics (b). decrease of disposed BOD, Total-N and Total-P pollution load into rivers; (c).additional income from sale of seedlings (US$ 21,9 per year or US$ 10.6 per sqm), although prices tends to decrease when new species are on market It is expected that the Ecotech garden system can be applied to masses to enhance the preservation of water resources quality (rivers, reservoir and lakes)
REFERENCES
Awalina,2005,Removal of Nitrogenous and Ortho Phosphate Compounds in Tapioca Waste Water Manufacture by Surface and Subsurface Flows in Constructed Wetland Proceedings International , Symposium On Ecohydrology, p 123-129. Don ws, Thress Emir, Cherry H,2000,Tanaman Air , PT.Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Simon Brahmana, dan Armaita S, 2002,Pengurangan Zat Nutrisi Nitrogen dan Fosfat dalam Air
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Limbah dengan Menggunakan Ekoteknologi Wetland Jurnal Litbang Pengairan Vol 16, No 48. , Denny Kurniadie,1999,Pengolahan Air Limbah Rumah Tangga Dengan Menggunakan Tumbuhan Air Staff Pengajar Fakultas Pertania , UNPAD. Naoko Nakagawa, et all, 2005.Suitability of Gray Water Treatments for a Sustainable Sanitation System Proceedings International Symposium , on Ecohydrology, International Hydrological Programme, p.9-14. Ratna Hidayat, 2004,Pengolahan Limbah Menggunakan Tumbuhan Air untuk Mereduksi Bau Akibat Dekomposisi Limbah Selokan , Posiding Pertemuan Ilmiah Tahunan Himpunan Ahli Teknik Hidraulik Indonesia , p.129-141. Sadao Kojima,1998,Mechanism of a Threat : The How and Why of River Contamination The , Magazine on Rivers and Japan, No. 13/October,1998, p.18 -22. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1988, Design Manual for Constructed Wetland and Floating Aquatic Plant Systems for Municipal Wastewater Treatment EPA 625/188-022, Cincimati, OH, , September,
NOTE
This paper was presented in 3rd Symposium Asia Pasific Hydrology and Water Resources, Bangkok-Thailand, 16-17 October 2006.
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24
REVITALIZATION OF LAKE PLUIT

A. B. Ibrahim, D. Sutikno, Samuel J.S, Rahmat S.L Research Centre For Water Resources, Agency for Research and Development, Ministry of Public Works Jl. Ir. H. Juanda No. 193, Bandung 40135 INDONESIA Phone : 022-2501083, 022-2504053 ; Fac : 022-2500163 E-mail: bagiawan@bdg.centrin.net.id
ABSTRACT
The Jakarta City as the capital of Indonesia has been a rapidly growing area. To comply with the urban development, it is crucial to provide adequate infrastructure. Optimization of lakes, functioning merely as flood control of Jakarta area, in increasing the water resources capacities is a way to achieve the aim. Lake Pluit, located at downstream area of Ciliwung River and very close to Jakarta Bay, is a large lake in Jakarta area which badly needs optimization. The revitalization of Lake Pluit is composed of some study fields to be integrated, starting from water quality to hydrology and hydraulics. Solution of problems is focused on improvement of the lakes water quality which has the main characteristics of domestic wastewater and planning of flood control measure. Through a series of field survey, an alternative of integrative concept of Lake Pluit revitalization has been formed. The water quality improvement planning includes two units of wastewater treatment plant considering the condition of inlet flows and the nature of the new flood control measure concept. The new flood control measure concept is designed by utilizing existing infrastructure as well as increasing pump and long-storage capacity. At the end, a harmonious cooperation between stakeholders could develop the revitalization concept to achieve a better water resources capacities improvement more effectively and efficiently. Keywords : Optimization, Flood Control Measure, Water Quality Improvement, Treatment Plant, Long-storage, Pump
I. INTRODUCTION
Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, has been rapidly developed in matter of its land-use. However, the areal planning does not balance the rapid development. This case is particularly happening at North Jakarta City District which borders directly with a sea and has a few polders for storing water before released into the sea. Unfortunately, although those polders are quite well in reducing the flooding around the area, severe quality of the water has caused the surroundings environment to be unpleasant to inhabit. As the impact, the polders surrounding area becomes unproductive, slum area which contributes more to the severity. Considering the increasing demand of space, the government has a plan to utilize empty spaces locating at the perimeter of the lake. Therefore, a solution which can accommodate the space demand as well as the optimization of the lakes condition must be sought. A scope of study has been arranged which includes secondary hydrological and other
technical data collecting in correlation with Lake Pluit, field survey and measurement, water quality analysis, correlation between elevation, area and volume of Lake Pluit. With a purpose of searching for the most appropriate concept in revitalizing Lake Pluit, this study was held. The objective is to improve the quality of the lakes water by maintaining its original function as the North Jakartas flood control measure. The scope of this study can be summarized as the following: - Technical and hydrological data collecting as well as review on previous studies relating to Lake Pluit - Survey on study area and its surroundings - Water quality analysis - Analysis on elevation, area and volume of Lake Pluit - Developing boundaries and total area of Lake Pluits catchment area
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Estimating inflow and sediment discharge entering Lake Pluit Analysis on some alternatives of Lake Pluit revitalization concept
2.2 Sampling for Water Quality Analysis

Water sampling for quality analysis was done at the same time with discharge measurement, although not in each point of the measurement. Fewer points were selected based on some consideration such as ability to represent the actual condition of the lake and conveying significant inflow to the lake.
II. FIELD WORKS RESULT 2.1 Discharge and Channels Cross Section Measurement
To discover the existing condition of channels mouthing at Lake Pluit, a measurement on flow discharge which certainly includes measurement of the channels cross section is needed. The discharge measurement was executed at inlet 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Location of the discharge measurement is shown in Fig 3. From the field measurement, the magnitude of instantaneous flow discharge of every monitored inlet can be known. The result is summarized in Table 1. It can be concluded from the table that inlet 1 (Ciliwung River) and inlet 8 plays a dominant role to Lake Pluit. The zero value of measured discharge at inlet 5 and 10 means that there was no flow at the time of surveying. Table 1. Instantaneous Inflow Discharge of Each Inlet (4-6 May 2005)
Inlets Number Discharge (m3/s) 1 6.15 2 0.0055 4 0.0387 5 0 6 0.001 7 0.0015 8 0.566 9 0.0041 10 0
Fig 1. Sounding Result of Lake Pluit and Its Land Reclamation Plan The points location of water sampling at Lake Pluit was arranged based on these following importances: Representing significant inlet points which deliver dominant inflow to the lake Representing pollution sources, which can be predicted from domestic, industrial and other municipal activities, affecting the water quality of the lake Representing the lakes water quality in general Based on the consideration, some representative points to analyze water quality of Lake Pluit was set as shown in Fig 3. Sampling point A, C and D represent the three most dominant inlets of Lake Pluit. They also represent pollution sources of the lakes water. Point A is at Ciliwung River which water has been polluted by various municipal activities. Point D is at a large combined channel of drainage and sewerage which water is certainly heavily polluted. Point C represents inflow from Mega Mall long-storage into the lake. To obtain a rough description about the
2.1 Sounding of Lake Pluit

Existing condition of Lake Pluit at recent time can only be known through sounding result. The sounding result can be processed to gain elevationarea-volume relation graph. Because of time and condition limitation, the sounding was only done at water level elevation of -1.9 m based on existing pumps peilschal or -3.37 m on mean sea level after calculating 15-day tidal observation data. Result of the sounding in a form of contour map is shown in Fig 1, while the relation graph is shown in Fig 2. Total volume of Lake Pluit can be calculated from the sounding result which is 1,378,364 m3, with total area of 75.98 Ha at -3.371 m of mean sea level. If the total volume is substracted by the volume of land reclamation being planned (as seen in Fig 1) then the lakes volume will be reduced by 415,996 m3.
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condition of water in the lake, surveying team also took a sample at point E which is in the middle of the lake and at point B which is at the lakes only outlet. A sample was also taken at point F which is sea water, the mouth of Ciliwung River. The last point is meant to generally show the impact of pollution to Jakarta Bay area.
0 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 500000 1000000 1500000
coming from Ciliwung River since the flood control function of the lake has to be maintained. From the collected secondary data and review of previous studies, the flood hydrograph of Ciliwung River for return period of 25 years can be known as shown in Fig 4. Table 2. Water Quality Analysis of Lake Pluit
Fig 2. Depth to Volume Ratio of Lake Pluit The laboratory analysis of the water samples resulted in water quality data as shown in Table 2.
Depth (m) Ked alam an
Fig 4. Flood Hydrograph of Ciliwung River for 25-year Return Period Domestic discharge also contributes as inflow to Lake Pluit. To estimate the domestic inflow, designed discharge of every channel must be calculated. Prior to the calculation, service/catchment area of each channel has to be drawn and the rainfall intensity of the area needs to be known. The extent of each catchment area can be known from Fig 5. Eventually, based on the data, designed flood for each sewer can be estimated. The estimation is displayed in Table 3.
Fig 3. Location of Water Sampling Points and Discharge Measurement
I. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Hydrological Data Analysis

It is very important to discover flood magnitude of the largest inflow discharge to Lake Pluit
3.1 Water Quality Data Analysis

On the overall, the water quality data shows that Lake Pluit is highly polluted. Physically, the water of Lake Pluit looks blackish at all parts of the lake and smells rotten. There was not any significance of algae WATER RESOURCES 27
growth though. High nutrient and organic content is indicated by high concentration of NH3, PO43- and KMnO4. Anaerobic condition also prevails, indicated by low DO and high COD concentration. Cations in great concentration such as Fe2+ and CaCO3 can also consume dissolved oxygen in the water. High level of SO42- (above 50 mg/L) in anaerobic condition triggers sulfur bacterias activity which causes unpleasant odor.
OUTLET PUMP Cap = 3 x 6 m3/s Cap = 4 x 4 m3/s Cap = 4 x 3 m3/s
Karang Creek 57.494 Ha
PLUIT PERMAI PUMP Cap = 2 x 0.3 m3/s
53.044 Ha WEST PLUIT PUMP Cap = 2 x 0,3 m3/s 64.84 Ha 8.236 Ha 15.165 Ha
Water Gate
Lake PLUIT = 80 Ha
9.867 Ha
Ciliwung RIver
PLUIT SAKTI PUMP Cap = (1 x 0.1)+(3 x 0.05) m3/s
96 565 Ha
Fig 5. Catchment Area of Combined Sewers Mouthing to Lake Pluit Table 3. Design Flood Estimation of Combined Sewers Flowing to Lake Pluit (for return period of 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 years)
long-storage is designed to be able to contain low flow in a smaller channel while the overall capacity is large enough to accommodate flood flow. To achieve the purpose, the cross-section is designed in doubletrapezoidal shape. Its dimension calculation is based on three considerations, which are reduction of lakes volume because of land reclamation, designed flood discharge and designed pump capacity. To convey 150 m3/s of flood, the large cross-section is designed with upper width of 96 m and lower width of 92 m meanwhile the small cross-section with upper width of 20 m and lower width of 12 m. The depth of the large trapezoid is 4.5 m and of the small one is 2.0 m. The full cross-section layout and its dimension can be seen in Fig 6. Briefly stating, some considerations in designing an appropriate concept of water quality improvemet are: Domestic wastewater is the most dominant characteristic of pollutant source. The moderate level of wastewater was found from the residential combined sewers flowing to Lake Pluit while the severe level was from Ciliwung River and Inlet 8. There will be fluctuation of water quality in wet and dry season. The field survey was only done in dry season so there has to be a prediction on the rough tendency of characteristic fluctuation in wet season. Instantaneous flow measured only in dry season for Ciliwung River and Inlet 8 was around 6700 L/ sec while for entering sewers was around 50 L/ sec. Practically, the flows can not be treated completely because of limitation in space area as well as investing and operating costs. The concept for improving water quality of Lake Pluit lies in the framework of: Separated treatment process for the moderate and severe level of wastewater sources Mechanical treatment system to overcome the constraint existing because of large inflow of treatment and space limitation Considering the main purpose of Lake Pluit as a structural flood control measure for Northern and Western part of Jakarta Based on the framework, a concept of lake revitalization has been designed. The general layout
3.2 Concept of Revitalization

Some constraints due to the existing condition must be considered in developing a revitalization system. Those restrictions are inflow and outflow balance of the lake, characteristic of wastewater sources, space availability and seasonal influence. The system combines two objectives which are to optimize the flood control function and improve water quality of the lake. A narrow channel lining along the East side of Lake Pluit will be improved to support the flood control function and water quality improvement. The channel will be developed into a long-storage. The 28
is shown in Fig 7. The basic design concept is as follow: Regarding that the dominant characteristic of pollutant comes from domestic effluent, the main treatment process of the mechanical system is chosen to be biological process. Two sites of treatment works is set based on the collecting accessibility of pollutant sources. One site is for collected wastewater from combined sewers of neighboring housing area (named Domestic Plant), another site is for wastewater from Ciliwung River and Inlet 8 (named Ciliwung Plant). Designed capacity for Domestic Plant is 100 L/sec meanwhile for Ciliwung Plant is 200 L/sec. The total capacity of the plants would be equal to the total volume of the lake in two months period of operating. A bar screen needs to be installed at the main portal flow of the lake (Ciliwung River) to restrict trashes which can disrupt the treatment processes. A long-storage is made along the East side of the lake to help reducing flood stage in rainy season. Among various biological processes such as activated sludge, trickling filter, rotating biological contactor, oxidation ditch and extended aeration process, the activated sludge process is selected for its advantages in total area needed, construction cost, treatment efficiency as well as operational simplicity. Total area of plant needed for Domestic Plant is around 2,000 m2 while for Ciliwung Plant is around 3,000 m2. It is expected that the treatment system can reach 85% of efficiency so that the lakes
water quality can be increased from class 4 (for farming, irrigation and other uses with similar water quality criteria) of PP 82/2001 to class 3 (for freshwater fisheries, breeding farm, irrigation and other uses with similar water quality criteria). To increase the esthetic value of water stored in the long-storage, a simple treatment is designed for biological activity removal through aeration. The treatment system should be able to adjust with the varied water level. To meet the constraint, floating aerator is selected as the primary device of aerating. Along the around 1.2 km of channels length, there will be 26 units of 20 HP-powered floating aerator installed. This system can reach up to 50% of removal efficiency, depending on the water level. Water retained in dry season can be treated directly in the long-storage through a much simpler system to diminish the unpleasant esthetic value. Those designed treatment plants will not be functioning well if there is large amount of trashes clogging and even destroying the treatment facilities. To avoid that condition, a mechanical bar-screen is planned to be placed in the channel of Ciliwung River as the front-line facility prior to entering the main revitalization system. To support the revitalization system and the function of Lake Pluit as flood control measure, some additional water pumps have to be installed. Three pumps with the capacity of 0.5 m3/sec each will be set to deliver inflow to the Ciliwung Plant. Two other pumps with the capacity of 3 m3/sec each will be additional to existing pumps with 75 m3/sec in total capacity. The existing pumps are utilized to discharge water from the lake into the sea of Jakarta Bay. Those additional pumps will be located in parallel with the
Fig 6. Layout of Long-Storage Cross-Section WATER RESOURCES 29
existing pumps at the outlet of Lake Pluit to overcome high stage in the long-storage. A water gate needs to be placed at the portal inflow from Ciliwung River to the lake. It will assist in reducing flood stage from Ciliwung River by delivering some of the flow into the lake.
NOTE
This paper was presented in 3rd Symposium Asia Pasific Hydrology and Water Resources, Bangkok-Thailand, 16-17 October 2006
IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Lake Pluit can be a physical image of poor control over domestic and industrial effluent. The lakes condition has always been almost despairing for over than thirty years. There was some effort done in working out the feasible solution to make the lake in a better condition. However, local action can be a useless effort if the government does not take serious control over the general sanitation. The previously described solution is merely purposed to be a short-term strategy while the local government preparing and initiating a holistic solution to the water quality improvement. Although the described solution is meant to be a short-term local strategy, it should not be assumed as an expensive investment because the revitalization system could however be modified to support the areas further development, such as in the field of water supply and recreation facility. This study only acts as a technical preliminary study. For further development, more water sampling should be done in order to observe the seasonal influence and other relating factors. The analysis should also include not only technical issue but also non-technical ones such as social implication, institutional matter as well as financial and economic analysis.
REFERENCES
Adali, Haryono. 1978. Penelitian Air Waduk Pluit/ Study on Water of Lake Pluit Laboratory of , Sanitary Engineering, Directorate General of Human Settlements, Ministry of Public Works. Jakarta: -. . 1990.Water Quality Improvement Planning Study for Sunter River Draft Final Report , (Summary). Jakarta: -. Metcalf & Eddy. 1991. Watewater Engineering 3rd , edition. Singapore: McGraw-Hill. Ibrahim, Agung B; Sutanhaji, Tunggul. 2005. Konsep Pengendalian Banjir untuk Kota Metropolitan Jakarta. Bandung: -. 30 PUBLIC WORKS International 2006
EFFECT OF SEDIMENT RATE AT SAGULING RESERVOIR TO ITS LIFETIME

Petrus Syariman*, Soewarno**, Joesron Loebis*** *Research Centre for Water Resources, Agency of Research and Development, Ministry of Public Works. Jl. Ir. H. Juanda No. 193, Bandung-40135, Indonesia Phone : +62 22 250 4053; Fax. +62 22 250 0163 E-mail: petrussy@bdg.centrin.net.id **Researcher on Hydrology at Experimental Station for Sabo, Research Centre for Water Resources, Agency of Reseacrh and Development, Ministry of Public Works, Sopalan, Maguwoharjo, Yogyakarta-Indonesia ***Research Coordinator on Hydrology and Water Resources at Experimental Station for Hydrology, Research Centre for Water Resources, Agency of Reseacrh and Development, Ministry of Public Works, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda No. 193, Bandung-40135, Indonesia; Phone : +62 22 250 4053; Fax. +62 22 250 0163 E-mail: joesron@melsa.net.id
ABSTRACT
Citarum River and its tributaries, flowing on a catchment area of about 2,283 km2, have been the primary sources of water for Saguling Reservoir. The Saguling Reservoir started to operate in 1986 with the originally designed total volume of 881 million m3. In 2004, a sounding of the reservoir was carried out and found the recent volume of the reservoir to be only 730.5 million m3. Forests in the upper Citarum, which is assumed as land cover and can protect the soil surface from destruction caused by kinetic energy of rainfall, now remains only 14% of the total catchment area. This fact means that soil erosion process at the upper Citarum catchment area increases in every rainy season. The erosion yields to sedimentation along the Citarum river basin and its tributaries, and ends at Saguling Reservoir. Sedimentation at a reservoir can be measured by sounding method. It is known that the average sedimentation rate at Saguling Reservoir is about 5.5 million m3 per year. The erosion rate occurring recently at the upper Citarum area is 2.8 mm per year, which has exceeded the permitted limit. The erosion process keeps occurring so that the lifetime of Saguling Reservoir has become less than 25 years at +616 m of elevation (dead storage elevation). This paper discusses elaborately about the sounding method and analyzes the actual reservoirs sedimentation rate. It can be known then that there is a significant difference on the calculation result based on suspended sediment data and sounding data. The sedimentation rate at the reservoir can indicate the remaining lifetime of it. Keywords : Land Cover Destruction, Erosion, Sedimentation Rate, Reservoir, Sounding, Lifetime
1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background

Saguling Reservoir, which source comes from Citarum River and its tributaries, is located at elevation of +643 m from the mean sea level. It started to operate in 1986 with design volume of 881 million m3, meanwhile from sounding in 2004, it can be known that its volume has been only 730.5 million m3. The reservoir produces electricity by installed capacity of 700 MW. In its daily operation, Saguling Reservoir is in cascading connection with two other
reservoirs at its downstream, which are Cirata Reservoir and Djuanda Reservoir. Saguling Reservoir, lying in a catchment area of 2,283 km2, has serious problems of sedimentation and pollution, regarding that all activities of 9 million people in Bandung urban and sub-urban areas take place in the catchment area. High density of population Sagulings catchment area has diverted the landuse quite significantly so that sedimentation problem in Saguling Reservoir is running bad. Viewing from physical aspect, it is still unfeasible to execute
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31
bed dredging of the reservoir because of high costs and in availability of open space to dump the mud. The best applicable strategy for now is reforestation over most parts of the catchment area and change peoples attitude through intensive socialization to avoid forest logging, monoculture farming such as planting vegetables along the banks, littering trashes and wastes directly into the water body. For those purposes, Sagulings Generating Business Unit (GBU), Indonesia Power Company, has actively participated by providing crop seeds to be distributed among the people living in the reservoir area. Another effort done by Sagulings GBU was the first reservoir sounding in 2004 to discover its actual storage capacity and sediment magnitude since it started to operate. Prior to the sounding, the sedimentation rate at the reservoir was approached using sampling method. The result of this study which comes out as volume and area data of Saguling Reservoir is very useful to update data which had been used in Resop (Reservoir Operation) Model in developing Operation Pattern of Citarum Cascade Reservoir. It is expected that through the data revitalization, Saguling Reservoirs performance can be increased at the future, particularly for predicting the magnitude of its annual electricity generation.
2. Since it was operated in 1986 until 2004, sounding of Saguling Reservoir had never been done so that it was impossible to recognize its beds actual condition. Quantitatively, there has been a number of million cubic meters of sediment and inorganic trashes deposited at the bottom of the reservoir, filling in the previous channel of Citarum river and its tributaries. Implicatively, the reservoirs stage - volume curve which was available before 2004 had been more inaccurate. 3. For around nineteen years, Saguling Reservoir was operated using elevation-storage curve generated at design period and then modified in 1999. Unfortunately, the modification of elevation-storage curve in 1999 by Sagulings GBU was not research-based so that calculation of actual sedimentation rate and remaining lifetime of the reservoir could not be accurate. 4. In order to anticipate water supply shortage, especially in dry season, it has been common to apply Weather Modification Technology (WMT) at Citarum catchment area. Therefore, calculation of inflow discharge entering Saguling Reservoir can be done accurately in accordance to the actual storage capacity of the reservoir. Because of nineteen years of sedimentation, it can be ascertained that the same water level leads to inaccurate volume data of the reservoir. Based on those problems, this research was carried out.
1.2. Problem Identification

Saguling Reservoir is located at the upper part of Citarum catchment area. Meanwhile, Bandung urban and suburban area, which is heavily populated, covers the upper part of Saguling Reservoir. Various problems related to the operational activities of Saguling Reservoir are: 1. Dense population consequently brings many activities which contain serious impacts to pollution in a form of sedimentation from uncontrolled forest logging as well as wastes littering from industrial, agricultural and domestic activities. Those activities directly affect Citarum River and Saguling Reservoir to be shallower because sediment, trashes and wastewater enters and settles in the reservoir uncontrollably. The sedimentation rate has been a big problem for the reservoirs operational continuity, in particular for electricity provider to Java - Bali interconnection system.
1.3. Location and Period of the Research

The research lasted for six months from July to December 2004. Administratively, Saguling Reservoir is included in Bandungs suburban area. There are four sub districts located around Saguling Reservoir which are Batujajar, Cililin, Sindangkerta and Cipongkor sub district. Location of Saguling Dam is about twenty kilometers from Rajamandala sub districts town, between the main street of Bandung Cianjur, meanwhile it is easier to reach other sides of the reservoir by taking some ways from the nearest towns. Geographically, Saguling Reservoirs position is at UTM coordinate X: 760000 778000 and Y: 9227500 9240500.
32
1.4. Purpose and Objectives

Purpose of the research is to analyze the sounding data of Saguling Reservoir in 2004 which is integrated with surface water mapping. Objectives of the research are to find: 1) actual sedimentation rate of Saguling Reservoir based on deposited sediment volume at the bottom of the Reservoir known from sounding data in 2004 2) magnitude of difference of sedimentation rate calculated from rivers suspended load data and sounding data 3) remaining lifetime of the reservoir The magnitude of actual sedimentation rate can be used to recognize level of destruction of Saguling catchment area.
100 to 250 m of in-between sounding distance, adjusted to the waterbodys width. The topographic mapping is done on- surface at all over the reservoirs surface to the elevation of two meters above spillways elevation. Depth and on-surface points coordinate measurement are combined into one unity. After that, using Surfer or AutoCAD Land Development software, a contour map can be produced. Based on the contour map, area and volume of in-between contour lines can be calculated. The area which is enclosed by contour lines can be calculated by a planimeter or using a software, meanwhile the volume can be calculated by the following formula: ...................... (1) whereas:
V A1 , A2
1.5. Benefit of the Research

It is expected that the result of the research can give positive contribution to the local government of West Java Province in particular and to Sagulings GBU in general in order to: 1) Overcome the destruction of upper Citarum catchment area as well as manage land-use pattern comprehensively. The overcoming should be held integrally with other sectors activities instead of partially. 2) Increase the productivity of Sagulings GBU after the elevation-storage data renewal of Saguling Reservoir which is used in developing operational pattern of Citarum Cascade Reservoir for each year.
A1 A2 h
= reservoir volume between two contour lines, in m3 = reservoir surface area at upper contour line, in m2 = reservoir surface area at below contour line, in m2 = contour interval, in meter.
2. METHODS OF RESEARCH
The most accurate method to discover the sedimentation rate is through periodic sounding every five years. In order to know the actual sediment rate through the sounding in Saguling reservoir, there are some preliminary activities to accomplish, which are: Depth points coordinates (under the waters surface) measurement by sounding method which uses GPS Map Sounder device On-surface points coordinates measurement by topographic mapping method Depth points measurement is carried out by sounding method at all over the waters surface by
The volume can also be predicted using a software. The result, in a form of elevation-storage data, can be an input to Resop Model (Reservoir Operation) which has been used to produce operational pattern of Citarum Cascade Reservoir. The final result before and after the elevation-storage data renewal of Saguling Reservoir can be compared, especially from the point of view of annual electricity production by Sagulings GBU. Based on the sounding result, the actual sedimentation rate (Sr) of Saguling Reservoir can be known so that the remaining lifetime (Lt) can also be gained by the following formulas:
Lt = Va Sr
(2)
whereas Va is the reservoirs actual storage volume, in m3.

Sr = Vs t 2 t1
(3)
WATER RESOURCES
33
whereas t1 and t2 is the beginning and latest year of reservoirs operation respectively.
V s = V p Va
(4)
Vp and Va is at the same elevation whereas: Vs = volume of deposited sediment, in m3 Vp = designed volume of reservoir or volume of the latest sounding, in m3 Va = actual volume of reservoir, in m3
1:10000 scale or any sufficient scale based on depth points coordinate and on-surface points coordinate (x, y, z data). b. Calculating the surface area and volume for every contours interval. c. Calculating sediment volume of the reservoir by subtracting the initial and the actual volume from the sounding result To make the contour map of Saguling Reservoir, more than fifty thousands of coordinate points (x, y, z), depth and surface elevation, were needed. The whole coordinate points were integrated to be a system functioning as an input to certain software. The result is a contour map of the reservoir scaled to the necessity. From the contour map, the volume parameter of deposited sediment (Vs) and actual volume (Va) can be known. Amount of deposited sediment of Saguling Reservoir can be known from formula (4) that is 73.1 million m3 at +616 m elevation, 101.8 million m3 at +623 m elevation and 150.5 million m3 at +643 m elevation. Afterwards, sedimentation rate of Saguling Reservoir can be calculated from formula (3) which is 3.85 million m3/year, 5.35 million m3/year and 7.92 million m3/year at +616 m, +623 m and +643 m elevation respectively, or 5.5 million m3/year in average. Based on the data as well as the calculated actual volume and sedimentation rate at each level, the remaining lifetime of Saguling Reservoir can be predicted using formula (2). Sedimentation rate of Saguling Reservoir has been calculated based on sediment discharge (Qs) analysis which was measured at Citarum River at Nanjung station. The purpose of this analysis is to recognize the differences of acquired results. From the relation between flow discharge (Qw) and sediment discharge, an equation can be produced as follows: Qs = 0,282Qw2,1978 (5)
3. DATA COLLECTING
The sounding of Saguling Reservoir which has been executed was the first to be applied since it started to operate in 1986. The sounding activity lasted for six (6) months since July to December 2004. The author directly involved from planning stage to the end of activity series. Considering that Saguling Reservoir is irregular in shape, there were a lot of sounding cross-sections measured over the surface of Saguling Reservoir which numbered to 1030 sections. It was properly done to avoid the losing of the reservoirs bottom configuration which could cause over or under-calculated volume from the actual value. From the sounding result, a series of primary data have been obtained which are Saguling Reservoirs depth points, on-surface points in coordinate form (x, y, z) and actual storage capacity data (volume) of the reservoir. The coordinate data is used as a basis to make the reservoirs contour map. To gain primary suspended sediment data and the related flow discharge, a measurement of suspended sediment and flow discharge at Nanjung station of Citarum River was carried out from 19 August to 27 November 2004. Collected secondary data covered the reservoirs initial storage capacity (design), elevation storage table, as well as suspended sediment data of years 1976, 1980-1982, 1991-1997 and 2004. Besides those sets of data, sediment data coming from measurement carried out before this research.
4. DATA ANALYSIS
To calculate sedimentation rate of Saguling Reservoir through sounding, a series of procedure has to be followed: a. Producing the reservoirs contour map by
By transforming flow discharge data which was finally collected from 1986 to 2004 into equation (5), the magnitude of relevant sediment discharge can also be obtained. The analysis result shows that average sediment discharge entering Saguling Reservoir is around 6.42 million m3/year or the same
34
as 3.85 million ton/year. To be clear, the relation between flow and sediment discharge at Citarum River Nanjung Station is depicted graphically in Picture 1.
100000
Qs = 0.282Qw 2 R = 0.9612
10000
2.1978
Qs (Ton/hari)
1000
100
10
1 1 10 Qw (m3/detik) 100 1000
Picture 1. Graph of Relation between Qs Qw at Citarum River Nanjung Station
2. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The sounding of Saguling Reservoir which has been executed was the first to be applied since it started to operate in 1986. The sounding activity lasted for six (6) months since July to December 2004. The total number of measured cross-sections is 1030 sections. It can be calculated from the sounding result that the actual sedimentation rate is 3.85 million m3/ year, 5.35 million m3/year and 7.92 million m3/year at +616 m, +623 m and +643 m elevation respectively, or 5.5 million m3/year in average. The result has been a representation of the reservoirs depth from its bottom (+605 m) up to the spillway elevation (+643 m). The sedimentation rate is equivalent to erosion rate at the catchment area of Saguling Reservoir which is between 1.07 to 5.46 mm/year or 2.80 mm/ year in average. Analysis to sounding data has proven that the lifetime of Saguling Reservoir at +616 m, +623 m and +643 m elevation is 24, 32 and 92 years respectively. Elevation of +616 m shows dead storage elevation of Saguling Reservoir; elevation of +623 m shows the minimum operational elevation where turbines can no longer operate; meanwhile elevation of +643 m shows the normal pool elevation where the reservoir is in full condition. Sediment deposited in Saguling Reservoir can be calculated from suspended load data, although
the result may not describe its actual sedimentation condition. Calculation of the sedimentation rate is more suitable for reservoirs design stage, not in operational stage. However, the method is often used just to estimate sedimentation condition of the reservoir quickly and practically. The average deposited sediment volume calculated by suspended sediment data is 6.42 million m3/year. The value is greater than the average sediment volume from the sounding result which is 5.5 million m3/year. Through the sounding method, all kinds of sediment has been included, such as suspended sediment, bed load and inorganic trashes, meanwhile the suspended sediment calculation only covers suspended load and bed load which is assumed to be around 10% of the average suspended load. Beside of that, suspended sediment calculation depends mostly to flow discharge data. The flow discharge data is available at Nanjung station only, at the upper part of Saguling Reservoir. To discover flow discharge at Saguling, flow discharge at Nanjung must be multiplied by coefficient of 1.32. It means that the discharge value at Saguling is 32% higher than that at Nanjung. The coefficient is not quite accurate because of the ununiformity and difference between local flow distribution (from catchment area of 565 km2) from January to December and main inflow distribution at Nanjung (from catchment area of 1718 km2). At dry season, the value daily local inflow entering Saguling Reservoir is often zero meanwhile at wet season, it can be greater than 32%. However, the zero value will not be found if using monthly average discharge data. Referring to Petrus and Soewarno (1999), the average local inflow entering Saguling Reservoir ranges between 23.6 to 72.9% from the value at Nanjung, or 37.7% in average. The significant variation causes sediment discharge calculation from local flow to be overestimate. Unfortunately, until now, there has not been local flow discharge observation so that the magnitude of local flow discharge can not be known for certain. The analysis result proves that erosion rate occurring at the catchment area of Saguling Reservoir until 2004 is 2.8 mm/year. The value is extremely high and it can be an actual representation of destruction at upper Citarum catchment area.
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Soewarno and Petrus (2001), has held a research on Sediment Inflow to Saguling Reservoir which values lie between 1.39 to 8.44 million m3/year or 4,97 million m3/year in average. The sediment inflow is equivalent to erosion rate which is between 0.61 to 3.70 mm/year or 2.17 mm/year in average. Using relatively long series of discharge data from 1986 to 2004 (19 years), the actual average erosion rate occuring at upper Citarum catchment area can be discovered to be 2.8 mm/year. The erosion rate has increased up to 29% in three-year period only. In designing a reservoir, erosion rate is usually set to 0.83 mm/year (rounded up to 1 mm/year). Therefore, the erosion rate at Saguling Reservoir which is 2.8 mm/year has exceeded the limit. There are some factors causing heavy sedimentation accumulation in Saguling Reservoir and Citarum Rivers course, such as: 1. drastic forest degradation at upper Citarum catchment area, 2. rapid land-use change, as well as 3. communitys behavior on domestic, agricultural, industrial, municipal wastes littering into the rivers body. Forest degradation at upper Citarum catchment area has been rapidly occurring and consequently conveys to soil erosion which is finally deposited along the rivers course and ends at Saguling Reservoir. In 1993, Research Institute for Water Resources carried out a research on erosion at upper Citarum catchment area when the remaining forest area was still around 26.9% of the total catchment area. It then became only 14% in 2003 according to Ministry of Forestry regarding National Act of Land and Forest Rehabilitation. The degradation of forest area certainly gives implication to land-use change, such as from forest to farms, rice-field, residential and even left abandoned and barren. All of the changes bear an impact to high level of soil erosion. Bad attitude of the people living at rivers surroundings or urban community which improperly discharges domestic, industrial, municipal wastes into water body causes the blocking of stream channel or tunnel with trashes and silting up of rivers course because of sediment mud mixed with trashes.
In rainy season, areas at the upper part often experience flood because of channels blocking. Moreover, areas at riverbanks. This condition happens to almost all junctions of Citarum tributaries with Citarum River, such as Citepus River, Cikapundung River, etc. Whether it is dry or rainy season, the condition of Citarum streams mouth is worsened by the waters bad quality because of pollution from domestic and industrial activities. Thus, when flood occurs all of the impurities becomes a mixture and brings high exposure to diseases. Some options to solution, such as land conservation, land-use change, reforestation as well as informing the community about litterings effect and law enforcement, has not either been discussed or organized coordinatively and integrally by the local government of West Java Province. At Ministry of Public Works of Indonesia, those options are known as non-structural flood control measure. Unfortunately, the non-structural flood control measure has never been worked out since it is difficult to supervise and measure the effectivity. On the other hand, structural flood control measure such as dredging, rivers normalization, levee construction and et cetera, is often carried out and meets the accomplishment although it may not solve the problem entirely. Partial effort between structural and nonstructural flood control measure and disintegrative institutional acts very much contribute to the failure. Therefore, determined attempt must be performed by the local decision makers on city, town and central level.
3. CONCLUSION
From the research, the most recent facts of Saguling Reservoir until 2004 can be discovered, which are: 1) The upper Citarum catchment area has been suffering from severe environmental degradation. Field observation shows that for nineteen (19) years of Saguling Reservoirs operation (19862004), there has been a large quantity of sediment deposit. a). It can be known by sounding method that deposited sediment at +616 m elevation has been 73.1 million m3, while it has been 101.8 million m3 at +623 m elevation and 150.5
36
million m3 at +643 m elevation. Overall, the average volume of deposited sediment is 104.0 million m3 or 5.5 million m3/year. b). Calculation result based on suspended load measurement shows that deposited sediment at the bottom of the reservoir is 6.42 million m3/year. The number turns out to be greater by 16.7% than the average volume of sediment calculated by the sounding method which is 5.5 million m3/year. 2) Based on the sounding data of 2004, it can be known that Saguling Reservoir has experienced serious sedimentation so that its effective storage capacity which was initially 609.05 million m3 at +643 m elevation, has decreased to 560.3 million m3 in 2004. 3) High sedimentation rate at Saguling Reservoir causes the estimated lifetime of the reservoir to be only 24 years at dead storage elevation of +616 m, 32 years at the minimum operational level of +623 m and 92 years at spillway elevation of +643 m. 4) The average erosion rate at Saguling Reservoirs catchment area is 2.8 mm/year. The number has exceeded the limit of 1 mm/year.
, Juni 2005, Evaluasi Kawasan Rawan Banjir di Jawa Barat, Laporan Teknik, Dinas PSDA Propinsi Jawa Barat, Puslitbang Sumber Daya Air. , Maret 1994, Penelitian Pengendalian Erosi dan Sumber-sumber Air di Jawa Barat, Jawa Tengah dan Nusa Tenggara Barat, Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pengairan, Departemen Pekerjaan Umum. Kartasapoetra, G dkk, 1985, Teknologi Konservasi Tanah dan Air, Bina Aksara. Petrus dan Soewarno, 1999, Potensi Debit Aliran Lokal Daerah Pengaliran Sungai (DPS) Waduk Saguling Terhadap Peningkatan Produksi Listrik PT. PLN PJB I Unit Pembangkitan Saguling, Majalah Energi & Listrik, Volume IX No. 2, Juni 1999. Ponce, V.G, 1989, Engineering Hydrology, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey. Robert I. Strand, Ernest L. Pamberton, 1982, Reservoir Sedimentation, Technical Guidelines for Bureau of Reclamation, Sedimentation and River Hydraulics Section, Hydrology Branch, Division of Planning Technical Services Engineering and Research Centre, Denver, Colorado Soewarno dan Petrus, 2001, Aliran Masuk Sedimen ke Waduk Saguling Telah Melampaui Ambang Batas, Jurnal Meteorologi dan Geofisika, Vol. 2, No. 1, Januari Maret 2001. UBP Saguling, Desember 2004, Pemeruman dan Analisis Waduk Saguling, , Laporan Teknik, PT. Indonesia Power, PT. Maturo Nuansatama, Jakarta.
4. RECOMMENDATION
1) To protect Saguling Reservoir from the sedimentation (disfunction of the reservoir to generate electricity), conservation, reforestation and landuse management need to be organized coordinatively between relevant institutions. 2) A research on the magnitude of local inflow at Saguling catchment area needs to be carried on. The magnitudes accuracy as an inflow component, apart from inflow from Citarum RiverNanjung station, defines the accuracy of the following years discharge estimation as a basis for the reservoir operation. 3) A study on sabo technology application is needed to overcome sedimentation rate at the reservoir.
NOTE
This paper was presented in The 2nd GWSP Asia Network Workshop, China, 07-12 Juni 2006.
REFERENCE
, 1970, Guide to Hydrometeorological Practices, Second Edition, WMO No. 168. TP. 82 , 1989, Sedimentation Control of Reservoirs, Guidelines, Buletin 67, CIBB ICOLD
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2
ROAD AND BRIGDES
PREIDENTIFICATION STUDY OF TOLL ROAD NETWORK IN BANDUNG AREA, WEST JAVA, INDONESIA BY USING THE GIS AND DTM
*Saroso BS, **Iing Rochamn K. **Research and Development Center of Road and Brigdes, Agency of Research and Development, Ministry of Public Works Jl. AH. Nasution No. 264 Kotak Pos 2 Ujung Berung Bandung 40294, Indonesia Phone : 022-7802251, 022-7802253, Fac : 022-7802726 e-mail : pusjatan@pusjatan.pu.go.id **Senior Highway Engineer Director of Investment & Development PT JASA SARANA Bandung, INDONESIA
ABSTRACT
Bandung is located about 200 kms from Jakarta, the Capital City of Indonesia, and easily reached by using train, bus, or private vehicle within 2.5 hours during the weekdays and 1.5 hours during the workdays. Bandung is one of the exciting big cities in Java. famous place both for domestic and foreign tourists, and most of them come and stay in Bandung for visiting beautiful agro tourism, such as flowers, orchids, fruits and tea plantation instead of interesting active volcanoes resort with natural hot spring within. Unfortunately during the weekend and long holiday will come to dead dense with the long and tedious queue of traffic. For this purpose, to solve the problem, the Provincial Government of West Java plans a toll road network system as part of Greater Bandung Intra Urban Toll Road, especially from Bandung to Lembang (center of the resort area). Greater Bandung is a mountainous area. This paper will describe an important combination in analyzing both LANDSAT TM and SPOT satellite imageries by using GIS (Geographical Information System) and DTM (Digital Terrain Modelling) for the purpose of selecting route location. Some kind of maps can be produced such as: contour map, morphology map, angle of slope map, drainage pattern map, land use map, infrastructure and human settlement map, and some typical map of shading ridges map, 3D map with potential landslide hazard map. Furthermore, after the alternative route locations are emerged, by using animation model, the best alternative may be seeded depend on the specific requirement adopted. This method will ensure efficiency, flexibility and adoptability as well. Keywords : toll toad, planning, remote sensing, satellite image, GIS, DTM, animation.
I. INTRODUCTION 1. Background
Bandung is located about 200 km from Jakarta, the Capital City of Indonesia, easily reached either by using train, or private vehicle for about 2,5 hours trip during weekdays, but dont expect during weekends or long holidays. Bandung, the Capital of West Java Province, is a big city ( 10.000 ha) with 3 millions inhabitant, but during the day could even doubled. Bandung has plenty of old and traditional building heritage during the Dutch period, and as a center of Sundanese culture, West Java is one of the Indonesian most popular recreation resort area. On the other hand, Lembang is quite different from Bandung. As a suburb area Lembang is cooler than Bandung, and it was located, about 20 kilome-
ters North part of Bandung and surrounded by mountains, such as gunung Tangkuban Perahu and gunung Manglayang. Gunung Tangkuban Perahu is one of hundreds of remain active volcanoes in Indonesia. Bandung and Lembang are really two exciting places for domestic and foreign tourist as well, and most of them come and stay in Bandung for visiting beautiful agro tourism, like orchids, flowers, vegetables, special strawberry gardens and wonderful panoramic of green tea plantation instead of interesting active volcano and natural hot spring. Unfortunately during the weekends and long holidays both of Bandung and Lembang will come to dead dense and tedious queue of traffics. To solve the problem, the Government of West Java plans to
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make a short cut by building a toll road network system as part of Greater Area Bandung Intra Urban Toll Road, particularly between Lembang and Bandung via eastern part of Bandung city through Maribaya - Cimenyan - Cikadut - Sindanglaya or direct to Ujungberung, besides improving the existing National road via Setiabudi. It will be connecting the junction of the middle and south of Bandung existing toll road network system.
emerged, then by using animation model, the best alternative may be seeded to the specific requirement adopted.
4. Locations
The location of study area situated on 10730' 10745' Eastern latitude and 645'-700' Southern latitude.
5. Limitations 2. The Objective of Study

Since the year 2004 Pre Identification Study of Toll Road Network in Bandung Area has been done by using the GIS and DTM from satellite imageries. The Purpose of the study is to identify the best selection route for the toll road. Considering the latest physical condition and land use, especially between Eastern Bandung (Ujungberung) and Lembang (Northern Bandung), the Satellite Imageries of Land sad TM and Spot R 2.5 are applied in these study by using GIS and DTM technology. There are four stages for imageries spectral analysis, i.e.: (1st) spectral classification, (2nd) specifies each of type of spectral classification (3rd) identifies pattern by using statistic and (4th) classifies and presentation in term of table or map. On the other side, some disadvantages using these kind of technology are (1) limitation of the scale depend on type of specific Landsad TM and SPOT Imageries (small, medium, large scales); (2) the difficulties in purchasing the imageries in related to time and costly.
II. GREATER BANDUNG URBAN TOLL ROAD NETWORK, WEST JAVA

The Government of West Java Province has proposed the development of Greater Bandung Urban Toll Road to anticipated the increase of traffic volume in Bandung. Since Cipularang toll road has been operating in 2005, traffic jams always occur from Pasteur toll gate to the beginning of Pasupati elevated road. The toll road will be on the Pasteur Ujungberung arterial road corridor then turn Southward through Gedebage dry port (container) area down to junction with Padaleunyi tollroad. Started with flyover structure over Suria Sumantri intersection as an access connecting with Pasteur Toll Plaza. From the East of Pasupati will be connected by Gasibu underpass, continuing to the Eastward down to Ujungberung then turn Southward down to Padaleunyi toll road. The Bandung Lembang Tollroad will be planned to connect with Greater Bandung Urban Tollroad in Gasibu Underpass - Ujungberung segment. Total length from Pasteur Access to Padaleunyi toll road are 20,2 kms. The Greater Bandung Urban Toll Road was planned to be in stage construction system, from 2006 until 2009. The first stage, Pasteur AcessPasupati segment, will be constructed in 2006 and will operate in 2008. The next stage, Underpass Gasibu-Ujungberung and Ujungberung-Padaleunyi (Gedebage Access) will be constructed in 2007 and will operate in 2010.
3. Purpose of Study
Some kind of maps may be produced, such as: contour map, morphology map, slope angle map, vegetation map, drainage pattern map, infrastructure and human settlement map, land used map, shading ridge map, 3D and typical cross sectional map. To combine between imageries and existing map (rainfall map, geological map, etc) some typical maps may be produced, such as permeability map, hardness & compactness map, and potential hazard map. Base on above several maps, the engineers will consider all aspect related to the best route selection, such as (1) geometry related to contour-slope angle-drainage pattern; (2) earth work always close to geological condition, permeability, seismicity, compactness, morphology, landslide hazard; (3) socio-economic or environmental aspect related to the land use map, vegetation map, infrastructure and human settlement map. After the alternative route locations are
40
III. APPLICATION OF SATELLITE IMAGE FOR ROUTE PLANNING

The role of remote sensing technique using satellite imagery has been developed last decade for specific purposes, e.g. for Regional planning, agricultural, natural hazard mapping, meteorological, engineering (route location, surface erosion, quarry, etc.) Remote sensing is the technique in getting data collection and information of the object, area, phenomena through image analyzing without touching and direct contact with the object. Some information obtained from both aerial photo and satellite image may fall into (1) terrain or earth relief (morphology, slope, drainage pattern,
gullies & valleys, ridges, lineation offfault zone, etc.); (2) specific objects (roads, railway, electrical tower, dam irrigation channel, human settlement, landslide, volcanoes and (3) vegetation, land coverage, and land use. In highway engineering purposes, there are some papers has been reported such as Terrain Evaluation of Doto Land System (JWF Dowling, 1966) Terrain Evaluation for Road Engineering in Indonesia (Saroso, 1983) Identification of Calcrete Quarry in Bostwana (Beaven, 1968) Pre Identification of Proposed Toll road Cikampek-Padalarang, West Java (Saroso, 1994)
Table 1. Flowchart of the Study Methodology

Primary Data -Landsat - SPOT
Secondary data Topography, Geology, Land system, Rainfall
Ground Checking
Image Processing - Radiometric Correction - Geometric Correction - Image Enhancement - Cropping Image - NDVI, index vegetables - Maps overlay - Stereoimages process (DTM) Elevation Grid Coordinate
Ground Control Point
Analyzing & Manipulating Data Primary & Secondary (GIS) Digitation, Editing Analysis, Mathematic Formulation Visualization
1st Animation Process
Final Animation
Route Selection
- Map Vizualization Infrastructure Road Network Slope Angle Index Vegetation Land Use Drainage Pattern Countour Hill Shading Rainfall Intensity Permeability Compactness Geology - 3D (stereo) & Cross Sectional - Potentially landslide mode (potential landslide hazard map)
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Landslide Study of Puncak Pass Young Volcanic

deposit using GIS (Saroso, Marzuki, 1998) By using formula NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) vegetation distribution along route planning may be obtain also from the images. The following diagram (Table 1) shows the methodology being used in this study. In applying satellite image, two kind of resolutions shall be considered as an important things: (1) spatial resolution is defined as size of object which could be detected from the images; (2) spectral resolution is an image capabilities in receiving of the thermal ray of the object. Landsat is suitable source for medium scale map (1 : 25.000) and best used for regional planning, whereas the SPOT image R. 2.5 is a good image, because it has high spatial and spectral resolution, it means the size of 2.5 m x 2.5 m object may be copied. The process in analyzing satellite imagery can be classified into five steps, as follows 1. Image Restoration done by doing Radiometric and Geometric Correction. The Radiometric distortion usually occurred due to: (a) System of optical lens sensor; (b) sunspot; (c) relief of topographic shading; (d) path radiance. The Geometric distortion caused by (a) earth rotational; (b) limitation of scan rate sensor; (c) curve earth horizon; and (d) panoramic effect. 2. Coordinate transformation, all of images shall have the georeference from Ground Control Point (GCP) 3. The contrast image enhancement may be get through filtering, fusion, and colour draping. 4. Image cropping 5. Digitalized cartography (superimposing other existing map) The GIS technology applies worldwide for many purposes, which data base shall be digitized and will serve later in spatial and tabular data. In these study GIS technology can produce some maps derived from satellite image and existing map, such as : road map, drainage, pattern map, rainfall map, permeability map, rock compactness map, land covered/land use map, vegetation map, geological map,
Some image providers (SPOT-IKONOSQUICKBIRD) provide the stereo image shows earth relief in 3-D. Several maps can be made by DTM (Digital Terrain Modeling) process, those maps such as : slope angle map, contour map, hill shading map, 3D map, 3D cross section. Furthermore from all kind of maps, the engineers may have facility to calculate the volume of road cutting & fill (earthwork) along the selected route. Generally, road construction across the tropical hilly volcanic area facing landslide problem due to the instability of slopes. The potential landslide hazard will become very important to overcome the slope instability during construction or maintenance periods. This study represents potential landslide hazard map of volcanic deposit by using formula developed by Marzuki (1998):
(P5 + P6) * P7 Pot = ( P1 + P2 + P3+ P4) + 0,5

P2 = Rock Compactness P3 = Permeability P4 = Rainfall Intensity P5 = Vegetation Index P6 = Land Covered P7 = Structural Geology 0,5 = Multiply Factor Finally, when some alternative routes have been selected and then the best alternative might be seeded, the animation model will be made along the best selected route. All the above methods will ensure efficiency, flexibility, adaptability, and environmentally friendly as well.
IV. ANALYSING & EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL FEATURES BETWEEN BANDUNG AND LEMBANG
The result of physical parameter evaluation derived from size & DTM Processing describe as follows: 1. The area of study will covered (11,7 km x 11,7 km) 140 km2, which located on 10730' - 10745' East latitude and 645' - 700' South latitude. The map scale is 1:25.000 within contour interval 12,5
42
meters. 2. Slope angle classification. There are six classes of slope angle, shown in table 2. Table 2. Slope Angle Classification
Classification of Slope Flat Low Medium Moderately Steep Steep Very Steep Angle of Slope in (%) 0-2 3-8 9-15 16-25 26 -40 > 40 From Total (%) 29,4 12,0 7,2 12,6 6,7 32,1 Area (W) 41,16 16,8 10,08 17,64 9,38 44,94
3. Rainfall intensity & Permeability will be divided into 2 (two) types of rainfall intensities, i.e. almost 70% area with 2.000 mm/year and 30% with 3.000 mmlyear of rainfall intensity. The study area will be classified into three regions related to the permeability, i.e. first high permeable (more porous) region covers at least 63,8% of the total area. In contrast, about 28,1 % of the total area is low (impermeable) permeability region, and lastly the rest is medium. 4. Compactness, the whole study area will be divided into 4 (four) classes as shown in table 3. Table 3. Compactness Distribution
No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Compactness Loose Medium Dense Dense & Cemented Loose, Fractured (Fault zone) From Total (%) 18,8% 17,4% 62,40% 1,40% Area ( Km)2 26,32 24,36 87,36 1,96
Fault zone found out at Lembang area, an active normal fault with vertical displacement around 30 meters (downward at North face). The length of this fault is at least 2,7 kms (total length of Lembang is about 10 kms). The rivers mostly (90 %) are flowing to the SW (South-West), otherwise about 10% in the North part of the study area, the Rivers are flowing tend to EW (East-West). Land coverage are classified into five categories, as follow : - Protected & mixture forest about 3,6 %, at least 18,8 % is bare soil and human settlement are placed in that area. Small portion are paddy fields (2,1 %) and grass & bush (0,7 %). Therefore mostly area, about 74,8 % are cultivated area. 6. Potential Landslides & Hazard Zoning The area of study may have four Hazard Zonings of potential landslides as shown in the following table (5). Physical parameters evaluation of proposed toll road between Ujungberung (eastern part of Bandung) to Lembang (Northern part of Bandung) - Base on the whole maps, the author proposed three alternatives. All the proposed toll road will trace hilly area of South flank of Gunung Manglayang. across the Lembang fault before reaches Lembang area, which more flatters. - Total length of proposed toll road is about 15 kms, connecting Ujungberung (687 meters above sea-level) and Lembang (1237 meters above sealevel). Generally, the slopes angle runs from 2 % 4 % within at least has 14 rivers crossing and four wide valleys (t 200 to 500 meters). - The road corridor has 2.000 - 3.000 mm per annum of rainfall intense, and will passes the dense populated area (Ujungberung and Lembang) and small portion through protected
5. Rock type distribution are based on the geological map fall into 4 (four) types as shown on table 4.
Table 4. Rock Type Distribution

No 1 2 3 4 Notation QL Qyd Qyt Qv Description of Rock Type Lake Deposit Sandy Tuff from young volcanic deposit Pumice Tuff from Young Vulcanic deposit Undifferentiated old volcanic deposit (%) of Coverage 10% 20% 25% 45% Area (km)2 14 28 35 63
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Table 5. Potential Landslides & Hazard Zoning

No 1. 2. 3. 4. Hazard Classification High Moderate Low Rare to None Criteria of Slope 25%-30% 15%-25% and >40% 8%-15% 0%-8% Type of Geology Formation Weathered Qv Qv & Qyd (old vulkanic formation & sandy tuff young vulcanic) Qv (old vulcanic formation) Qyt & Qyd + Q L (lake deposit & young vulcanic) Area (%) Coverage 4,5 26,2 28,8 40,5 Area (Km)2 63 36,68 40,32 56,70
forest/area, otherwise mainly the route would pass the cultivated area between Sindanglaya to Maribaya lateritic weathered at least 10 kms length. The study area laid on Tuffaceous Sand (Qv) at least 12 kms and the rest 3 kms located over alluvial Deposit (QL) which consist of silty clay. The route will pass three zones of potential land-slide hazards such as high zone (0,1 kms), moderate (3 - 4 kms), and low (12 kms)
Table 6 shows the comparation of three alternatives proposed toll roads between Ujungberung Lembang.
Table 6. The Comparation of Three Alternatives Proposed Tolroad Between Ujungberung Lembang
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CONCLUSION
Combination in analyzing both Landsat TM and SPOT R 2.5 Satellite imagery by using GIS (Geographical Information System) and DTM (Digital Terrain Modeling) have been developed for study of Pre identification the route of proposed toll road in Greater Bandung Urban Area. Many kind of maps may be produced by these technologies, such as: contour map 1:25.000, relief map, slope angle map, drainage pattern map, land use map, infrastructure map, potential land slide hazard map, 3-D map, and also to identify of major geological structure such as Lembang fault. The result of analyzing physical parametric from above maps may be used to develop preliminary assessment route corridors. As an example, the best alternative route between Ujungberung and Lembang (15kms length) has been obtained in considering both physical condition and environmental friendly. These example shows the method will ensure efficiency, flexibility, and adaptability for preliminary stage as well. The preparation of satellite imagery in Indonesia would be time consuming and high in unit cost, although cost depends on size of the area image.
NOTE
This paper was presented in 12th Road Engineers Austro Asia Association Conference, Filipina, 20-24 Nopember 2006.
REFERENCES
BAKORSURTANAL, 1992, Bandung Landsystem Map 1:250.000, Jakarta, Indonesia HEATH, W, BS SAROSO, JW DOWLING, 1990, Highway Slope Problems in Indonesia, Proc. 6th REAAA, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia LAPAN, 2004, Landsat TM and SPOT R.2.5 Of Bandung, Indonesia LAWRANCE, C.J, RJ. BYARD, and PJ. BEAVEN, 1993, Terrain Evaluation Manual, TRR Laboratory, State of the Art, Review No.7, London PT JASA SARANA, 2005, Pre Identification Study of Proposed Toll Road of Bandung Urban (Unpublished). Bandung, Indonesia SAROSO BS, MARZUKI, 1998; The Application of GIS for Landslide Identification in Young Volcanic Deposit, Proc. 9th REAAA, New Zealand SILITONGA, PH, 1973; Geological of Bandung Map 1:100.000, Dept of Energy and Mining, Bandung, Indonesia
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46
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC EFFECT OF ROAD NETWORK DEVELOPMENT

Hikmat Iskandar Head of Traffic Engineering and Environmental Laboratory Research and Development Centre for Road and Bridges Agency for Research and Development, Ministry of Public Work Jl. AH. Nasution No. 264 Kotak Pos 2 Ujung Berung Bandung 40294, Indonesia Phone : 022-7802251, 022-7802253, Fac : 022-7802726 e-mail : pusjatan@pusjatan.pu.go.id
ABSTRACT
A lot of money have been expended on transport sector, the most expensive expenditure is for development of Road network. Many objectives are expected from investing fund on this sector, e.g. to unity the whole country by connecting isolated regions; to built equal development among regions, etc. Another important objective is to grow social & economic of people in order to realize fair prosperity throughout the whole country. Economic evaluation in road projects is usually carried out to obtain information for the lender agency, e.g. the Bank, whether the project is justifiable economically or not. Economic evaluation after the road had been built particularly for a certain length of years are rare, and also on social case. Social and economic effects of road network development involve complex analyses, it is influenced by many economic and social sectors, it is not resulted by only road development. This paper discusses some concept of role of sharing between government, private companies, and communities on road transport sector. It brings to formulate factors as objects for research, for evaluating effect of road network development to social and further economy. As recent data of road development, accessibility, mobility, and accident data are also presented to inform present situation on road network development. It is indicated that there is an unbalance development between western and eastern region.
INTRODUCTION
Economic and social effects of the road network development are case that anxiously wanted to know, particularly when the effects can be expressed in numbers or figures, to know how effective a sum of money invested in this transport sector were able to influence social and economic activities. Development of road network may have many objectives. Good transport services may serve goods and people displacements between places of origin and destination as people needed, it may also expand land for people to stay and to unity people in the whole country by connecting them, opening isolated or unconnected regions, etc. Basically development of road network aims to improve quality of life by increasing positively social and economic benefit to community.
Economic evaluation is usually carried out to gain information whether or not the road project is economically justifiable. This evaluation is usually carried out in the feasibility study. Economic evaluation to obtain information on how far the road development affect social and economic activities is rare. Format and methodology on how to analyses are debatable and anxiously to know. It is expected to know on how far an investment in this sector can influence economic and social activities to community. The aim of this paper is to discuss a link concept of effects between road network development and other social and economic activities. Some data are presented to show correlation between road development and transport performance.
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Government, Privates, and Community Role of Sharing

Economic evaluation in general is part of the project cycle. The purpose of the evaluation is to produce information on the basic of which investment decision may be made. Economic evaluation is usually used in feasibility studies as well as in appraisals. This information is usually used to convince donor funded investment. Such evaluation stops as the project finished or even when project funded approved. Evaluation of a finished or an already hand over road project to government and opened to the community is other issues. It is rare to evaluate economic outcome of the road project especially on social case. In the following, concept of the economic and social evaluation to be discussed, it may define some focus variables to be evaluated as indicator representing the effects. Illustration in figure 1 showed the link concept. Government, in transport sector, acts as institution responsible for road network develop-
ment. The government provides planning, organizing, actuating, and controlling the development of road network. The funding for the development is to be responsible of the government. It can be obtained through APBN or may be lent from national or generally international lending agencies. Government developed road network means they provide a better provision of transport services. Basically, it increases accessibilities and mobility of the people and goods. Further more, the objective of the development is to make the transport inexpensive, but fast, safe, and comfortable or reliable as good as possible. The resultant of a better transport as result of the development is reduction of the transport costs. Increase in travel speed reduce the time cost, shorten the length of travel reduce the transport cost. Increased accessibility and mobility, as a result of road network development, in general is to reduce the transport costs. The easiness of doing movement with cheaper cost of moving people and goods, safest travel from
Figure 1. Effects of Road Network development to other sector PUBLIC WORKS International 2006
48
origin to destination, encourage people to make more activities. In private sector, reduction in the transport cost decrease the cost for total production, it may leave some spare money that may be used for some additional production output. With present of transport services, sending product to market become easier, faster, and may be cheaper. When producers increase their production output, sending additional volume of output to market are now possible. On government side, government has to provide some initial funding to develop road network. The sum that required may be or may not be affordable. However, it may obtain from lender institute such as the Word Bank. Another way, it may be obtain by liberalization of the highway, i.e. applying the concept so call road fund. As discussed above, transport services which served by the road network will increase transport services and reduce the transport costs. It encourages increased of production output which need to be delivered to other centre distributions or markets. These process will increase economic activities, on the road it will increase the volume of traffic. To the government side, the sum of initial capital spent on the road network field, as the network operate, the more travels will be made, the more trading transaction are to be done, the more man hour of production are to be worked, leading to increase on Taxes and Retributions. Theoretically, the capital fund will be return directly by the time the system working as expected. On privates sector, increase in production output and trading, will raise companies profit which may add to their account. It means the company may expand their activities as possible as they have additional investment. On government sector, additional tax and retribution gain from grow companies activities may raise also government expenditures. Many sector may absorb government expenditures, but government may prior to expend money for accelerate economic activities by supporting private companies. Raise investment on private companies may increase production process and so transport, marketing, trading and so on and on end, this will add up government income through taxes and retribution.
The community who involved in the production process will gain additional basic salaries. Increase in production output as the result of better transport services also raise trading transactions which make some additional benefit for the companies and additional take home pay for the labor. Raise in labor income support people to realize their wish to improve their quality of life. These needs become another demand to the production output which finally will raise taxes and retribution for the government. The life cycles cost as discussed above demonstrates the effect of spending government expenditures in the transport sector, i.e. development of road networks, which is in the beginning need some huge of funding for initiation. As economic activities life, government will receive incentive through taxes and retribution. Further effect of the cycle influences private sector on raising their investments. It encourages production to go more. This cycle, i.e. raise in production process, at the end will increase income per capita, and so on. As a conclusion from discussion above, one way of evaluation the effects of development of road networks is to measure income per capita. Nationally it may be evaluate from Gross National Product (GNP). GNP is not only influenced by development on transport sector, but it represents developments on other sectors. Improvement on transport sector particularly when road network become better, will have not only a positive advantages. There is some negative effect which inherits on physical road networks. Attitudes of traveler are vary, some are follow regulation with good capability of driving vehicles in traffic flow environment. Some other are less capable because of lack of experiences, do not follow regulations, have weakness physically such as limited distance of vision, slow reaction, nerves, etc., which may lead to a fail on driving task, resulting traffic accident. Many researches (Sabey BE, GC Staughton, 1980; Ross Silcock Partnership, 1991; Iskandar, 1994) have proved that human factor is the most contributor causes to occurrences of accident. When travel services become easier, people tent to make more travel. This social attitude increase vehicle ownership, traffic volumes, and accident. To evaluate road development effects on social side, car ownership
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and traffic accident may be, at this stage, the most possible data available.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL ROAD NETWORK Financial

The funding for development of road projects are provided by Government and carried out by the Department of Public Works. Annual budgeting for road sector is shown in figure 2. It figures budgets for financial year (FY) 1984/1985 up to 19999/2000 (about 15 years). These funding are distributed according to decentralization system, these are divided for National, Provincial, district, and Toll roads. As shown, the funding (written Anggaran, in unit of a Billion Indonesian Rupiah, equivalent to about US$.112.000,-) are raised yearly since FY 1984/1985 until 1994/1995, where from year 1995/1996 up to 1999-2000 there is a quite significant reduction. Those fund are not prepared for build new roads only, but also for maintenances, betterment, and also for replacement of old bridges. Figure 2. Road sector yearly expenditure
Anggaran Pem bangunan Sektor Jalan vs Kelas Jalan 6000 Anggaran, Rp. M 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 84/85 85/86 86/87 87/88 88/89 89/90 90/91 91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00
Figure 3. Road condition in year 2000 (sources: DG of Highway)
ACCESSIBILITY AND MOBILITY

Generally, to measure quality of services to the community, accessibility and mobility index may be used. Accessibility is defined as ration between length of road to the area of a region. Mobility is defined as length of roads to the number of population in a region. Figure in the following shown the condition. Figure 4. Accessibility and Mobility level
Tahun Anggaran
Ro ad Secto r Natio nal & P ro vincial District Ro ads To ll Ro ads
(source: DG of Highway).
(source: DG of Hayway)
On year 2000, the condition of road networks is as shown in next figure. It can be seen, good conditions earned by mostly National and provincial roads, while Kabupaten (district) roads suffer from bad conditions. In limited financial condition where there is not enough money to maintain of all, it may be worthiest to prior strategic roads. As shown in the following figure, better road condition were given to National and Provincial Roads 50
Generally, Index accessibility for region in the west (Sumatera, Java dan Bali/NT) are good enough, the range are 2.876.51 km/1000ha. In eastern region, particularly Kalimantan and Maluku/Papua are relatively low, i.e. 0.49-2.29 km/1000ha. Nationally is 1.75 km/1000ha. The mobility index in eastern region is good enough, ranged 2.40-4.62 km/1000people. But for western regions, the index is low, i.e. 0.67-2.67 km/ 1000people. Java island is 0.67, lower than for national average, i.e. 1.46 km/1000people. The statistic above shows that in western
region, roads have been better developed but according to population density the road length is still limited. In contrary in eastern region, there are low accessibility but according to the density population, these bring to a high index of mobility. This may be of low density population. Hence, economic development in eastern region is restrained by lack of present of road network, economically road in this region should be added. Figure in the following shows the comparison of accessibility and mobility index with other Asian countries. It informed that Indonesia left behind by two neighbor countries, Malaysia and Philippine. Figure 5. Comparison of Accessibility and Mobility Index with other Asian countries
4
Panjang jalan/ 1000 ha 3.5 Panjan jalan/ 1000 pddk 3
3 2
2.5 2 1.5
is no better road network available. It shows that there is an effect from road transport development to social attitude of buying car but it is not certain how much the magnitude of the influence yet. The graph in the figure shows a consistent growth between car ownership and development of road length. The accident trend, in contrary, is not grown parallel to car ownership. As reported by police, it grows down since year 1980ies. This tendency gives us a good image, people attitude in driving are tend to be more careful resulting decrease in accident reporting. This change on social attitude should be resulted by real mass action, e.g. improvement of driving ability, traffic safety campaign, effective law enforcement, improvement of most roads geometric etc. However, there is no such mass action have been reported along the period of 1980ies to 2000, it lead to believe that accident are under reporting. Figure 6. Road length, car ownership, and reported traffic accident growths
1 0
China India 2.1 3.3 Indonesia 1.75 1.46 M alaysia Philippines 3.6 3 3.6 2.6 Vietnam 1.6 1.2
1 0.5 0
1.1 1.1
per 1000 ha per 1000 pop
(source: DG of Highway)
Road Traffic Accident

Road Traffic Accident reported to police are high. Nationally, in year 2003 it reached 13,399 reports, involved 24,692 victims, include 9856 death. These numbers are based on reported accident. These number also inform that at least 4.6 victims per 10,000 population, and 4,5 fatalities per 10,000 vehicles yearly. There is a believed, based on data from insurance and Hospital, that these numbers are under reporting. The real numbers of accidents are higher than shown by police report. Figures in the following shows trend of reported accidents. It is compared with the growth of car ownership and road length. The increase in development of road network is followed by increase in car ownership, even faster. The increase in car ownership indicates change in community economic ability, i.e. capable to buy car. These increased abilities may be caused of road lengthened, or any other economic developments. However, people will not choice to buy a car if there
(source: Traffic Police)
SUMMARY
As discussed previously, development of road network affects many economic sectors. In private company sector, it has multiple effects that able to increase in production output, causing raise in needs of transport, deliveries, trading transactions, etc. In turn, the cycle will gain capital recovery or even saving, and also increase income per capita. The cycle of economic activities may improve quality of life of the people, and as shown the increase in road length followed by increase in car ownership.
ROAD AND BRIDGES
51
In the road network development, unbalance development between western region and eastern region, needs to be reduced. Improving accessibility in eastern region such as in Java, may be needed, and increasing mobility for the people in eastern region may also be realized. To overcome problem of traffic accident, it is suggested to develop system to gather accurate traffic accident data. Once the data has been obtain, problem and countermeasures may be formulated, so program for reducing accident occurrences can be identified.
REFERENCES
Iskandar H, 1994: Analyses Accident in JakartaCikampek Toll Road Paper presented at Na. tional Conference on Highway (KNTJ), Bandung, Indonesia. Ross Silcock Partnership, 1991: Toward Safer Roads in Developing Countries. A guide for Planners and Engineers TRRL. Overseas Administration . Unit. HMSO, London. Sabey BE, GC Staughton, 1980: The known risks we run; the Highway TRRL supplementary report . 567, Crowthoren. Sjahdanulirwan M, Hikmat Iskandar, M. Furqon Affandi (2005): Sistem jaringan jalan dan Kebijakan pemerintah di bidang penggunaan asphalt Paper presented on course of asphaltic . pavement strutural engineering, Bandung.. Thagensen Bent (editor), 1996: Highway and Traffic Engineering in developing countries E & FN . SPON, London, UK. NOTE This paper was presented in Executives Seminar on Sosial Economic Effects of Road Network Development in Asia. Japan, 5-18th November 2006.
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3
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
CURRENT STATUS OF HALON PHASE-OUT IMPLEMENTATION IN INDONESIA

Suprapto Research Professor Research and Development Centre for Human Settlements, Ministry of Public Works Jl. Panyaungan, Cileunyi Wetan, Kab. Bandung, Bandung 40393, Indonesia Telephone: 62-22-7798393, Fax: 62-22-7798392 E-mail: sprapto@attglobal.net
ABSTRACT
Indonesia ratified Vienna Convention for Ozone Layer Protection and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in May 1992. Several activities have then been undertaken, ever since incl. the implementation of halon phase-out. Due to its ozone depleting potential which is higher than other ODS, halon was phased-out in 1996, preceeding CFC phase-out in 1997 and the Indonesia Halon Bank (IHB) was established in March, 2000. Further, a new regulation on halon management is currently being drafted. This regulation will clearly define the critical and non critical users of halons, discourage purposely discharge of halon and require halon users to register. It is expected that by issuing this regulation the halon phase-out in Indonesia will be accelerated and the target to phase-out ODS completely in 2007 can be achieved. However, the issuance of this new regulation should be accompanied by increasing public awareness and understanding regarding these matters through intensifying dissemination and formulating relevant codes and standards as well. Keywords : ozone depleting substance, halon phase-out, Indonesia halon bank, halon replacement & alternatives, risk-based firesafety design, public awareness, fire codes and standards
INTRODUCTION
The stratospheric ozone layer protects life on earth. In the 1980s the scientific community reached a consensus that the ozone layer is vulnerable to damage by atmospheric emissions of a specific family of industrial chemicals, the most notable being chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and the fire fighting agents halon (brominated fluorocarbons). In September 1987, nations concerned about this crisis signed the Montreal Protocol, a landmark environmental agreement that identified the major ozone depleting substances (ODS) and establish a timetable for the reduction (phase-out). Today 180 countries nearly every government in the world have joined the treaty and committed to the phase-out of ODS. Concerning halons, although they are highly effective fire fighting agents and explosion suppressant, halons are extremely potent ODS as well as significant global warming gases. The production and consumption of halons was successfully phased-out in developed countries by the beginning of 1994. Developing countries (Article 5
countries) have been given a longer phase-out period under, and in January 2002 they faced their first milestone: the freeze of their halon consumption at 1995-1997 average level. According to UNEP, Ozone Action Unit, developing countries consume about 35.000 ODP tonnes of halon annualy. They will have to phase-out all of this consumption plus production by 2010 except for essential or critical uses. Indonesia ratified Vienna Convention for Ozone Layer Protection and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer through the Presidential Decree (KEPPRES) no 23/ 1992 in May 1992. As an Article 5.1 country, Indonesia qualifies for assistance from the Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol, including the preparation of the Country Program (CP). How the halon phase-out programmes set-up in Indonesia, schedule and its implementation, the supporting regulations, institutional set-up, and the operational mechanism, are presented briefly in this paper.
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HALON PHASE-OUT IN INDONESIA Indonesia Country Programme

The Indonesia Country Programme (CP) is Indonesias response to the challenge as well as the compliance of its obligation to the agreement on how it intends to reduce, and eventually to phaseout the use of ODS. Under the coordination of the State Ministry for Environment (KLH), the government has established a national committee and a national technical committee for ozone layer protection and ODS phase-out whose responsibilities include CP development, design and the implementation of sectoral work programmes. The CP drafting work was organized and coordinated by the KLH. Extensive consultations with industry sectors, trade associations, NGOs and related offices were undertaken through seminars and meetings. The final CP was completed by the government with the assistance of the UNDP and was submitted in March 1994.
country, hence the primary step in halon phase-out is by stop import. Accordingly, the regulations issued for supporting halon phase-out mostly come from Ministry of Industry and Commerce (PERINDAG) in the form of Ministrial Decision of the Minister of Industry and Commerce (KEPMENPERINDAG). In response to the Presidential Decree no 23/1992 and CP, the Perindag issued several regulations on ODS. The regulations enforced and some amendments along the way are shown in Table-2 Table-1 Action Plan for Halon Sector as stipulated in CP
ITEMS Recommenda tions 1994 - 1996 Ban to install new fixed halon systems (at the end of 1994) Ban aerosol type fire extingusihers which use halons and other ODS (at the end of 1994) Ban the import new halon 1301 at the end of 1994 Ban the import new halon 1211 at the end of 1996 Ban the import,production, and sale of new portable halon extinguishers at the end of 1996 Consuct intensive information and public awareness on halon phaseout and Banking Set-up and operation of a National Halon Banking System commencing in 1994
Structure of ODS Consumption and the Phase-out Schedule

Indonesia does not either produce nor export in bulk any of the ODS. Thus, total consumption is equivalent to imports adjusted for stock changes. The countrys calculated weighted consumption of ODS in 1992 was 6,567.3 ODP tonnes which amounted to a per capita consumption of around 0.03kg. CFC-12 accounted for 63.4%, halons 14.8%, and CFC-11 14.2%, with CFC-113, CFC-115, 1,1,1trichloroethane (TCA) and carbon tetrachlorida (CTC) making up the balance. By industrial sectors, the ODP usage distribution in 1992 showed the refrigeration and air conditioning industry was the largest user, accounting for 31.9% of the total. The other users were aerosols (30.5%), foams (15.6%), halons (14.8%), and solvent (7.2%). Methyl bromide, HCFCs and HBFCs are not considered in this CP. It is estimated that cumulative consumption of ODS, based on unconstrained demand from the year 1992 up to 2010, would be almost 500,000 ODP tonnes. The action plan of CP for halon phase-out is shown in Table 1.
Awareness Management of phasing out scenario
Country programme - update

The 1994 CP was drafted based on halon consumption data 1992. However, it was found that some major industries using halon were not identified. Besides, due to economic condition and monetary policy in 1997, the growth of small and medium scale industries and the need in medical sectors has increased the need of some ODS (refrigerant, foam, aerosol and solvent). To cope with this situation while considering the acceleration of multilateral fund investment projects, and to prevent the possible illegal trading on ODS, has urged the government to re-evaluate the CP and its targets. The updated CP (2000) has targeted to prolong the phase-out up to the end of 2007. This change on phase-out time schedule is also shown in some amendments of regulations issued by Perindag (see table-2).
Regulations on ODS phase-out

Since Indonesia is not halon producing
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Table-2 Regulations enforced pertaining halon phase-out and their amendments
KEPMENPERINDAG NO 110/MPP/Kep/1/1998
ITEMS TO BE REGULATED OR CHANGED Prohibit to produce and market any substance that deplete ozone layer (ODS) A change in import regulation of ODS up to 31st December 2003
NOTES Substaces that deplete ozone layer, products and new products using ODS shall not be marketed and used up to January 2005 A change on Ministrial Decisison no 230/MPP/Kep/1/1998 concerning import regulation for certain products A change on Ministrial Decision no 110/MPP/Kep/1/1998 To change Ministrial Decision no 111 and 230 /MPP/Kep/1/1998 To change Ministrial Decision no 111, 230 and 411 /MPP/Kep/1/1998 To change the articles no 2 and 4 of the Ministrial Decision no 110 and 410 /MPP/Kep/1/1998
111/MPP/Kep/1/1998
410/MPP/Kep/9/1998
411/MPP/Kep/9/1998 789/MPP/Kep/12/2002
790/MPP/Kep/12/2002
Adding new regulatory items (arti-cle 4a) concerning methyl bromide A change on Article 5b concerning registered importer Some changes on Article 5b con-cerning import allowance for CFC 11, 12, 113, 114, and 115, up to 31st December 2007 Allowing to import CFC11, 12, 113, 114 and 115 for MDI and UKM of foam, aerosol and solvent, up to December 2007
Notes : MDI = metered dose inhalation industry UKM = small and medium scale industry
Indonesia Group which is represented by one of its company, the PT. GMF-AeroAsia (Garuda Maintenance Facility). This contract was signed in March 22, 2000 while the inscription of IHB operation start was signed by the Minister of Environment in September 16, 2003. The purpose of establishing IHB is to physically implement halon bank system which is, in principle, encompasses the following tasks : a. To identify and record existing halon stocks b. To keep a register of users and their requirements c. To act as a conduit for the sale of halons d. To list recycling stations / depots e. To discourage emissions to the atmosphere f. To monitor national physical implementation of halon phase-out g. To maintain current information on international requirements for halons h. To control and set-up price mechanism in transfer and sale of re-use halons i. To participate in the coordination of the international halon banking programs j. To provide information regarding destruction technology All information pertaining halon are sent to the National Ozone Unit (NOU) in KLH, where this unit been decided to be a Clearing House for any information, data and national activities related to halon phase-out. There is also an Advisory Panel in NOU which assist IHB in setting-up operational policy. Advisory Panel consists of personnel representing each Ministry involved, experts, and non government bodies (NGOs)
The need of halon management programmes

With the impetus of updated CP, and considering the growth awareness of community on halon phase-out program and its consequences, particularly in industrial sectors, there is an increased need to set-up more confirmed halon management programs, giving clear authority to the institution (s) that carry-out day-to-day physical operations, completing with standards operating procedures while preparing the regulatory umbrella for managing the existing halon usage before eventually be phased-out. The idea to establish Indonesia halon bank (IHB) and providing ways and means to allow the IHB to operate as well as drafting the Environment Ministerial Regulation of Halon Management are some programmes currently undertaken to anticipate ODS phase-out in 2007.
The IHB scope of works

In line with its tasks as outlined in the objectives, hence the IHB has the following scope of works: a. To build and develop the existing facilities to carry-out recycling, recovery, reclaiming and storage b. To receive halons from non essential / critical users c. To assist non essential users in assessing halon alternatives d. Fulfilling the requirement as specified in ISO 7201 or ASTM D5632 e. Maintaining contact and networking with other
THE INDONESIA HALON BANK (IHB) The objectives

The Indonesia Halon Bank (IHB) was established under the cooperation contract between Ministry of Environment (KLH) and the PT. Garuda
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regional halon banks in the world Current facilities owned by IHB which supports its activities, include : Building area of 220 m2 Recycle machine REACH from Kidde, with recycling capacity of 9.5 lbs/minute or 4,25kg/ minute Storage cylinders (30 unit) with the capacity of 500 kg Laboratory equipment Gas chromatograph Agilent 6890 N Series Transfer pumps Halon identifier
2006. The task aims at gathering the halon stock of all halon users and entering the data into the data base, establishing the data base of halon stock to enable tracking the essential and non essential use criteria so that in order to know the need to stock the recycled halon for essential use criteria in the future. Result of halon mapping showed that there are 15.4 MT halon 1211 and 40.8 MT halon 1301 available in stock. About 44.73% halon users has replaced halon with other agents such as dry chemical, CO2, AF-11e and halotron. Report on halon mapping done by IHB reveals that obtaining data on halon is not that easy and takes some amount of time.
Standard & Policy Guidelines

After the establishment in March 2000, the IHB requires a policy direction and guidelines to support its operation in providing halon management services. In connection with this, a project for setting-up a Standard Policy & Guidelines (SPG) was conducted in 2004. The SPG contains several general procedures and guidelines, such as : a. General procedure for halon submission b. General procedure for halon user registration c. General procedure for halon supply d. General procedure for recycling halon e. General procedure for data base maintenance of halon users f. General procedure for halon storage g. Technical guideline for halon decommission h. Pricing criteria for halon management i. Technical guideline for recycling processes and their certificate j. Technical guideline for halon alternatives k. Criteria for essential and non essential uses l. Information of halon replacement and alternatives
HALON REPLACEMENT & ALTERNATIVES Use of halons

Halon is regarded as the most effective agents for extinguishing fires. Halons are used either as streaming agents or total flooding systems for protecting computer and data processing rooms. Compared to other CFCs (chlorofluorocarbon) to be phased-out such as CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-115 (known as freon refrigerants), solvent, foam and methyl bromide, halons have the highest ODP (ozone depleting potentials). The ODP of halon 1211 is 3 6 compared to 1 for CFC whereas halon 1301 is 11 16. This is the reason why phasing-out halons proceeding other agents in CP (1996). Halon 1211 is used for streaming extinguishing systems e.g portable or wheeled type fire extinguishers, whereas halon 1301 is used for fixed systems either as total flooding system for protecting computer and data processing room, control room or local application for out-door protection such as industrial plant, filling station, electric switchgear, kitchen facilities.
Replacement criteria Halon Mapping

One of the essential thing in the implementation of ODS phase-out and halon in particular, which is, at this moment, has almost reached to the year of 2007, is the real data of halon stock available in Indonesia. Having a real and reliable data is quite significant in planning and designing a proper regulation. For this reason, a task to map a national halon stock was done by the IHB in the beginning of In search of compatible halon substitutes, the following criteria shall be fulfilled : (1) effective in extinguishing fires; (2) environmentally clean or friendly agents , e.g the ODP is zero or approximately zero, and the GWP or the Global Warming Potential is zero or almost zero; (3) non toxic; (5) non electrical conductive; (6) no residual materials left after being used or sprayed. The other important things are the recommendation of halon technical option commit-
56
tee and the acceptance of fire protection association (such as NFPA, IFE etc). Other consideration is their compatibility to halons in protecting facilities against fire hazard and these agents are commercially available.
Recommended halon alternatives

With refer to NFPA 2001, EPA/SNAP (Significant New Alternative Policy), and ISO 14520 the following agents are recommended for fixed systems. a. Halon like replacement : PFC 410, FM-200, NAFSIII, Triodide, AF-11e, FE-241 b. Inert gas systems : IG-541 (Inergen), IG-55 (argonit) and IG-01 (argon system) c. Water mist technology : Hi-Fog d. Traditional alternatives : CO2 systems While for streaming or portable extinguishers, the following are recommended a. Halon like replacement : Triodide, AF-11e, Halotron, Solfaklam 123 b. Traditional alternatives : CO2 systems, dry chemical, water and foam.
Considering many alternatives for halon as fire protection agents either for fixed systems or as portable extinguishers, hence a thorough evaluation is deemed necessary before deciding which systems are technically capable of protecting against the hazard. In this case, the individual requirements for a specific project then need to be evaluated. The following Table of check-list might be useful when selecting an alternative.
Challenges of post halon era

Clearly, with the phasing-out of halon, hence there will be many alternative solution to a specific fire problems. Since there will be no a single solution to any fire protection to a specific hazards, several new approachs and methods on fire safety can be justified with the ultimate goal is ensuring reliability and cost effective. The impact on the design concept of fire safety caused by no more halons will form the following features: a. The importance of hazard and risk analysis and assessment b. The need of more sensitive fire detection and suppression systems c. Passive fire protection systems will be more appreciated d. The significant of performance-based method in fire safety design e. Firesafety management will be an important element in reducing fire incidents and minimiz-
Selection methods
There is a strong need to develop system selection taking into account several items e.g fire extinguishing effectiveness, installation and space requirements, the impact to the equipment, probable disturbance to the occupants, environmental acceptance, and finally cost.
Table-3 Selecting an alternative for halon

FIRE FIGHTING EFFECTIVENESS Speed of fire suppression Suitability for the fire hazard Post fire hold time Ability to permeate Risk of re-ignition INSTALLATION ISSUES Floor space/weight Pipework Ease of maintenance Time to re-instate system Installed cost Refill cost Availability of extinguishant SUITABILITY OF ROOM FOR GASEOUS SYSTEM Capability of room to hold gas Desirability of room integrity test Need to seal leak paths DISCHARGE DAMAGE ON EQUIPMENT Clean up Water damage Decomposition products and corrosion Condensation Thermal shock HAZARDS FOR OCCUPANTS Toxicity Noise level Pressurisation Visibility Inhalation Safety with live electrical equipment Thermal decomposition products ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY Ozone depletion Global warming Atmospheric life time
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ing fire damage, once it occurs
CONCLUDING REMARKS
(1) Following the ratification of Vienna Convention for ozone layer protection and Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer through Presidential Decree no 23/1992, Indonesia consistenly implement the ODS phase out through setting-up country program, CP in 1994 and its updated version in 2000, which set the ODS phase-out up to December 2007. (2) Due to its ODP which is higer than other ODS, import of halon was prohibited up to December 1996, however the existing remaining halon shall be properly managed especially to provide halons or recycled halon for the essential or critical users. (3) In refer to items (2), Indonesia Halon Bank (IHB) was established in 2000 and officially start operating in 2002 which the main tasks are to physically facilitate for recycling, recovery and reclaiming of halons, to be as a conduit for the sale of halons particularly for critical users and to identify and record existing halon stocks. A standard polycy and guidelines for IHB operation has been set-up in 2004 and national halon mapping has been completed this year. (4) Alternatives for halons are actually available ranging from chemical substitutes / halocarbon agents, CO2 systems, inert gases, new technique on water based systems, dry chemicals, and dry powder depending upon the type of fire protection systems (either for fixed fire protection systems or portable ones) (5) Although some chemical halon substitutes have been made available, consideration must be done upon the physical properties, ODP, GWP, toxicity, space condition, hazards to human exposure as well as some economic aspects. (6) In facing post halon era, consideration to implement passive fire protection and fire safety management is increased. The development of passive safety concept and the application of fire safety management may also substantially beneficial, even when suitable halon replacement agents are not yet availabe. (7) The phasing-out of halon extinguishing agents related to environmental impacts, has actually
led to the improvement of the understanding of fire protection needs, the development of fire risk and assessment methods, and more appreciation to passive fire protection and fire safety management.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wish to thank Ir. Sulistyowati, MM, the Assistant Deputy for Control and Management of Climate Change Impact, Ministry of Environment and Dr. Wilman Radjiman, Project Manager of IHB for supplying the information regarding proposed regulation on halon management and the standard operating procedures of IHB that enable the author to complete the paper to be presented on International Seminar on Eco Settlements held in Bali, 1316th November, 2006.
REFERENCES
B.J Meacham and R.L.P Custer (1995), Performancebased Fire Safety Engineering : An Introduction of Basic Concepts, Journal of Fire Protection Engineering, Vol 7 no 2, 1995, pp 35-54. Hughes Associates, Inc and IEF Consulting (2004), Review of the Transition Away from Halons in US Civil Aviation Applications, September 2004 Indonesia Halon Bank (2004), Standard Policy and Guidelines Concerning the Operational Mechanism of Halon Banking System in Indonesia, March, 2004 National Fire Protection Association, NFPA (2000), NFPA-2001, Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing Systems, Batterymarch Park, USA State Ministry for Environment, the Government of Indonesia (1994), Indonesia Country Programme For the Phase-out of Ozone Depleting Substances Under the Montreal Protocol, March 1994. State Ministry for Environment, the Government of Indonesia (2000), Indonesia Country Programme Update, December 2000. State Ministry of Environment (2003), The Compilation of Government Regulations concerning Ozone Layer Protection and the Phasing-out of Ozone Depleting Substances, May 2003. Suprapto (2003), The Establishment of National Halon Banking System in Indonesia, Seminar on Halon Phase-out Programmes and the Implementation, Bandung, 26-28 February, 2003.
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Suprapto (2004), Alternative Agents and Technology to Halons for Fire Protection, Workshop on the Operational procedures for Halon Bank, Jakarta, 1 st, January 2004. Suprapto (2006), Problems encountered in halon mapping activities, Workshop on Halon Mapping and Management, Bidakara Hotel, Jakarta 27th October 2006. Sulistyowati, Ir, MM (2006), Policy on Halon Management, Workshop on Halon Mapping and Management, Bidakara Hotel, Jakarta, 27th October 2006. United Nations Environmental Programs (UNEP), Division of Tedchnology, Industry and Economics (2001), Eliminating Dependency on Halons, Ozone Action Programs, 39-43, quai Andre Citoen, Paris, Cedex 15, France United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Ministry of Environment (2003), The Success of Indonesia in Implementing Ozone Layer Protection Programmes, 1992 2002, Jakarta, 16th September 2003. Wickham, Robert T, PE (2002), Status of Industri Efforts to Replace Halon Fire Extinguishing Agents, Wickham Associates, March 16, 2002 Wilman Radjiman (2005), The Indonesia Halon Bank, Its Facilities and Supporting Equipment, Workshop on ODS Phase-out within the Navy, Cilangkap, Jakarta, 1st March 2005. Zhigang Liu and Andrew K. Kim (2000), A Review of Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems - Fundamental Studies, Journal of Fire Protection Engineering, Vol 10, no 3, 2000, pp 32 50. NOTE This paper was presented in International Seminar on Tropical Eco-Settlements, Bali Indonesia, 14-16th November 2006.
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60
DETECTING RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE USING ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING PERFORMANCE ON COASTAL AREAS
Wahyu Wuryanti Research and Development Centre for Human Settlements, Ministry of Public Works Jl. Panyaungan, Cileunyi Wetan, Kab. Bandung, Bandung 40393, Indonesia Telephone: 62-22-7798393, Fax: 62-22-7798392 Email- address: wuryanti@bdg.centrin.net.id
ABSTRACT
The design building have been made on the assumption that climate is relative stable. On the other hand, wide scientists considerations indicate that our climate is already changing and it will continue to change throughout this century. The destructive degree due to the impact of climate change could vary from place to place depending on capacity environment itself. If the destructive impacts faster than the ability of the natural system, it will become the serious environmental problem that has to face in the future ecosystem. Buildings and settlements are expected directly to be exposed to climate change. While the impact changes of heat, wind, rainfall can accelerate building fatigue, it will affect many of our assets. On the wetland region such as at riverside and coastal areas has indicated those areas has sensitive directly effect of flooding. To minimize the impact of climate change and to establish a well disaster management, assessing loss damage building in flood prone areas is important research and challenge for successful mitigation method. This paper describes assessment deterioration of structural building performance. It is an important challenge within framework of service life prediction of durability of building. Since water is often a major factor damage or decay in building, this study is appropriate to assist mitigation techniques through building code requirements. At the present time, there are not yet available a technical procedure to perform a loss estimation building in flood environment. However, this study attempts to quantify the loss physical building using technical procedure for Inspection of building reliability. Keywords : climate change, flood prone area, building performance
INTRODUCTION
Whereas climate changes has been recognized as important challenge since at least 1989 related to prevention global climate for future human being, Indonesia government legalized Regulation no. 6 year 1994 about authorization United Nation Framework Convention On Climate Change. This scenario becomes the interests of local authorities to act now to find sustainable solutions that follow climate change. Science is not yet able to tell us when we will face the realm of dangerous climate effect must necessarily involve to scientific considerations. However, here is now broad agreement that climate change is occurring (Fig. 1) with some uncertainty about the grade and speed of the changes. The climate change will affect many of our services, assets and infrastructures. Therefore
infrastructure, building and services need to be designed to meet the risk. Climate change makes this particularly important for policy makers, service planner, designer and engineer because historic climate variability will no longer be a good guide for future climate. In term of indirect effect from climate change such as sea level rise, soil moisture changes, change in land and water condition, and changes in the frequency of fire. Changing water elevations and storms modify our living environment. These physical processes make the vulnerable areas such as at riverside areas and coastal areas have highly dynamic. Assessment of the performance of the building exposed to harmful environments is an important challenge within framework of service life prediction of durability of building. For estimating loss on building to environmental effects of disaster
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In the past human history, climate considerations are very important in building and urban design. Ancient people understood and realized the significance of climate responsive design that would harmonize with the nature. Nowadays, building development and construction are often planned and implemented with little concern for long-term sustainability and harmony with natural climatic forces (Juwana, 2005). When still expecting the existing building and infrastructure to be still in next 50 years comfortable during wet/dry season, the problem can be minimized through proactive adaptation. Figure 1: Global Temperature change
METHODOLOGY
Sources data is collected from 7 (seven) coastal cities i.e; Jakarta, Semarang, Surabaya, Denpasar Mataram, Banjarmasin and Makassar. The detailed data of assessment deterioration building recorded to physical performances of 84 (eighty four) houses cases or 12 (twelve) houses in each city. There are several issues that influence to the data quality, such as vary depending on the skill level engineer, detailing component structure that should be evaluated to quantify the degree of building reliability, limited tool measurement or inspection and need longer time for inspection a house. Investigation field data has been done by team of Research Center Human Settlements during study research of The Impact Sea Level Rise on Coastal Cities in 2002 till 2004. The examination of building performance has been used a visual inspection for the methodology approach. Figure 2: Research Flowchart
(Source: The Allen Consulting Group, 2005) This paper will discuss about assessment of building performance as affect of flood or inundation on riverside and coastal areas. The assessment technique will attempt by implementing Technical Procedure for Inspection of Building Reliability, Cipta Karya 1998 with some modification by researcher. The aim of this study is to estimate loss of houses as the effect of flood. At the present time, in Indonesia there not yet available a technical procedure for loss estimation on the existing building stock due to flood affects. Since a tool that enables one to identify and quantify the loss estimation building is inadequate, will difficult for designers to cope better with the effect of natural disaster. However, the details of loss assessment depend on the availability of quantitative and qualitative information in the region affected.
In term of assessing method, this study will analyze to two aspects only, architecture and structure aspect, although the utility aspects may have a significant score. To facilitate in analyzing has been done some modification in classifying building component and four categories of level damages. In examining loss measurement is developed through following steps: (1) Definition of the territory of interest
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(2) Division of territory into appropriate zones (3) Degree of each damage category: (light damage, moderate damage and heavy damage) for each aspect (architecture and structure) (4) Scoring of each damage category (5) Scoring functional component into each aspect housing (6) Definition of building type However this methodology still has some limitation such as a) This calculation ignores environmental differences in construction practices (which is very significant) between zones. Some of these differences may result in the type of improvement and adoption of stronger codes. b) This calculation ignores the random nature c) This methodology ignores what any adaptation of the houses that has been previously done by the inhabitants. However, in quantifying building performance has to determine a tool or technique. The determination base on weight assessment for each condition and degree function of each component for a building function.
river flow can be transformed into mudflows from mudslides and debris flows from mountain upstream of the river. Localized flood affect only a limited area. They result from relatively short intense burst of rainfall. They result in high runoff, and are a serious problem in urban areas, where drainage systems are inadequate or insufficient. Coastal flood occur when storm surges or sea wave rise suddenly along with high tides, causing seawater to surge inland.
ASSESSING CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOOD SITUATIONS

Flood is defined as A relatively high flow or stage n a river, markedly higher than usual, also the inundation of low land which may result there form. Flood is often the result of interactions among various factors, natural vulnerability that may be triggered by man-made activities. Low-lying areas adjacent to river or coastal areas are vulnerable to floods. Floods may be caused as result of natural occurrences and due to the man-made activities. Based on Partnership for Disaster Reduction SEA, 2001 reported that flood type could be classified as Slow-onset flood area seasonal in most river system, and depend on rainfall intensities in upstream areas Flash flood (also know as rapid-onset floods) occur in mountain headwater areas of large river, as well as in the river draining to the coast. These rivers are steeper and drain more quickly. The
When assessing loss building due to flood, consideration must be given to the characteristic of flooding that effect the building. 1. Flooding characteristics a) Flood depth A building is susceptible to floods various depths. The depth of flooding affecting a structure can be calculated by determining the height of the flood above ground elevation at the site of the structure. If a building is subject to flooding depths greater than three feet (60 cm) may cause hydrostatics forces high enough to render structural damage or cause wall collapse. b) Flood velocity The speed, at which flood waters move, the flood flow velocity, is normally expressed in terms of feet per second (fps). As floodwater velocity increases, hydrodynamic forces are added to the hydrostatic forces from the depth of still water, significantly increasing the possibility of building failure. Greater velocities can quickly erode or scour the soil surrounding buildings. These fast-moving waters can also result in structural failure by erosion and their impact may move a building from its foundation. When floodwater velocities exceed three fps become difficult, if not impossible, for adults to maintain their balance while walking through flooded area. c) Flash flood In areas of steep topography and/or a small drainage area, floodwaters can rise very quickly with little or no warning. This condition is known as flash flooding. In a flash flooding situation, damage usually begins to occur within one hour after significant rainfall.
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2. Site characteristics a) Site location Coastal flooding is normally caused by large storms such as hurricanes that cause abnormally high tides. River flooding results from heavy or prolonged rainfall or combined runoff from the drainage area. As rain falls portions of this water will soak into the ground, collect in local depressions, or evaporate. Under certain conditions, such as rainfall of high intensity or long duration, the amount of runoff will result in water depths that exceed the normal capacity of the stream, river, or lake causing flooding that may damage property. b) Soil type Permeable soils, such as sand, are those that allow ground water to flow freely. If a building is located on permeable soil, will have seepage problems with concrete slabs will experience uplift. Other problems with soil that is saturated with flood waters also need to be considered. If a building located on unconsolidated soil, wetting of the soil may cause differential settlement. The building may then be damaged by inadequate support and pulling against floors. Thus, serious damage can occur even though floodwaters do not enter the structures. 3. Building characteristics a) Building construction Some types of building are constructed on the construction material such as reinforce concrete, brick or wood frame. Combination of these materials may be used in the construction of a single building. The appropriate flood proofing will depend on the type of construction such as the number of floor, basement and system foundation b) Building condition Building condition may not be easy to evaluate as many structural defect s are not ready apparent. However, careful inspection of the property has to be provided for classification.
encourage mold growth, which discolor surfaces, lead to odor problem, deteriorates building materials and may cause allergic reaction and other health problems in susceptible individuals. In general the deterioration of houses that located with water elevation problem whether caused by leak or water penetration is water present in walls due to capillary rise and/or rain penetration. Decreasing durability and long-term performance of the housing stock will faced as resulting from moisture problem. Basically the functions and performance of structure degrades during their service life. Its functions and performance gradually degrades as result external forces and physical factors. Some of the more serious effect resulting from moisture problem: Decay of wood and corrosion of metals Infestation by termites and other insects Negative impacts on indoor air quality The growth of mold, mildew and other biological contaminants Reduced strength in building materials Premature failure of paints and coatings Damage to building contents Negative effects on building aesthetics Following building components is recommended for inspection to determine the deterioration building. A. Base Floor Crack along the ground are normally due to ground settlement or movement and indicate a possible failure in the floor slab. Some common causes of cracks are: (1) Inadequate drying-out of the floor slab causing an in-equilibrium in the moisture content (2) Lack of proper mixing of the aggregates resulting in the expansion and contraction of the floor slab Water penetration, a major cause of failure at building performance, often occurs at the junctions of the wall and the floor where there is a break or perforation of the finishing floor. In the areas where the water table is high, rising damp may result in the following: the loss of adhesion of wall/floor finishes to the backing aggregate/screed
ASSESSING CHARACTERISTIC OF DETERIORATION BUILDING PERFOMANCE

Flooding in our home has consequences. Material submerged in flood water can decay, swell and warp. Electrical equipment and components can become damaged and may cause fires or electrical shock if not replaced after flood. Wet surfaces
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cracking of the floor finishes due to moisture

movement of the screed the cracking of the plaster wall finish and the growth of algae, lichens and mosses on the wall/floor finishes
where: Ctotal = total loss function of physical building F = weight function of component building D = scale of damage Based on function of a building, there are three main function, structure function, architecture and utility function. Focusing to assess building performance the study, in depth exploration and analysis was carried out to determine loss function of house. Therefore, damage observation must classify base on weight assessment based on function each component of a building. The weight of function component can be figured out as Table 1. Table 1. Weight Function for Each Component a Building
Weight function % 15 15 14 15 14 10 17 100 25 20 20 15 5 15 100
Source: Processed based on Technical Procedure Cipta Karya, 1998
B. The Doors and Windows Many factors such as poor, moisture, vandalism, insect attack and lack of maintenance can contribute to the deterioration of these elements. (1) Moisture, it is general the primary contributing factor in timber decay. For inspection of these elements should check for water entering around the edges of the frames. (2) Besides water penetration, each element decayed by low quality of construction itself. (3) The deterioration process will continue due to insects attack or fungi C. Timber floor Timber floor usually deteriorated badly due to termite infestation, water penetration and fungal attack. Severe deterioration is usually apparent on visual inspection and by knocking. D. Walls Visual inspection of the existing wall structure should be done to determine the structure stability of the element. Crack on the walls usually due to weathering or structural settlement, require proper treatment and repair. Crack on the walls would indicate the extent of decay and structural damage. There are basically two type of cracks stabilized crack which require stitching of the walls and live cracks which require strengthening of ground Organic growth caused by water penetration and the humid environment Deterioration due to algae and lichen growths Severe tilting would suggest structural instability of the walls.
Aspects
Component Appropriate function Flooring Plaster floor Finishing wall Plaster wall Door and windows Ceiling Foundation Column Beam Beam column joint Roof frame Secondary component (canopy, stair, etc)
Remark
Architecture (exterior features)
Structure
Weight function based on system reinforced concrete rigid frame structure and masonry
In quantifying the assessment of remained of building function use score for each classification of damage. Ranking of each category damage assumed as following table. Table 2. Ranking Based On Categorize Of The Building Reliability
Level Reliability Full reliable less reliable unreliable Architecture function 95% -100% 75 % - 95 % Less than 75% Structure function 95% -100% 80 % - 95 % Less than 85%
ASSESSMENT QUANTIFYING BUILDING PERFORMANCE

In addressing to quantify building performance use following equation:
C total = (Fi x D i )
Source: Technical Procedure Cipta Karya, 1998
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According to the ranking of reliability of building, require to define level damage to assist inspector in determining building condition. Therefore, three classifications are decided to categorize the damage i.e no damage up to light damage that is categorized as one class, moderate damage and heavy damage. By adapting the category of the building reliability, the weight assessment for three damage category is used as Table 3. Table 3. Ranking Based On Categorize Damage
Level damage Light damage or less Moderate damage Heavy damage
Source: Research analysis
architecture and structure aspect as Table 4a and 4b.
FACT FINDING AND DISCUSSION

In term of assessment of building performance during collecting field data survey, there were some constrains that may influence quality of the data, such as :
Time limitation in surveying respondents houses Not all building components can be visually
investigated such as ceiling frame, beam, joint column-beam and foundation. It is because those components have been covered by other material Looking of the fact that the respondents has repaired and/or replaced the damaged components Looking of the information that each respondent use various materials in one component structure that may create difficulty in classifying the damage
Scale reduce function 10% 25 % 50%
The deterioration level and function score has to be determined. This figure implies that when the damage score is more than 50% the building is nearly collapse and no more safety to be occupied. The technique visual inspection base on following description for each component related to
Although this study focuses on the only of physical measurement of houses, the characteristic of each site have contributed into the analysis result. Some variables, which may have significantly
Table 4a. Description Of Each Category Damage For Architecture Aspect

Components Suitable function Finishing floor Plaster floor Wall covering No damage well function no crack no crack no crack Light damage n.a ratio floor area get hair cracks less than 50% ratio floor area get hair cracks less than 50% gloomy color, ratio wall area get spill out less than 10% ratio wall area get spill out less than 10% number components in good condition and well function less than 50% imperforated gloomy color Moderate damage n.a ratio floor area get hair cracks more than 50% ratio floor area get hair cracks more than 50% ratio wall area get spill out more than 10% ratio wall area get spill out more than 10% number components in good condition and well function more than 50% no flat leveling ratio floor area get spill out less than 10% Heavy damage not suitable split, break crack, split, break get spill out totally get spill out totally bad condition and no well function Perforated, failure ratio floor area get spill out more than 10%
Plaster wall Doors and windows
no crack good condition and well function good good
Ceiling Finishing floor
Source : Resumed from Indonesia code
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Table 4b. Description Of Each Category Damage For Structure Aspect

Components Foundation No damage Good condition, firm and rigid Good condition, firm and rigid Good condition, firm, stable and rigid Good condition, firm, stable and rigid Good condition, firm, stable and rigid Good condition, firm, stable and rigid Light damage Firm, little rigid, no bending indication Firm, get hair crack on surface, no bending indication Firm, get hair crack on surface Firm, get hair crack partly Firm, get hair crack on surface Firm, get hair crack on surface Moderate damage Firm, little rigid, get different settlement Firm, get hair crack on surface, no bending indication on upper floor Firm, get hair crack clearly, get deflection less than 1/250 beam span Firm, crack clearly Heavy damage Unstable, crack, broken, get settlement Concrete cover get destroy, occur clear bending get hair crack clearly, get deflection more than 1/250 length Crack totally, broken get hair crack clearly, get deflection more than 1/250 length get hair crack clearly, get deflection more than 1/250 length
Column
Beam
Joint columnbeam Roof frame
Secondary components
Firm, get hair crack clearly, get deflection less than 1/250 length Firm, get hair crack clearly, get deflection less than 1/250 length
Source : Resumed from Indonesia code
Table 5. Condition Of Selected Area In Each City

Banjarmasin
Semarang
Denpasar
Makassar
City
District
Kuin Utara 16
Serangan 7
Panjaringan 39
Canbaya
Ampenan 30
Tanjung Mas 16
Unit Houses intensity (Unit/Ha) Areas (Ha) Height inundation (cm) Duration inundation (days) Number type houses Frequencie s inundation (time /year)
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Medokan Ayu and Kali Rungkut 19
74 10 50 less than a day 12 units PH 7 - 12
101 10 50 less than a day 12 units LH 3
396 40 100 a day to 3 days 12 units LH 3
53.3 25 40 less than a day 3 units LH and 6 units PH 6
100.5 10 - 100 less than a day 12 units LH 1- 3
323.8 Up to 50 a day 12 units LH 80
258 30 70 up to 3 days 12 units LH 7 - 12
Note: PH = platform house LH = landed house
Sources: Field Survey Analysis In The Impact Sea Level Rise report 2002
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Surabaya
Mataram
Jakarta
contribution while ignored the analysis are: Quality of construction Age of construction
Construction type Soil type Perceived ability of the design to resist to the
flooding
Following table show the finding of the characteristic of site location for each coastal city. The characteristics of physical houses condition that is resumed from seven cities are;
Building component Building type Building construction Foundations Existing houses condition The location is dominated by single landed houses. Several units as platform houses found in two cities, i.e Banjarmasin and Makassar Most building is classified into permanent building with masonry brick wall and small concrete column. In some of those, wooden frame covered by bamboo mat or/and plywood or wooden frame with brick masonry is used. Several is constructed by traditional technique as found in Banjarmasin This component can not be observed directly in field. Regarding to the result of interview this construction used stone shallow foundation. Although wet or flooded foundation will be a continuous source of moisture, in physically this components were still good condition and may not require special attention during the aftermath of a flood. Main frame building used three type constructions i.e reinforce concrete, masonry and timber frame. A main frame may not have been destroyed by flood water, but wood frame can still damaged by humidity. In field at survey time this deterioration was not find neither reinforced concrete frame, masonry, nor wood frame. This component usually was covered by ceramic, tile or plaster. Several units have without flooring. Most floor covering will not survive a flood and that why some inhabitants have probably been replaced. In field survey, the deterioration can be classified from light damage to heavy damage. Although a good floor finish helps by preventing the water from penetrating the surface the surface from above, the underside of the floor allows water to penetrate from below and cause swelling and damage. Brick wall dominated their construction units. Several units still used timber wall. In most houses use brick wall for the exterior covered by plaster. Plaster can regain its strength when flood water finish, but the wall become very fragile if it stays wet for a long time. Assessment the existing wall condition showed light up to heavy damage. Some showed no damage. Majority the existing door used plywood. Several rooms only hang up a piece of curtain for covering. Only the exterior door especially entrance door used plywood. Door and window frame usually made from wood. Door and windows may not have touched by floodwater, but its can still damaged by humidity. Existing units majority has no damage condition, although some need to improve their performance. Not all houses used ceiling. Majority the ceiling material used asbestos and plywood. Actually may effect indirectly from flood. The damage may because by ceiling construction swelled or pull away from the framing.
Main frame construction
Floor and flooring
Walls
Door and windows
Ceiling
The fact finding of number houses for each condition in percentage of total cased house (84 units) is shown as following. Table 6. Observation Result Based on Each Aspect And Each Component
ASPECT Architecture COMPONENT Finishing floor Plaster floor Wall covering Plaster wall Doors and windows Ceiling Foundation Beam Column Joint column-beam Roof frame Percentage of Number House Good Up Till Moderate Heavy Light Damage Damage Damage 62% 23% 15% 65% 20% 14% 56% 30% 14% 64% 25% 11% 69% 24% 7% 46% 15% 38% 79% 20% 1% 74% 23% 4% 74% 20% 6% 76% 20% 4% 80% 17% 4%
Structure
Source: Analysis Result
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Following the figure will easier to compare the level damage for each component and each aspect.
80%
90%
70%
80%
70%
60%
60%
50%
50%
40%
40%
30%
30%
20%
20%
10%
10%
0% Flooring Plaster Floor Wall Covering LD Plaster Wall MD Doors and windows HD Ceilling
0% 1 2 LD MD 3 HD 4 5
Architecture Condition
Structure Building Condition
Figure 3. Fact Finding Of Level Deterioration Of Building Performance Of Each Component Calculation result in quantifying loss function related to structure and architecture aspect is figured out in table 7. Table 7. Loss Function A House In Average Pracentage
City Banjarmasin Denpasar Jakarta Makassar Mataram Surabaya Semarang Average Loss of Average Loss of Structural function Architecture function 1.85 0.49 0.00 0.48 7.17 24.98 8.81 18.98 10.46 25.56 1.85 14.25 15.73 26.50 Source: Analysis Result
The detail of loss estimation can be seen in figure below.
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Precentage Loss Function For Each Aspect
25
20
15
10
Banjarmasin
Denpasar
Jakarta
Makassar
Mataram
Surabaya
Semarang
Structure
Architecture
Figure 4. Percentage Loss Function For Each Aspects
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According to the above finding indicates the greatest loss function is in architecture aspect. This result approve that the damage or decay building due to flood is long-term impact to the building condition. Most exterior features of building such as plaster wall and floor are affected easily of moistures problem. However, the percentage of losses is only less than 25% for architecture function and less than 15% for structural functions. Base on percentage number losses in both aspects, those houses are still fully reliable in structural aspect and fairly reliable in architecture function. This result is still difficult to figure out the relevance of harmful environment condition affect to building performance. Early assumption is that the loss assets should be enhanced if the height and the frequency of inundation increase. The worst condition occurs in Jakarta and Mataram where inundation reaches nearly 100 cm in height with its duration up to 12 hours, while the greatest lost of function occurs in both cities added Semarang. Tle loss assets in Semarang are more influenced by geology characteristic and soil type. Rob condition in Semarang in which the buildings will always settle year by year.
REFERENCES
Dirjen Cipta Karya, 1998 Petunjuk Teknis Tata Cara Pemeriksaan Keandalan Bangunan Gedung , Departemen Pekerjaan Umum, Dirjen Cipta Karya, Mei 1998 Juwana, Jimmy S, 2005, Panduan Sistem Bangunan Tinggi Untuk Arsitek Dan Praktisi Bangunan, PT. Erlangga, Jakarta Puslitbang Permukiman, 2002, Final Report Loss Measurement of Houses on Physical and SocioEconomical Aspect Juni 2002 , Kobayashi, Hideyuki and Kurdi, Zubaidah, 2004, Impact Of Sea Level Rising On Coastal Cities Case Studied In Indonesia, National Institute For Land And Infrastructure Management , Ministry Of Land Infrastructure And Transport, Japan, August 2004 The Allen Consulting Group, 2005, Climate Change Risk and vulnerability, Promoting an efficient adaptation Response in Australia, http://www. NMS Arambepola, 2001, What People Need For Know About Floods Partnership for Disaster Reduc, tion-SEA news, P.16, Edition October-Desember 2001 Wuryanti, Wahyu, 2002, Indentifikasi Kerugian Bangunan Rumah Di Pantai Akibat Kenaikan Muka Air Laut Proceeding Seminar Kerugian , Pada Bangunan dan Kawasan Akibat Kenaikan Muka Air Laut Pada Kota-Kota Pantai Di Indonesia, Maret 2002, Bandung Wuryanti, Wahyu; Utami, Titi, Kuswara, Pengukuran Kerugian Bangunan Rumah Akibat Kenaikan Muka Air Laut Di Surabaya, Research Center of Human Settlements, Poster paper 2002 US Army Crops Of Engineers, National Flood Proofing Committee, 1993, Flood Proofing, How to evaluate your options, http:// www.usace.army.mil/cw/cecw-p/NFPC/fphow/ ace8-06, July 1993
CONCLUSION
Implementation the assessment model base on quantity concept has more advantages compare to the qualitative approach. The main advantage is possibility to decide objectively which the overprotected and the under-protected areas. The approach is explored by a clear procedure, such as measurement of damage building, determination the quantity deterioration condition, and decision scale condition of the building performance. In order to obtain more accurate the result assessment building performance, the method and technical procedure should be developed for anticipating the future dynamic of response of climate change on coastal areas particularly. Based upon objective estimation quantification of disaster can lead to better disaster management practices in accordance with sustainable development.
NOTE
This paper was presented in International Seminar on Tropical Eco-Settlements, Bali Indonesia, 14-16th November 2006.
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IDENTIFYING ASPECTS IN PLANNING AND DESIGN OF HOUSING AND SETTLEMENTS TO MITIGATE MACRO CLIMATE CHANGE REGARDING CO2 EMISSION
Siti Zubaidah Kurdi Research and Development Centre for Human Settlements, Ministry of Public Works Jl. Panyaungan, Cileunyi Wetan, Kab. Bandung, Bandung 40393, Indonesia Telephone: 62-22-7798393, Fax: 62-22-7798392 zkurdi@bdg.centrin.net.id
ABSTRACT
The increase of Green House Gasses (GHGs) has trapped more heat in the atmosphere that leads to global warming. The rise of the earth temperature that generates enormous various harms to the human being and the environment has become the political world issue. Agreement has been made among countries through the Kyoto Protocol in December 1997 that on 2012 the emission of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) should be reduced about 5.2% from 1990. Carbon dioxide, one of the GHG, is very much predicted to contribute on warming the earth. Sibarani (2002) mentioned that CO2 contributes about 50% of the total GHGs whilst in Indonesia in 1990 it contributes 59.1%. Commercial and domestic activities on the other hand contribute about 18% (Seo and Hwang, 2001). The CO2 emission in normal level is beneficial to protect the living on earth, however on large amount it becomes hazard. A city or a living area is an ecosystem where the spatial functions of ecology, social and economy interact. Sustainability has been a current global agenda for developing cities of which any construction should be concerned to the better living environment. As a man made structure, the development of urban settlements may be supposed to influence the living condition in term of decreasing CO2 emission level. The combustion of fossils fuels and deforestation are the main source of this non toxic gas. Transportation is an activity that directly produce CO2 on the location, while it is indirectly produced from activities such domestic, building materials provision as the source is on the other location. On the other hand, forest-including greeneries and sea-including pond and water surface, are the two factors that absorb the CO2. Intend to save the earth, alertness contribution from each individual is highly expected. Providing view and opinion regarding urban settlements could be benefit to sustainable cities. Keywords : global warming, sustainable, urban settlements, CO2 emission PHENOMENON OF GREENHOUSE GASES The earth absorbs radiation from the sun including ultraviolet and other rays. This energy is re-radiated to the space after warming the atmosphere, land and ocean at longer wavelengths as infrared rays. The present of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere is a naturally occurring phenomenon. The GHGs content water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and other gases. These gases absorb more thermal radiation and trap some of the outgoing energy. After repeated absorption, this absorbed energy is then re-radiated to the space. Energy from the sun drives the earths weather and climate, and heats the earths surface; in turn, the earth radiates energy back into space. This natural process brings about comfortable temperature as known today. Before the Industrial Revolution, human activity released very few natural gases into the atmosphere, but now population growth, fossil fuel burning, and deforestation affect the mixture of gases in the atmosphere. Certain human activities resulting non-naturally gases have been claimed to add the levels of these naturally occurring gases. The change activities during and after industrial era brought about enormous amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission due to fossil fuels burning. A variety of industrial processes has generated the very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring include hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). Moreover, the proliferation of land conservation of agricultural practices during the industrial revolution had altered the climate and environment.
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Drastically increase the concentration of naturally and not naturally occurring gases in the space disturbs the equilibrium of the nature that alter atmospheric and ocean temperature and circulation and weather pattern. On further phenomenon called greenhouse effect more heat is reflected to the earth , surface that increases the earth temperature. Global warming and climate change are general term of these changes. The figure 1 describes the illustration of greenhouse gases phenomenon.
Table 1. The effect of anthropogenic and nature to GHGs

Anthropogenic GHGs Fossils fuels burning Land conservation Natural GHGs Internal External Sun energy Interaction between ocean and Mountain atmosphere Explosion
Source: Sepuluh Tahun Perjalanan Konvensi Perubahan Iklim, 2003
Sun
Partly
Atmospheric
Partly Earth Surface
Green House
Source: Udara Perkotaan Dalam Pembangunan Kota yang Berkelanjutan,
Figure 1. The illustration of greenhouse gases Acceleration of the rate of climate change is inevitable. Consequently, evaporation will be multiplied and average global precipitation will also increase. Soil moisture is likely to decline in many regions, and intense rainstorms are likely to become more frequent. Global warming brings about varying temperature from one place to another that could become warmer while other places become colder. Carbon dioxide derives from imperfect combustion when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and wood and wood products are burned. But the large amount of CO2 comes from vehicles or other anthropogenic. According to G. Tyler Miller on Tamim (2005), carbon dioxide is classified as one of 9 important pollutants other than sulfur oxide, nitrogen dioxide, volatile organic compounds, suspended particulate matter, photochemical oxidant, radioactive, high heat and sound. The CO2 emission in normal level is beneficial to protect the living on earth, however on large amount it becomes hazard. Sibarani (2002) mentioned that CO2 contributes about 50% of the total GHG. The extent of anthropogenic contribution to the global condition is described in Table 1.
Changing regional climate could alter forests, crop yields, and water supplies. It could also affect human health, animals, and many types of ecosystems. Climate changes occurred naturally, however, the drastic changes generate disasters. As examples: in 2000 in Indonesia occurred 33 flooding, forest burning, 6 times of storm and 690 people die resulting the total lost 150 billion US dollar; in the whole world total lost reached 300 billion US dollar per year (Kompas, 28 Mart 2001). Seemingly, action is occurring at every level to reduce, to avoid, and to better understand the risks associated with climate change. One of the important actions was the Kyoto Protocol meeting on December 1997. This is the Earth Summit declaration to encourage developed countries to reduce pollutants that contribute global climate change, or to retain gases emission mainly CO2 in secure level. An agreement had been reached among big countries to trim down the global Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emission about 5.2% in 2012 referring to 1990 condition. Referring to the news, United State of America, Australia, China and India are 4 countries that most discharge CO2 emission into the atmosphere. Based on the agreement of UNFCCC (United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change) Indonesias concern is finding out alternative technologies in the sector of energy sources (Tribuana, 1998). In the housing sector, planning and designing are most likely to play important role to the environmental betterment of cities. Regarding the population growth of most Indonesian big cities is high mainly due to urbanization, and then providing good housing and settlements in urban areas regarding efficiency of energy usage will be benefit to pollution reduction. Essentially, actions are to save the globe through the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and think locally act globally.
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This paper describes identification aspects of urban housing and settlements to contribute the idea of conservation the earth. Providing criteria and design concept based on low CO2 emission is considered to be positively support the mission of energy saving.
CO2 SOURCES AND SINKS

Discharge and absorption of CO2 can be illustrated as the correlation between taps and sinks Sink of CO2 is an element to partly or totally . absorb GHGs emission i.e. sea, coral reef and forest. Tap is source of gases. The balance will be reach when the water debit from the taps similar with the volume of sinks to discharge all waste water. Problems appear when water is excess in the sinks. This could be of two possibilities, the water debit is too big and/or the capacity of the sink to flow the water is too small (ALGAS, 1997). Research done by PPLHITB about five sources of GHGs - energy, industry process, farming, land use, forestry and waste indicates that in Indonesia the biggest source of CO2 emission is energy and transport followed by forestry and land use. The total emission is mention in Table 2. Table 2. Total Emission of GHGs
GHGs Emission Equivalent CO2 (Gg) 315,290.19 303,829.95 99,515.24 17,900.50 6,039.39 742,575.26 Percentage of Total GHGs Emission (%) 42.5 40.9 13.4 2.4 0.8 100.0
Sector Forestry & Land Use Energy & Transport Farming Process of Industry Waste Total
Source: ALGAS National Workshop Proceedings, Mart 1997
Some habitat disappearance, El Nino and La Nina are some effects of the uncertainty climate change. Beside the GHGs burning, the main source of CO2 emission increasing earth temperature are husbandry, farming, forestry and land-use transformation, industrial production and mining. Conversion of land having ecological function such as forest, lake, coast, green areas often disturb the micro climate equilibrium that reduce the carrying
capacity of land and further leads to land degradation. Most of the carbon emissions of developing countries come from deforestation contributing about 20 percent of global carbon emissions, while transportation contributes a significant share of emissions that about 80% (Tamim, 2005, p.11). Sibarani (2002) mentioned that CO2 contributes about 50% of the total GHG whilst in Indonesia in 1990 it contributes 59.1%. According to The Third Assessment Report of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), human being activities increase global temperature that during the current age it enhances about 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degree (Prasetyo, 2003). Emissions vary based on the country in which people live. Several factors can affect the emissions per person are the types of fuel used to generate electricity, population and vehicle miles traveled (people tend to drive longer distances in sparsely populated areas), and whether fossil fuels are extracted or processed within the country. Forest, greenery and surface water, however, are the earths components that behave as CO2 sinks. Forest controls the CO2 emission through the process of Sequestration that leads to generate the Carbon Credit It is basically an idea of encouragement to . use more woods, as renewable materials, rather than those non renewable materials including fossil fuels. While one who travel by plane and/or vehicle will contribute the Carbon Debt to the world (Pertimbangan Lingkungan, 2002). As evidence for the link between atmospheric greenhouse gases and climate change has increased, international efforts have focused on ways in which anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, can be reduced. Intending to know its contribution, an emission inventory was provided for accounting the amount of air pollutants discharged into the atmosphere. The discharged pollutant is generally characterized by the following factors: - the chemical or physical identity of the pollutants included, - the geographic area covered, - the institutional entities covered, - the time period over which emissions are estimated, and - the types of activities that cause emissions (Climate, 2001). Emission inventories are developed for a variety of purposes. Inventories of natural and
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anthropogenic emissions are used by scientists as inputs to air quality models, by policy makers to develop strategies and policies or track progress of standards, and by facilities and regulatory agencies to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates. A well constructed inventory should include enough documentation and other data to allow readers to understand the underlying assumptions and to reconstruct the calculations for each of the estimates included. Efforts on minimizing pollutant emissions need to be implemented in order to use oil and fossil fuels more effective. Mitigation should be taken into consideration to maintain living environment in balance condition.
PLANNING AND DESIGN OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE CITIES Cities and Settlements
A city and/or a town are places where people life and their activities are concentrated. City accommodates three main functions: ecology, social and economy. These three pillars must be done in balance with integrated approach. The environment is profoundly affected by the way cities use land and other facilities. Development of most cities so far is quite often concern with economic aspect only. Less concern with ecology and social, related with the place to live and the actor, bring about problems (www. Characteristics of a Sustainable City.htm accessed). Development of a city leads to increase built environment and all will significantly contribute to the environment change. The phenomenon of macro climate affects the environmental living condition. Physical degradation of a city and its environment such as flooding, abrasion, water shortage and micro climate increase is caused by the decrease of land carrying capacity and inappropriate infrastructure. Sustainable cities that become the objective of the agenda 21 are defined as cities that are capable to support economic activities for current and future inhabitants. Its concept is viewed as an integration and interrelation of natural ecosystem, artificial ecosystem and social ecosystem. A sustainable city will also need to acquire accountability and responsibility for increasing consumption patterns. Cities
may work towards responsibility by adapting a policy to reduce, recycle, and re-use consumed goods. Some cities may go as far as implementing user fees in order to control unsustainable consumption patterns. Cities will need to become more aware of the impact that their consumption patterns have on other regions and ecosystems. Sustainable settlement development is defined as many parameters relating to the availability of basic infrastructure. As man made structure, infrastructure and settlement are of two different features. First, infrastructure as system has the potency to direct and improve the efficiency of the development. Second, Infrastructure element that constructed without environmental concerns would lead into physical disaster, high cost of living that has to be paid by the people as well as decreasing the possibility of a better future for the next generation. Thus, infrastructure should support settlements and both are planned, built and used evenly balance with the carrying capacity of the nature.
Community and neighborhood

Spatial planning is a strategic instrument for sustainable solutions to environmental problems. Settlements can be focused on three layers of human habitat namely micro level: buildings, meso level: neighborhood, macro level: settlement area. According to Research Triangle Institute on Mukaryanti (2006) sustainable living areas are developed based on five aspects i.e. ecology, equity, engagement and energy. According to Richardson the characteristics of a sustainable community is by examining behavioral patterns, resource consumption patterns, and policies (www.characteristics of a Sustainable City.htm accessed October 2006). In response to better living environment mainly on the reduction of CO2 emission, an existence of settlement that planned based on energy efficiency is most likely to support the climate alteration. Table 4 describes characteristics of sustainable residential and community. Economic development, increase of population and vehicles are the three factors that highly amplify the fuels need. In Indonesia, fuel consumption is classified into 4 activities transportation, industry, household, electricity. The increasing demand of four types of energy usage during 1989-1996 is showed
74
in Figure 2. Among the 4, transportation is the highest consumption followed by domestic activity. Transportation is the backbone of a city. The more facilities served by the authorities the more transportation mode should be provided to reach them. As mentioned in Table 2, in Indonesia the main source of CO2 emission is from 2 sectors of forestry & land use and energy & transportation that discharge about 42.5% and 40.9% from the total CO2 emission. While the energy sectors itself contribute about 21% from the total that comes from fossils fuels burning for electricity resources (Sinar Harapan, Selasa, 10 Desember 2002). Table 4. Strategies for their sustainability or lack of sustainability
links to housing needs, then managing housing and settlement in urban areas regarding energy efficiency is though to contribute in the elimination of CO2 emission to gain better living environment.
Source: Direktorat Jendral MIGAS
Figure 2. The increasing demand of four types of energy usage in Indonesia during 1989-1996.
No. 1. 2.
3.
More Sustainable Compact forms of residential Development. Mixed land use; homes, jobs and shopping in close proximity/TD. Employment based primarily on education and skills. Movement on foot and by bicycle and transit. Wind and solar energy. Tertiary treatment of sewage; use of natural means of sewage treatment. Protection and use of natural hydrologic systems. Natural open space; protection of wetlands, woodlands, stream valleys, habitat, etc.; use of manure, compost, integrated pest management, etc. Reduction of waste; recovery, re-use and recycling of waste materials.
4. 5. 6.
7. 8.
9.
Less Sustainable Low-density, spread-out residential development. Segregation of land uses: homes, jobs and shopping separated into uniform tracts or concentrations. Employment based primarily on environment polluting or non-renewable resource based industry. Heavy dependence on private cars. Thermal and nuclear energy. Discharge of sewage into water bodies or watercourses untreated or with low level of treatment. Hard surfaces preventing infiltration; channeling natural water-courses. Destruction of natural landscape; "manicured" parkland with exotic species; heavy use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides. Landfills, incinerators.
Aspects of urban housing and settlements to conserve the environment

Modernization and comfort needs consume much more energy as more electrical equipments and vehicles are used to support domestic activities and mobilization. The CO2 emission can be on site and off site producer. On site producer generates emission directly on the location that derive from activities covering domestic activities such as cocking with LPG and carrosin fuels, garbage burning; transportation and building material production where wood, rice husk, gas or carrosin are burned for energy. Off site producer generate emission out side the location caused by electricity utilization or other energy to make some products. Greenery and sea and other open water surface however act as sinks. Then, an ideal living environment should be an area with much more green open space, limited built areas or land coverage and accessible urban facilities. The whole provision of housing and settlement can be divided into 3 stages which are planning and design, construction and occupation/utilization. Based on the Table 4, a more sustainable city is attributed by several aspects. By linking the three stages and characteristic of more sustainable city, they are 5 variables that may contribute in the CO2 emission discharge i.e. domestic activity, building materials, green open space, transportation and socio-economic (Puslitbang Permukiman, 2006). The
- Nigel Richardson. Prepared for by the Ontario Round Table on Environment and Economy.
Source: Sustainable Communities Resource Package
Currently, Indonesia has about 235 areas classified as urban and about 60% of the total populations reside in urban areas. Concerning the urbanization is most likely to occur every time that
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
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macro approach of CO2 sources and sinks is described in Table 3. To find out the emission from the 5 variables, surveys have been done in 13 location of housing areas located in 7 cities Bandung, Cirebon, Semarang, Malang, Mataram, Makassar, and Banjarmasin. Activities that need energy are recorded in terms of utilization amount of electricity for carrying out all activities in the house; gas and carrosin for cocking; gasoline for diesel transportation; wood, rice husk, gas, carrosin for building material processes. Other aspects that also observed are greenery and open water surface. The main 5 variables then are developed into 11 sub variables covering: 1. CO2 absorption 2. income level, 3. number of family member, 4. house land area, 5. building size, 6. CO2 emission from electricity usage, 7. CO2 emission from cocking activity,
8. CO2 emission from transportation, 9. CO2 emission from ceramic floor tiles production process, 10. CO2 emission from red brick production process, 11. CO2 emission from ceramic roof tiles production process. All collected data from census, interview and field observation is then transformed into CO 2 emission unit. Statistical analysis shows the different significant variables of each housing areas and location is showed in Table 4. In average, CO2 emission of 11 variables in 13 housing areas is similar except in some housing areas the gasoline usage is larger than electricity usage. As a result, all 11 variables discharge CO2 the different is in the amount of the gas. To know in detail the total CO2 emission from the producer and from the sinks then further study should be carried out.
Table 3. The Macro Approach of CO2 sources and sinks

Producer On site Domestic activities Vehicles Absorbers Influencing Factors Live-style Waste technical processing Road/street design Geographical condition Research Focus Domestic activity and CO2 emission Transportation and CO2 emission Methods Descriptive statistic Modeling Descriptive statistic Activity that the most generate CO2 emission (domestic and transportation) o Activity that the most electricity usage Building materials that the most discharge CO2 Planning and design of living areas: 1. building materials with low energy production 2. living with energy saving 3. minimizing vehicles utilization Input for determining spatial land policy Output Integration
Off site Electricity Building material industries
Live-style Micro Climate Building/housing design Technical production Geographical condition Urban Design Greenery design Watery design Geographical condition Spatial Planning Policy
Domestic activity and electricity usage Technical production and CO2 emission
Descriptive statistic
Modeling
Greenery Watery New technologies
Planning areas and CO2 emission Absorption capability of greenery and water Availability of regulation/policy Policy regarding reduction of CO2 emission
Empirical study
Policy analysis Ex ante Ex post Content analysis
Urban design CO2 friendly Green areas that able to absorb CO2 Existing law and regulation Policy to reduce CO2 emission
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Table 4. Everage value of CO2 emission based on the source in the location.
Bandung Cirebon Perumnas Semarang Banyumanik Plamongan Mataram Sweta Indah Makasar Tamalan Rea Panakukang Banjarma sin Average Kota 2 3 6 4 5 8 9 7 10 11 1 Perumnas 2 3 6 4 5 8 7 9 10 11 1
Antapani
Pagutan
Malang
Sariajdi
2 6 3 4 5 8 9 7 10 11 1
2 3 6 4 5 8 9 10 11 1 7
2 3 4 6 5 8 9 10 11 1 7
2 3 6 4 5 8 9 10 11 1 7
2 3 6 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 1
2 3 6 4 5 8 9 10 7 11 1
2 3 6 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 1
2 6 3 4 5 8 9 10 11 1 7
2 3 6 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 1
2 3 4 6 5 8 9 10 11 1 7
2 3 6 4 5 8 7 9 11 10 1
2 6 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 1
Number of Variable
Note:
Variable Number 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Variable Label CO absorption (Kg/year) CO2 Emission from domestic activity : CO2 emission from electricity usage (Kg/year) CO2 emission from carrosin usage (Kg/year) CO2 emission from gas usage (Kg/year) 2 CO emission from gassolin usage (Kg/year) CO2 emission from diesel usage (Kg/year) CO2 emission from building materials production process : CO2 emission from floor ceramic tiles CO2 emission from red brick CO2 emission from roof ceramic tiles
2
CLOSSING REMARK
Global warming and climate change are general

term caused by drastically increase the concentration of naturally and not naturally occurring gases in the space that disturbs the equilibrium of the nature which alter atmospheric and ocean temperature and circulation and weather pattern. Carbon dioxide derives from imperfect combustion when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and wood and wood products are burned. The CO2 emission in normal level is beneficial to protect the living on earth, however on large amount it becomes hazard. Discharge and absorption of CO2 can be illus-
trated as the correlation between taps and sinks and the balance will be reach when the water debit from the taps similar with the volume of sinks to discharge all waste water. Problems appear when water is excess in the sinks. Mitigation should be taken into consideration to maintain living environment in balance condition. In the housing sector, planning and designing are most likely to play important role to the environmental betterment of cities. This can be said as an effort on minimizing pollutant emissions need to be implemented in order to use oil and fossil fuels more effective.
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HKSN
GSP
REFERENCES
(2000): Data Book of Sea-Level Rise 2000, N.Mimura and H.Harasawa (Eds.), Center for Global Environmetal research, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Environment Agency of Japan, Japan. (2001): Climate www.epa.gov/ , globalwarming/climate/index.html, Last Updated 06/04/2001, accessed 1/11/2006 (2001): LSM Indonesia Akan Ajukan AS ke Mahkamah Internasional Harian Kompas, , Jakarta, Rabu 28 Maret 2001. (2002): Pertimbangan Lingkungan, www. Gold Teak Ethical Investments.htm, accessed 8/12/2002. Asian Least Cost Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy (ALGAS) (1997): Mengurangi Emisi Gas Rumah Kaca; Sebuah Proyek Bersama: PPLH-IPB, PPE-ITB, Perhimpunan Meteorologi Pertanian Indonesia, Pelangi Indonesia;, www.pelangi.or.id/publikasi/mergrkbab1.html#pengantar , accessed 21/09/2006. Asiati, S. et.al. (1997): Emisi CO2 di Indonesia Terkait dengan Kabutuhan Energi Jurnal IPTEK Iklim , dan Cuaca, No.01, tahun 1. de Never, N. (2000): Air Polution Control Enginneering, Second Edition, Mc Graw Hill, Singapore. Mukaryanti (2006): Keberlanjutan Fungsi Ekologis Sebagai Basisi Penataan Ruang Kota Berkelanjutan, Seminar Penataan Ruang Berbasisi Aspek Ekologis untuk Mewujudkan Kota Berkelanjutan, BPPT, Jakarta. Murdiyarso, D. (2003): Sepuluh Tahun Perjalanan Negosiasi Konvensi Perubahan Iklim, Penerbit Buku Kompas, Jakarta. Prasetyo, S. (2003): Hemat Listrik Selamatkan Bumi , Sinar Harapan. Puslitbang Permukiman, (2006): Faktor-faktor Penentu Emisi CO2 pada Perumahan dan Permukiman, Bandung. Tamim, R.D. and H. B. Poernomo (2005): Udara Perkotaan Dalam Pembangunan Kota yang Berkelanjutan, Seri 5, Asosiasi DPRD Kota Semuruh Indonesia (ADEKSI), Subur Printing, Indonesia. Tribuana, N. (1998): Emisi Akibat Penggunaan Energi di Jawa Elektro Indonesia, Edisi ke Sebelas, , Januari.
Wahid, La Ode M. A. (2000): Konsumsi Bahan Bakar Minyak Dan Produktifitas Sektor Transportasi , Majalah Ilmiah Pengkajian Industri, Edisi 10 April, ISSN: 1410-3680, BPPT.
NOTE
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MANUAL FOR FACILITATOR ORGANIZED SELF-HELP RENTAL FLAT HOUSING IN INDONESIA

Sari Ika Agustina Research and Development Centre for Human Settlements, Ministry of Public Works Jl. Panyaungan, Cileunyi Wetan, Kab. Bandung, Bandung 40393, Indonesia Telephone: 62-22-7798393, Fax: 62-22-7798392
INTRODUCTION
It is known that urban slum areas tend to be complicated problem for the governments. If action is taken to clean up one area, this might create new slum areas in other places. That is a circular problem that never ends. One reason is the affordability aspects, where most poor people who come to urban areas are not getting jobs. Living among high competition with lack of capacities and capabilities, they tend to be neglected people. They cannot survive; even to fulfill their housing needs. So that is why they can find only limited areas and limited facilities for their living. However this condition is not their problem only, but makes it more difficult for the government to organize and manage all housing and spatial planning in general. One possible solution is a community-based housing approach. It is known that implemented previous approaches are based on top-down strategy, where government arranges and provides ready housing. Community as consumers are not involved in the processes; they get ready to use housing from the housing provider only through provided credit schemes or buying by cash. The difference with community-based approaches compared to previous approaches is in facilitating communities to be the main subjects. The government itself can thus act as an enabler, rather than provider.
HOUSING PROBLEMS AND POLICY FAILURES

Housing problems appeared show that housing policy developments are not successful enough. Besides an effort to solve housing problems above, economic situation has an influence in housing development as well. Increasing the number of unemployed people worsens the condition. Affordability issue becomes important here, where the big question is how far the households can spend their income to fulfill their housing
need in the long run. It is known that economic restructuring affect their income development, where it creates more competitive situation. Based on the shortage in the first PJP period (Program Jangka Panjang: Long Term Program, 19691994), the Government arranged kinds of housing policies to face the second PJP (1994 until now), such as the balanced housing program implemented on November 1993 that is known as the 1:3:6 Program. The government tries to organize 1 portion of luxurious housing in 3-portion middleclass housing and 6 portion of simple housing. Through the program, the government plans to fulfill the need of simple housing as a biggest one. The fact shows that the program does not work because it is very difficult to create these different housing characteristics in the same location. Another failure of provided housing program appears when the Indonesian government tries to develop home ownership credit scheme. The Government applies lower bank-interest level for low-income and moderate people who want to access affordable housing. The Government provides kinds of housing type for them, which is classified into very-simple housing and simple housing. The higher-income people can access higher-class housing, which is categorized into medium housing and luxurious housing. The government arranges certain credit schemes for those housing classes, where the first two classes have a lower bankinterest than the others. This policy does not work effectively in practice, because all Banks, which provide the credit, require the fix income and every credit applicant should pay monthly installment at least 30% of their income. It is impossible for lowincome people who have informal occupations, because however they cannot access the credit without evidence of the fix income. As a result, the low-income and moderate people still cannot access the housing credit schemes. HUMAN SETTLEMENTS 79
Moreover, the Indonesian Government also applied rental flat housing program in several areas, which can be occupied by low-income people. This program looked unsuccessful enough. Most problems appear are less maintenance and security, uncontrolled over-leasing, and uncontrolled expansion by the occupants. From the cases above, the housing program arranged indicates the similar shortage that is not only administrative matter, but also practically. Generally, it can be said that the policies cannot meet the low-income need. The key concept of those cases is sustainable development that can be achieved by changing of paradigm in housing policies and further involving community participation in practice.
facilitator who will assist and organize community related to community-based implementation, particularly in rental flat housing occupancy project This manual also can be complementary of the earlier community-based guidance; Decree of Public Housing Ministry No. 06/KPTS/1994, about General Guidance of Community-Based Housing Development
ORGANIZED SELF-HELP RENTAL HOUSING AS A NEW APPROACH IN HOUSING PROVISION

Related to self-help issue in the communitybased implementation program, Hasan Purbo, one expert of Community-Based Housing Development (CBHD) approach gives the definition of CBHD as follows: Community-Based Development (CBD) is kind of development process through community agreement that is organized in interactive process and involves related actors, create community network (resource) to support the development process in order to reduce cost and get the benefit optimally. The process should involve related actors, not only the community as the main actors because they are the users, but also involve other actors like government as a policy maker, the Banks as fund resources, and other actors who involve in planning and construction process. One most important actor who organizes all is mediator or facilitator, who known in Indonesia as Development Consultant (DC). In the process, DCs have a duty to organize all related aspects on each actor, not only their positions, their roles, their needs (because each actor has a certain need and mostly different with each other), and their capacities. It can be said that the process creates a new network that can synchronize all importance and solves the bureaucratic delay simultaneously that traps the community and becomes handicap before. Through the explanation above, it can be said that DCs have the main role to empower the community. Sometime the community doesnt realize that they have some resources and how to utilize them. DCs arrange the program step by step; depend on the communitys condition, so that they
CHANGES OF PARADIGM IN HOUSING POLICIES

With the idea of Working Together to Grow Housing Opportunities that Put People First in the Future Directions in Social Housing, the Indonesian Government reforms a series of housing policy to give better service in affordable and secure housing provision. The policies consist of directions in rental housing occupancy, renewable tenancies, securing public rental housing, helping the homeless, strengthen community responsibilities, and sustainable maintenance programs. The government aimed to create better and safer living place through community management program. This approach aimed to run community participation optimally to create community empowerment and fulfill their housing needs simultaneously. Through interactive process between community and related stakeholders, it is easier to define community housing problems and what other stakeholders can contribute to solve the problems. The process can determine what a suitable approach and becomes win-win solution for all stakeholders involved, and what kind of housing, which is affordable and meet community needs. It can be said that whatever the program will be arranged, it can be sure that the program match with their needs.
OBJECTIVES
The manual is aimed to provide guidance for
80
can develop their capacities until they understand what is the good planning for their living and better life quality, how to realize and how to maintain this. In some cases described in the HABITAT community-based programs report1 explains that there is one important sector that has a role as intermediaries or facilitators. Besides they might organize all stakeholders in one governance system, it is possible to create partnership system with other related foreign stakeholders, such as financial and research institution, which can support developed programs. HABITAT gives the illustration of the intermediary roles to regulate this partnership can be seen in the mechanism model (Fig. 1). In broader meaning, it does not mean to develop community social capacities only, but also their capabilities on knowledge, skill and technology, like what is the better and suitable housing and how to achieve better living, and how to avoid creating slum-housing areas. In some cases, DCs can involve other actors to give the related training for them. The main principle here is that the new approach is trying to fulfill community needs in some more organized ways.
management, the Government issued the policy related to implementation of organized self-help housing approach. This approach gives broader role to community to actively participate in their planned housing. The scope in this approach is: technically assisted housing occupancy organized social action program to house low-income people which is related to improvement in their life quality
CIGUGUR AS A CASE STUDY OF ORGANIZED SELF-HELP RENTAL FLAT HOUSING

Cigugur has a very crowded housing area situated in one of the new city in Indonesia, Cimahi. The area is located in urban areas, in city center. Cigugur has a common low-income housing problem in urban areas that indicate as slum areas and lack of facilities and utilities. The situation is worsened by lack of knowledge, where still many inhabitants do not have enough consciousness about what is healthy housing and healthy environment and how to create this. This might be a result, Cigugur looks like other slum housing in urban areas, crowded by unordered and unhealthy housing that are completed with the bad facility and utility systems. Those illustration shows that the housing problem created in Cigugur was very complicated. Cigugur population is around 500 HH, which
SCOPE OF ORGANIZED SELF-HELP RENTAL FLAT HOUSING

As the policy, the Government has responsibility to provide rental flat housing for low-income people. In order to achieve better occupancy Fig. 1 Mechanism model
Central
Government
International Organisations
Local Government
Local Level
Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) Intermediaries
Residents (Communities)
Source: -, 1997. Partnership for Local Action. UNCHS (HABITAT) and Citynet. Bangkok: Mitrnara Printing. pp.35
1
-, 1997. Partnership for Local Action. UNCHS (HABITAT) and Citynet. Bangkok: Mitrnara Printing. pp.35
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are mostly stay in rental housing. The land owner among them is around 40%. Inhabitants come from many ethnic backgrounds, and education levels. On average, the education level is quite low; more than 4% are uneducated people. Slightly more than 2% are tertiary educated both male and female. As a result, many problems appeared to be caused by this lack of education and knowledge. For example, many people throw their rubbish into the open space, because they do not realize the impact of what they do. There are still many people who urinate, even defecate in their backyards. Problems are obviously caused by lack of amenities like not having their own toilets, and pit toilets not being common, and not having their own rubbish bins. However, it seems that the basic reason is lack of awareness of all sorts. In other words, they do not have enough knowledge or they are not educated enough about healthy living and housing. Based on the description above, Cigugur area has to be upgraded, but what is the better way to help them. In the other words is that how to organize the human resource, in this case is Cigugur inhabitants, available network and management, and housing facilities and utilities to create a better living, which is suitable for the community needs. That is why the government still provides rental housing which can be afforded by low-income people. This looks still better rather they live in the slum areas. The key here is implementing with a better approach, which is organized self-help approach in occupation process.
Preparation
Participatory Planning Operation & Maintenance Consultation/ Negotiation
Community Management
Implementation
THE FRAMEWORK
Some issues which become the basic thinking in implementation of organized self-help housing are: 1. Changing from individual to group/ mutual framework 2. Community empowerment and management 3. Trickle-down effect principles The frameworks above are implemented through facilitating process, which consist of some principles below: 1. Mutual commitment 2. Community participation ~ Learning by Doing 3. Trust among the actors 4. Integrated approaches 5. Training and education
Preparation Stage
The first step is Preparation that can be named as community structuring. This step contains activities of knowing each other and building commitment among each actor involved. Firstly, facilitators or are known as DCs (Development Consultants) run an initial contact. That is a step of program introduction and initial sounding out in community level up to sub-district level as a lowest local government level. In this step, DCs start to investigate general condition about existing asset elements, include community social structure, housing condition and its facilities and utilities system. DCs should overview all programs or strategies that have already implemented in this area, both by government and other providers. The overview activities have to cover the community aspirations and responses about the program. At the
THE PROCESS OF ORGANIZED SELF-HELP HOUSING

Generally, all actions implemented in Cigugur is related to community management program, which can be classified into 5 main activities. Those are Preparation, Participatory Planning, Consultation/ Negotiation, Implementation, and Operation and Maintenance, which is configured in the picture below:
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same time, it should form the team representative that can be trusted and cooperative. For the first time, DCs introduce the program to the team and then try to transfer the general planning to ask the team to involve fully and mobilize the community.
1
START
The outputs are: 1. Problem Mapping and Implementation Plan-1 2. Project Committee Started from the result on the first step, community has to be prepared to form a community forum in the sub-district level and a mapping team to follow up the investigation to detail the existing data that will be transferred to problem mapping. To get the structured community as a main goal in the initial step, DCs will have tried to make a list of implemented programs and strategies, analyze them with many aspects of existing condition and formulate the new approach. This strategy should be suitable for the local needs, and abide by housing standards and regulations and in accordance with CBHD concept. Those activities are known as a link with service strategies. It is clear that through over viewing the programs before taking the task, the DCs are able to work closely with the community and trying to compare the programs and the practices. The outcome from those overview activities is to get the services feedback in order to create the new program, which can be implemented and operated, perhaps maintained by the community. The next activity in this step is self-help survey, where DCs could direct the community to investigate the existing condition problems. All series of those activities are known as a condition assessment actions and asset register. Through such activities, problems related to housing asset and occupancy are achieved. Besides its housing occupancy problem itself, the community more pays attention to infrastructure problems, which has become their primary needs in their daily lives, such as clean water provision and garbage disposal. Each kind of infrastructures has a specific problem and therefore obviously need a specific solution as well, particularly in flat housing which is very different with their living style in landed housing. The community also has to concern about moving stages, which might utilized some existing resources, such as reuses and recycles some building materials. There are many objectives to solve the whole problems, which could be formulated into corporate objectives to get winwin solutions. As a result, the community can arrange the problem mapping. The map is a basic
3 2
Participatory Planning Stage
The activities are: Program socialization Team consolidation Database Collection Identification of community representatives Identification of local institution issues The Outputs are: 1. Database 2. Mapping of actors involved 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The initial investigation should be followed by socialization activities to give wider illustration and understanding to the community about the program, what is the new aspect in the program, and what is their role in all process. By making them understanding and aware of actual problem and how the approach can work, they will be orientated and are able to form a solid group whereby same goals and same planning are achieved. The end results of this step are getting a database and mapping of actors involved in the program will be implemented.
Participatory Planning
The second step is Participatory Planning that can be named as community structuring activities.
Preparation Stage
2 1 3 4 5 6
Consultation Negotitation Stage
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
The Activities are: Team Preparation Self-help survey Team Consolidation Potential and problem mapping Planning prioritizing Establish the committee
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database that is followed by determining some criteria to decide the priorities and its programs. The end results of this step are problem mapping and initial implementation plan, and also the project committee who has responsible to lead the program.
Negotiation/ Consultation
The third step is Negotiation/Consultation, where the planned program has to be integrated with other importance of other actors. As it is known that every actor and every sector has a different aim and importance. In this approach, community has to be trained to understand such of issues, so that they can plan the program which is more rational, and also might give advantages to actors cooperated with the community.
Planning Stage
1 5 2 3 4 6 7 8
Implementati on Stage
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 1. 2.
The activities are: Socialization of implementation plan-1 Feedback collection from related actors Plan development Arrangement of Implementation scenario Preparation for interactive workshop Dissemination of pre-final plan proposal Interactive Workshop Finalize the implementation scenario The outputs are: Agreement documents Implementation scenario
Based on the output of the previous step, community has to socialize those to some actors which have potential to cooperate and give distribution to the plan. This might consists of initiatives and concepts input for other actors related to its program step. This is followed up by plan development activities, which is completed by inputs from actors contacted. Therefore, the DCs should organize the workshop process to detail the program with many considerations, like level of community capacity, 84
level of urgency, level of difficulty, and fund consideration. Those steps might be take longer time in order to consider and tackle many aspects carefully. On the other hand, those activities are in accordance to Chanter (1996) statement, which says that the detail program is needed to avoid unplanned or unpredictable program to reduce some emergency works. Therefore, it is important so as to give a big implication to the funding program. Moreover, they could arrange the life-span program into short, middle and long term planning. All detailed planning are translated to kinds of proposal that will be negotiated to related stakeholders, both government and private sectors in further implementation activities. As it is known that all program in asset management related to economic climate, therefore, all actions should be financed. To realize the arranged programs and particularly to solve the financial problem, all proposals arranged above will be negotiated with related institutions or stakeholders in the interactive workshop. The community programs will be overviewed and referred to the available programs in each institution, so whichever programs take place; it will have to be in accordance with the proposed programs. Both community and involved stakeholder could arrange together as how the agreed program can be implemented. These steps consider contribution and allocation fund related to commissioning, development, construction and operation. In some cases, whereby related stakeholder has a limited budget, community should contribute its available resource; they could even arrange fund-raising activities. Nevertheless, all programs that have been prepared should be followed by implementation or operation actions with monitoring and accounting activities upon completion. Through the negotiation process, community and other related actors have to sign the documents of cooperation agreements. Moreover, all actors also have a same perception related to implementation scenario.
Implementation Stage
The fourth step is Implementation, which consists of planning implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and is completed also by recording
and reporting activities.

1
Consultation Negotiation Stage
3 2 4
7 8
O&M Stage
actions. Through the implementation activities, community can start step by step based on grouping arrangement in the planning stage and program development along the occupancy time.
Operation and Maintenance Stage

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 1. 2. The activities are: Preparation for technical assistance needed Establishing community forum for implementation Preparation for implementation detail (step by step and financial mechanism) Tool preparation for recording and reporting mechanism Technical training needed Plan implementation Monitoring and evaluation Recording and reporting The outputs are: Building demolishing stages Occupancy and development stages The fifth step is Operation and Maintenance, which consist of the activities of occupancy the rental flat housing, which is related to property management system.
Implementati on Stage
1 3 2 4 6
Development Stage
Before the implementation run, all actors have to understand the role of community in the stage. In some extent, community or parts of community have to be trained for some certain skills and knowledge, so they can run the moving stages and how to optimally reuse and recycle all existing properties. For preparing those works, community has to consider what kind of training, who involved, who finance, and how to run such trainings. Based on the importance of those activities, and also consider the importance of implementation coordination, community should establish the committee who handle the implementation process. A series of implementation activities here is more concern about moving stages and kinds of cleaning up the existing property through reuserecycle program, and also conditioning of occupancy later in the rental flat housing provided by the government. The activities have to integrate with the staging process of flat housing construction, so that is why the community has to negotiate and coordinate with other actors in earlier stage. To complete the stage, community also has to run the reporting and recording all activities, and also start to monitor and preparing the evaluation
The activities are: 1. Strengthening the community forum, inc. performance mechanism and function (establish PPRS = organization of flat occupants) 2. Arrangement of operational and maintenance plan 3. Arrangement of monitoring and evaluation plan 4. Arrangement of recording and reporting 5. Internal workshop for finalizing the completed documents The Outputs are; 1. Document of occupancy agreement 2. Operational and maintenance organization To support removing stages from landed housing to flat housing, community also has to be completed by the rules of occupancy. Usually, people who stay in flat housing has to establish the organization named PPRS (Persatuan Penghuni Rumah Susun = organization of flat occupants). In this case, community can followed up the organization based on the community organizing process before, so that in this stage community need to strengthen only and formally agreed by all community members. Through establishing the organization (PPRS), community also has to arrange a management system for occupancy program, such as how to operate and maintenance, recording, reporting, and also completed by the program of monitoring and evaluation. In the other words, community has to arrange a sustainable management system. To result those tools above, community can
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manage the process through internal meeting until finalizing the document process, so that when the community start to live in the flat housing, they also already understand what their rights and their responsibility, not only for themselves and their family, but also for the importance of all community member who already been in the same organization.
Development Stage
On the post-program, community is also expected to develop another stage, which is Development, which consists of network strengthening to reinforce the position of community institution. The main outcome of implementation activities can be resulted in development planning step. These parts issue a local institution that is formed by community and is created to fulfill the community needs. The Institution has a responsibility to organize further development and to uphold the community organization. The activities are: 1. Program arrangement for housing operation and maintenance development 2. Arrangement of development program in the future (short/ med/ long term) 3. Arrangement of replication program 4. Arrangement of training program for new facilitator among community 5. Arrangement of institution networking 6. Arrangement of income generating program One of these parts is aimed to arrange cycle of management process and link to the related institution, so that community can get more access to key resources. Another main activity in this step is cycle of reviewing process to monitor the run management programs and/or advanced strategies that are issued or developed by government or are rose from community aspirations. If is needed they can renew the strategies regularly. Through development activities, asset management process is more organized and can be developed through creating kinds of partnership in network development. The described process above in activities of detailed planning and implementation, the Cigugur community runs value management process by DCs assistant. It can be seen how the community
capability can be developed to implement key phases of value management concept. They collect data and information as much as they concern. Such data are analyzed, where the community is directed to run a demand management concept. They should consider many aspects related to prices of housing elements, prices of related goods, their income, expectation about the future and all aspect related to population development. Furthermore, they are expected to be more creative to find a suitable solution, they value and judge each considered program, and they are empowered to develop the program itself to be an organized institution and network. It has been known that economic climate is a main issue in Housing Asset Management. Related to this issue, talking about participation has become important to be discussed. It is common that private sectors are involved in the process, especially to take a place in capital investment. In this case, private sectors are involved in design, planning, and also implementation, whereas the government usually manages the built flat housing. The private sectors usually participate through money participation, build/own/operate, build and operate and share profit, where all of those seem business oriented or profit oriented. In some community-based cases, they concern might not work, because those are in a contrary vision. As explained above, through organized self-help approach, private sector participation and various capital investments might be negotiated. Whatever participation program decided, they could get advantages from it. The last issue in implementation through organized self-help approach is how far the approach can give effective contribution to housing policy development. It has been known that the approach arise caused by limited access to available housing programs, like home ownership credit scheme. Organized self-help approach has proven that through the approach, community can mobilize their potencies to manage their housing asset. Through established local institution and network, community can develop the programs. Because local government is one stakeholder in the network, whatever community progress will be achieved, local government will know those. In other word, actions in those programs can be monitored,
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whether follow the government rules or not. Moreover, the success of Cigugur case might inspire the local government to issue related housing policy. They arrange programs to implement organized self-help approach to manage housing asset in other areas.
Income Generating Program

The main aspect related to housing operation and maintenance is economic climate or cost. The low-income people who have limited budget and limited technical knowledge are sometimes very difficult to understand how to maintain their house properly, although they stay in rental housing, so some unpredictable damages might be happen. Through forecasting those unplanned aspects, decision planning might be more accurate and definitely more complicated. The key action here is how to optimise the cost. It means how to arrange the strategic maintenance planning, so that it can predict the better cash flow and budgeting as well. Besides some effort has to be done to increase community skill and knowledge about heir housing and environment maintenance, this part will focus in some effort to provide enough financial resources. There is one proposed financial program here that is household income generating programs to maintain and sustain long life-term and support housing and infrastructure development itself. Income generating program to support housing operation and maintenance in Cigugur will focus in small business development. Cigugur community has kinds of small business and home industry, which can be potential to increase family income. But the problem of limited capital, management skill, and marketing are often make the business stagnant, even collapsed. These need assistance; not only to support their businesses individually, but also better income can increase their quality of life, which give better effects to housing environment in general. Some proposed programs to support income generating are: All individual small businesses has to be organized in one community institution; preferred in cooperative, so individual capital might be
communal capital, and individual problem can be communal problem that can be easily solved together by integrated management system; Cooperative has to categorize and manage individual small businesses, group businesses, and Cigugur business centre as a profit-centre; Cooperative has to improve its performance both administratively and financially, so can give wider services to all community members; Cooperative has to arrange some programs to support individual small businesses, like training and education in managerial system, technical assistance to improve the production quality, Cooperative has to arrange kinds of network and partnership with other institutions particularly financial institutions, so they can arrange kinds of credit schemes provided to support and assist small businesses developed in Cigugur area. Cooperative has to arrange kinds of network and partnership with other institutions related to promote the production of Cigugur small businesses, so increasing production qualitatively and quantitatively simultaneously followed by marketing progresses.
To cover income generating program described above, there are two main activities have to be arranged. Firstly, it has to be identified all economic and occupancy potential among the community. Moreover, all the potential data is classified and structured. Based on the structure, community can establish a certain institution, which is aimed to economic development. Through the structure also can be defined what kind of institution and programs needed to follow up the development program. Secondly, the program arranged above has to be integrated with all activities related to property management, particularly in operation and maintenance. Through the integrated program, it is hoped that community does not achieve better income, but also can properly manage the property. It can be said that income which is developed can be individual addition income, and in the same time it can be income for running the organization and manag-
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ing the property. The proposed program described above can be figured in the diagram next page: 1. Identification and potential structuring
Building & land compensation Compensation Land Owner New Capital Business dev Renter New business Addition income Income generating Housing/ commercial unit
Power, Anna, 1991. Housing Management: a guide to quality and creativity. Essex: The Longman Group. Purbo, Hasan, 1994. Community-Based Approaches in Human Settlement and Housing Development. Bandung: ASPEK. Suyono, et al. Community-based low-cost housing movement in Indonesia. Submission to the Best Practices Initiatives of the Habitat II Conference. Available on http://www.hsd.ait.ac.th/bestprac/ cblwcst.htm. The University of Reading and Oxford Economic Forecasting, 1997. The Housing Policy and Prospects Journal. No.2 October 1997. Ed. Geoff Meen. The Center for spatial and Real Estate Economics at the University of Reading and Oxford Economic Forecasting. Trijanti, Widijastuti, et al, 1995. Kajian Pengadaan Perumahan bagi Masyarakat Berpenghasilan Rendah (Research of Housing Provision for LowIncome People). Unpublished Thesis, Bandung Institute of Technology. UNCHS, 1997. Partnership for Local Action. UNCHS (HABITAT) and Citynet. Bangkok: Mitrnara Printing. Yates, Judith. Is Rent Assistance Enough? Available in http://pandora.nla.gov.au/nph-arch/2000/ S2000-Nov.3/http:// www.onlineopinion.com.au/May00/Yates.htm. Cited on 2 September 2001.
CI
2. Economic development and property management

Cooperative Marketing development networking Individual income Organization income
CI
Property management
Note : = Community Institution
REFERENCE
Balchin, Paul. Et.al. 1998. Housing Policy and Finance. In Housing the Essential Foundation. Ed. Paul Balchin et.al. London: Routledge. Chanter, B et al, 1996. Building Maintenance Management. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd. Hartley, Shirley Foster, 1985. Introduction. In Housing Needs and Policy Approaches, Trends in Thirteen Countries. Ed. Willem van Vliet, Et.al. Durham: Duke University Press. Komarudin, 1997. Menelusuri Pembangunan Perumahan dan Permukiman (Trace the Development of Housing and Human Settlement). Ed. Effendi, Agusman, et al. Jakarta: Yayasan Real Estate Indonesia-PT Rakasindo. Ministry of Public Housing, 1994. Decree of Public Housing Ministry No.064/KPTS/1994 about General Guidance of Community-Based Housing Development. Jakarta: Ministry of Public Housing. ORourke, Jim, 2002. Familys Dream Now a Step Closer to Reality. In Sydney Morning Herald 21 April 2002. Pannell, Bob and Peter Williams, 1971. Home Ownership; Current and Future Prospects. In Housing Today and Tomorrow. Ed. Mary E.H.Smith. London: Housing Centre Trust.
NOTE
This Paper has presented in Costa Rica, 2006
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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN PUBLIC AREA TO ENHANCE ECOLOGICAL OPEN SPACE USE, IN URBAN TROPICAL SETTLEMENTS
Sri Astuti Research and Development Centre for Human Settlements, Ministry of Public Works Jl. Panyaungan, Cileunyi Wetan, Kab. Bandung, Bandung 40393, Indonesia Telephone: 62-22-7798393, Fax: 62-22-7798392 E-mail: sasti@bdg.centrin.net.id
ABSTRACT
The method and process of structuring public open space in cities search for a sustainable urban form. This urban public open space has no meaning which does not address environmental issues nor has little meaning at a time of declining natural resources. There contain many other component as the objective of urban design in the area of sustainable development would emphasis conservation of both natural and build environment. There usually need to use already developed area in a most efficient way even as making them more attractive place to live and work. Three important aspects in architecture consist of commodities, firmness and delight, (Sir Henry Wotton, 1969) while one aspect of commodities in urban development is sustainability, which mean development with no damaging to the environment and contributes to the city ability to sustain its social and economic structure (Moughtin, 1996). Urban design, is the art of city building which include in many different disciplines, focus on the creation of urban space in three dimensions varying on: architectural form, detail of building envelope, streetscape, feasible and economically successful, human scale and ecologically purpose (Gidroz, Ray, 2003), while urban design element consist of land use and activity support, linkage system, urban open space, building form and massing, information and city orientation, preservation and conservation (Shirvani, 1985). This paper describe urban open space comprise of the street, square and park of cities which considered also as a creator of character of place in Indonesian case in Dago Street Bandung as urban area while Pasema as rural area. To achieve sustainable development this paper tries to examine techniques used in urban design method which is actually sustainable sound by measuring and evaluating Dago Area in term of the contribution through sustainable development. Dago public open spaces physically consist of the element of the artificial environment around inhabitants. It consists of the square, the tree, the facade of building, the ground floor uses and the entrance to the open space or entrance to building. The building style shown western tropical styles but have different appearance, because it consists of the whole nature of human experience. In contrary Pasema in the rural area used to develop their settlement in pure natural, has traditional style to address the nature of activities and the people who engage in them as well. All of them are a set of behavior setting and shown how the milieu afford activities and simultaneously acts as an aesthetics display that is conscious even unconscious. Keywords : Sustainable, Urban-form, Behavior-setting.
INTRODUCTION Background
The definition of sustainable development expands the concept of equity to future generation; it introduces the idea of intergenerational equity: a moral duty to look after our planet and hand it on a
good order to future generation. It requires to any particular generation the wisdom to avoid permanent damage; restrict the degrading of environmental assets; protect important habitats, high quality landscapes, forest and non-renewable resources (Moughtin, 2004, p: 3-4). Sustainability is a concept
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developed in the global political arena that attempts to achieve, simultaneously improve environment, a better economy, and participative society. Sustainability is meaningful and achievable only when it is practiced through local initiatives with global significance (Peter Newman and John Kenworthy in Cuthbert, 2003), while in the scale of sustainable housing, it developed on the correlation between livings, work, leisure and education (Edward, 2000). Correlation is form of a mutualism relationship of plants and animals to their physical and biological environment. The term ecology itself was introduced by the German biologist Ernst Heinrich Haeckel in 1866; it is derived from the Greek oikos (household), the same root word as economics, the term implies the study of the economic of nature. The physical environment includes light and heat or solar radiation, moisture, wind, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients in soil, water, and atmosphere. The physical environment in urban areas consists of mix of built and natural elements, known as urban environments and recognized from a variety of perspectives. Some interpretations of the term include social and cultural aspectsfor instance the values, behaviors, and traditions of the urban populationand these can have a profound influence on the quality of life in urban areas. (Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2003 19932002 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved).
repair because of the slow rate of soil-forming processes. The natural drainage of waters from the watershed of a region can be maintained indefinitely by careful management of vegetation and soils, and the quality of water can be controlled through pollution control. (Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2003 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved).
Objective
This paper describe urban open space consist of the street, square and park of urban rural considered also that open space be able to make a character of place such as Paris with its Boulevard, Singapore with walkway along its riverfront, St Louis with Gateway Plaza, (John Lang 2006, p: 75) while in this case is describe urban open space as historical area in Dago Street Bandung of Indonesia. In contrary Papua area used to develop their settlement in pure natural, has traditional style to address the nature of activities and the people who engage in them as well.
DISCUSSION Housing Condition

Housing is an important element of environment; as well health, education, crime and much other aspect of people live. Urban design has an important role to improve quality of live in urban area to gain sustainable city. Scope of housing in sustainable environmental consist of socially, physically and economically, while in case of the area changes from housing to commercial, the sustainable design principle will need: high density mix use, diversified tenure system, integration between land use and transport planning, emphasis on public transportation, urban layout that creates shelter and safety. Changing housing function also mean as increasing infrastructure needed, could be the used of renewable energy supplies (e.g. win, sun etc.); capture of rainfall for certain water uses, use of open space: street, park, square to facilitate social interaction and ecological well being, pollution and waste strategies, creation of natural habitat integrated with housing.
Sustainable Conservation in Urban Design

One part of sustainable urban design is conservation that use of natural resources, such as soils, water, plants, animals, and minerals (Cuthbert, 2006:168). In economic terms, the natural resources of any area constitute its basic capital, and wasteful use of those resources constitutes an economic loss. From the aesthetic and moral viewpoint, conservation also includes the maintenance of national parks, wilderness areas, historic sites, and wildlife. In certain cases, conservation may imply the protection of a natural environment from any human economic activity. Natural resources are of two main types, renewable and non-renewable. Renewable resources include wildlife and natural vegetation of all kinds. The soil itself can be considered a renewable resource, although severe damage is difficult to
Typical of Tropical Indonesian Architecture as Heritage of Dutch Era

Many Indonesian housing are designed by
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Dutch architect, also in Dago area who has limited skill in tropical architecture. Indonesia proclaim his independent in 17 August 1945, was not followed by a smooth hand-over of administration. Conflicts with the Dutch provincial government had direct consequences in architecture. First, with the diminishing numbers of Dutch architects, few Indonesian architects were available to take their place. Second, a shortage of building materials contributed to minimal architectural production. Third, the staff of the former Dutch department of public works was asked to take over the duties of Dutch architects. Fourth, construction companies were commissioned by the client to act as architect, which resulted in a very conservative architecture in those years. University graduates in civil engineering were also made to order to do architectural works, but their number was quite small. Among them was Soekarno, the first President of Indonesia. The designer of a mosque in Bengkulu, has been an important critic of building in Jakarta. His political views, including the politics of architecture, are clearly stated in his speeches and addresses, e we are equal. A clover leaf highway, four high rise hotels, and a broad by-pass in Jakarta, are among those projects that were approved by Soekarno to demonstrate the capability of Indonesia. Typical of tropical housing, usually has great open space, frontage terrace, step roof, building height pursuit comfortable in humid climate problem as solving of tropical climate. One other architect that Soekarno praised was Frederich Silaban, a former officer of the Netherlands-Indie Department of Public Works. His experience in this office is reflected in his statement on Indonesian architecture, which is an architecture that emerged from greatest tropical climatic utilization. It is not a copy and imitation of indigenous form, so that we may mark our modernity. His Istiqlal State Mosque (the largest in South East Asia in the 1970s), and the head office of the Bank Indonesia, are the clearest demonstrations of his concepts. Not surprisingly, Le Corbusiers and Niemeyers play of brise-soleil are distinguishing characteristics of Silabans works, shown Indonesian tropical architecture.
Another housing type compare in contrast is traditional of inland Papua called as honai, unhealthy condition but green, as minimize in energy, land. Indonesia rural architecture and its corresponding building materials in towns and cities, something which led to conflicts. On the one hand the building material wood has become increasingly scarce and expensive, and on the other hand mostly other materials (and technology) are used for high-rise buildings.
City shape
The urban form of cities is shapes primarily by transportation technology, but this works through economic and cultural. Infrastructure decided on where people like to live and work. Automobile use when a city or area of a city assumes automobile use as the dominant in its decision on transportation, infrastructure and land use, such city or area which decrease private transportation by mass transport. Remote area which have difficulties in accessibilities to health, education, healthy housing could be categories in unsustainable although using minimal resource. Sustainability can be applied to cities through extending the metabolism approach to human settlements so that a city can be defined as becoming more sustainable if it is reducing its resource input as land, energy, water, material; and waste output such as air, liquid, and solid waste; while simultaneously improving its livability such as health, employment, housing, leisure activities, accessibility, public open spaces and community is more important.
Migration
Criteria of sustainability also found in the term of rural urban migration which based on a fact that in certain countries, agricultural production has improved to the point where the current level of urbanization can be serviced. Indicator of the cities are not sustainable are seen in the environmental cost of erosion, pollution, genetic modification of plants and effects on other bio system such as animal and marine life, not to mention the social cost of unemployed. (Cuthbert, 2003:168)
Open Space
Definition of open space and courtyard in cities
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take their definition from the strength of their edges. If their edge is weak, the spaces seem to be amorphous or to lack focus. Street alone do not define as an urban open space, the quality of city are dependent very much on the quality of the street. Organic structure shapes as natural circulation. House is man made product which is made by people, has no soul or spiritual meaning in west people concept different in east tradition concept that seen house as part of natural organism, which has a soul. According Gaia hypothesis; house and housing is a part of natural organism including the entire world. This hypothesis could be related in the future of architectural design as an overall system including live and surround material rather than live through own environmental needed or environment in its needed, or live as determine factor, but as an overall system including macro and microcosm and surrounding material. This hypothesis is then be proofed because in reality the chemical organisms and chemical physic of environment has related in close evolution correlation, up to judging that world is creature at all. As beyond the world organic, climate, temperature and other air chemical cosmic and arrange a transformation of information between each creatures. A fruitful way of looking of the public realm is to consider as a set of setting a term coined by ecological psychologist. The same pattern of build form may afford different pattern of behavior for different people in different time, day week or years (John Lang, 1987).
Climate in Sustainable Development

Microclimate is the climate of a small area, particularly the layer nearest the ground. Microclimates occur because surfaces and objects vary in the efficiency with which they absorb solar energy and convert it to heat, in the amount of heat and moisture they emit into the atmosphere, and in the effect they have on air movement. Darker-colored objects absorb more solar energy than lightercolored ones. The amount of water in a soil can also affect energy absorption: moist, grey soils compared for dry, grey soils. Moisture content also affects the
speed and depth to which soils heat up. Water absorbs a lot of energy, so wet soils tend to heat up more slowly than dry ones, but water is also a good conductor of heat so they also heat up to greater depths than dry soils. Conversely wet soils emit less heat into the adjacent air and cool more slowly than dry ones. Heat transfer is also affected by the amount of air a soil contains. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so in soils containing a lot of air, heat tends to remain trapped near the surface. It is for all these reasons that dry sand, such as on a beach, gets so hot on a sunny day, and why it cools so fast at night. Differences in soil color, type, and wetness, in the amount and type of vegetation, in aspect, and in slope all produce distinctive, localized climatic variations, as do artificial landscape features such as buildings, streets, parks, or gardens. Microclimates can thus range in size from a leaf, to a hillside, or a city centre, overlapping at the upper end of the scale with local climates, which are influenced by altitude and exposure. As soil heats up, the air near the ground becomes warmer as a result of heat transfer by conduction and convection. The rate and degree to which this happens are influenced, as already indicated, by the color of the soil, its wetness, and how much air it contains. Of equal importance is the amount of air movement above the ground. Very close to the ground wind speed is reduced by friction to virtually zero, thus inhibiting air turbulence and the diffusion of warmed or cooled air away from the surface. As a result, heating and cooling effects near the ground tend to be exacerbated, creating microclimates that are often far more extreme than indicated by standard meteorological data for the larger area. For example, if the temperature at head height is 30 C (86 F), just above the ground it may well be 60 C (140 F). On slopes the process is complicated by the creation of anabatic and katabatic winds. Anabatic winds are caused by daytime heating of the slope, which causes it to rise towards the top of the slope. Katabatic winds occur when the slope is cooling, causing the air to close to it to cool and sink, creating frost hollows at the base. Slopes also affect the amount of radiation receivedthe top of a slope tends to be warmer than the bottomas does aspect, the direction in which the slope is facing. In the Northern hemisphere
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south-facing slopes receive more radiation than north-facing ones. As gardeners know well, aspect also has a significant effect on microclimates in human-made landscapes. The effects of microclimates of vegetation are even more complicated than those created by bare soils. Different plants not only absorb different amounts of energy themselves, they also affect the amount of energy reaching the ground, and therefore the amount of light and heat available for other plants to use. Trees that create a very dense canopy of leaves allow little radiation to reach lower levels, which is why the floors of plantations of certain kinds of spruce are bare of vegetation. In rainforests, although radiation inputs are high, the successive layers of trees and shrubs intercept so much energy that only about 1 per cent reaches a height of 2 m (6y ft) above the ground; less than 0.1 per cent reaches the forest floor itself. The interception of radiation is also the reason why the temperature in woodland is lower than in the area outside. Trees make good windbreaks, so the air in woodland is stiller than over open land, while the effects of evapotranspiration mean that humidity levels are higher. Buildings are like trees in that they are generally good windbreaks. Mean annual wind velocities in urban areas are generally 30 per cent lower than in rural areas. Localized strong winds can occur, however, as a result of the canyon effect of tall buildings, such as skyscrapers. Probably the best-known effect of urban areas on microclimates is the so-called heat islands created in city centre. Even though city centre receive up to 30 per cent less solar radiation than rural areasbecause the large amounts of dust and pollution in the air not only reflect radiation themselves, but also provide nuclei around which water condenses and clouds formthey are on average 1 to 8 C (1.8 to 14.4 F) warmer. Buildings store and generate heat more efficiently than soil, rocks, or vegetation. The heat they emit combines with the heat generated by the people living and working in the city, by city traffic, by industry, and by the heating of the interiors of buildings to raise temperatures. Most importantly, heat loss at night, when buildings give out most of the heat stored during the day, is reduced because the dust and clouds act like a blanket to keep it in. Higher average tempera-
tures mean that city centers experience less snow and fewer frosts than either their suburbs or the surrounding rural area. The higher levels of cloud cover and of dust pollutants in the atmosphere mean that city centers also have higher rainfall levels and more fogs than adjacent rural areas. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2003 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. The sustainable approach to site planning and design goes beyond combining and comparing site inventories. A sustainable process attempts to determine the relationships between site factors and how those factors will adapt to change. Understanding these relationships also clarifies how development impacts from one area of the site will affect other areas. An evaluation of potential development impacts requires that a predevelopment baseline or environmental model be produced. This model will describe the essential functions and interrelationships of the individual site factors and will establish acceptable limits of change during and after construction. Selected environmental monitoring and testing will be done during construction. The entire build-out of the development will be phased to allow time between construction projects to monitor environmental impacts and adjust the baseline model.
Mayor step of Sustainable approach

The major steps in a sustainable approach to site planning and design are as follows: Model the ecosystem to establish an environmental understanding Assess social-economic context Establish acceptable limits of change Design facility within social and environmental thresholds Monitor site factors throughout construction Reevaluate design solutions between development phases
Vernacular and environmental design methods and studios

Architecture and building practices today are high cost, fatalistic solutions that keep us trapped in what is typically done. This is simply because designers, suppliers, and builders, as well as tax, insurance and real estate brokers and banks, i.e., everyone,
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makes more profit when houses, infrastructures, processes, and components cost more. Alternative ideas and methods exist to design and build effective low cost houses, landscapes and cities. What follows is a typically sustainable building process that involves these steps: Visualization of goals Environmental assessment Checklist of environmental design goals Design synthesis of aesthetic goals There are six historical principles (vernacular trends) to improve the energy efficiency and thereby effectiveness and usability of dwellings. They are: 1) Sitting and vernacular design; 2) Shade; 3) Ventilation; 4) Earth shelter, 5) Thermal inertia; and 6) Air lock entrances. To this list can be added six new techniques of environmental design (technologies, methods of effectiveness, and design synthesis): 7) Scale (footprint), insulation, and design of future alternatives; 8) On site water collection and waste disposal; 9) Solar water heating panels; 10) Photovoltaic electricity generation; 11) Recycling and use of local materials; and 12) On site growth of food, fuel and building materials. These twelve principles can be combined, as suitable, into synthesized solutions for various locations, users and climates that meet cultural needs with available materials under local conditions. The following begins to describe these methods and technologies and is an outline of twelve things one can do towards the end of poetic and self-sufficient buildings.
CONCLUSION
In all these effort the concern of sustainability of the city has been restricted to creating advisory guidelines for how saving land energy and quality of live, while rural area is creating healthy, improving education, and rural production. In this way it would be improved piece by piece over time. Each improvement would act as a catalyst for further improvement by the property owner themselves. The objectives are to benefit from increase income, proud and to which they like going a place to have fun in safety. Effective sustainable building design works well with an integration of historic principles and new technologies and methods. Some of the benefits gains will be: Conservation of natural and building resources Increased building durability Increased user comfort and satisfaction Energy and material savings Elimination of waste and pollution Savings from recycling.
REFERENCES
Alexander R. Cuthbert, 2003 Designing Cities: Critical Readings in Urban Design, Blackwell Publishing Singapore. Alexander R. Cuthbert, 2006 The Form of Cities: Political Economy and Urban Design, Blackwell Publishing Singapore. Astuti, 1992 Arsitek dan Karyanya: F. Silaban dalam konsep dan Karya, Nova, Bandung. Cliff Moughtin, 1996. Urban Design: Green Dimensions. The Bath Press, Bath, Great Britain. Gindroz, Ray, 2003. The Urban Design Handbook: Techniques and Working Methods, WW Norton & Company New York. Jon Lang, 2006 Urban Design: A Typology of Procedures and Product, Elsevier Ltd, Great Britain. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2003 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Shirvani, Hamid. 1985. The Urban Design Process. Van Nostrand Reinhold & Co. New York.
Historic Preservation and urban revitalization

Abandonees building have been converted into other uses when they are strategically located and have qualities that can be exploited. There are any changes in function it do the building give a sense of continuity, - a sense of history.
NOTE
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This paper was presented in International Seminar on Tropical Eco-Settlements, Bali Indonesia, 14-16th November 2006. PUBLIC WORKS International 2006
THE UNDERSTANDING OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT FORCES FOR ESTIMATION OF ADMINISTRATIVE DEFINITION OF URBAN AREAS
Puthut Samyahardja, Ichwan Subiantoro, Saraswati Research and Development Centre for Human Settlements, Ministry of Public Works Jl. Panyaungan, Cileunyi Wetan, Kab. Bandung, Bandung 40393, Indonesia Telephone: 62-22-7798393, Fax: 62-22-7798392
ABSTRACT
In Indonesia, the tendency of metropolises of a million or more inhabitants in the urbanization process is increasing concentration of the urban population. The extent of this process is however underestimated by the administrative definition of the urban areas (Kota and Kabupaten): thus, powerful forces of physical, sociodemographic, economic and functional urbanisation are also at work in fringe urban area or known as periurban zones classified as rural. This condition creates the gaps between the ground reality of the periurbanization process and the administrative classifications. The factors contributing to the outward urban expansion are examined. The approach adopted here for identifying and better understanding the forces of change at work in the peri-urban spaces (urban fringe areas) is as the change of settlement pattern in these areas, in terms of population and housing. In global, the respective share of the initial populations (the original villagers) and the settlers from the central zones of the metropolis or migrants from outside the metropolitan area) create linkages to the various evolving urban forms in the peripheral zones in form of planned areas as well as informal areas (squatter settlements and unauthorized colonies). In ecological terms, the effect of conflict interest between the Kota and the Kabupaten emerges un-balance usage of land for non-agricultural due increasing urbanization and industrialization and the urban life is encroaching more and more into the villages. However, in the name of development, increasing urbanized built up areas is always unstoppable. Is this the sustainable development?
INTRODUCTION
The awareness of urban change has main linkage with the political view, however in technical view it must focus on the role of stat of planning to create interaction system in land use planning. The informal and formal strategy is influenced by various public and private agencies including commercial, industrial, housing developer and individual pressure groups. It would be paid attention that there are many reasons why people and jobs are pushed into the rural hinterland, including the push factors from the urban planning strategy for developing the urban fringe area. Most of urban development strategy formally manages the urban containment. The conflict if
interest appear while it apply for urban development restraint in urban fringe area (outer city), the local government has difficulties to control the distribution growth to the selected area or district. Harington1 indicates that the residential development is the most significant element in urban fringe spatial change. In developing countries the urban fringe area2 faces two main challenges related to environmental perspectives3, namely: environmental problems and opportunities and quality of life of the poor related to environmental condition of living and working the large number of people within the habitat of lower income communities. Second, problem and opportunities for the sustainability of the natural resources base linked to the rural and
Harrington, John (1984), The Outer City, Harper and Row Ltd, London The urban fringe area can be sound as peri-urban area or outer city. 3 Allen, Adriana etc, (1999) Environmental Problems And Opportunities Of The Peri-Urban Interface And Their Impact Upon The Poor, Draft of Discussion, The Development Planning Unit, The UK Department for International Development, London
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urban development. Levels of government has own interest in urban development. Government of Kota (Municipal) in natural manner should manage the nonagricultural land usage. It should be aware that there are encroachments of land for developing housing, industrial, services and for other urban activities especially in urban fringe area, while Government of Kabupaten which appointed mostly for agricultural land usage, do not has enough energy to control land usage change. The process of development of urbanization has been traditionally structure around dichotomies such as urban-rural, formal-informal, industry-farmland etc. Most of Kota has direct administrative border with Kabupaten. In Bandung Raya area, Kota Bandung and Kota Cimahi are inside the Kabupaten Bandung. In some fringe areas of Kota Bandung, the build up areas continually exists from Kota Bandung area through Kabupaten area. It seems that there is no physical border that can be used as the principle identification of urban area (so called inner city). In real situation, Kota Bandung still has problems with squatters areas which have specific prototype of poor services, low income, illegal and un-wanted existence residential. Using the simple prediction, the fringe urban development has also similar problems to control the fast development of informal housing areas. In this paper, the first part will introduce the notion of informal settlement especially in Kota Bandung. The following part will issues the environmental problems with the poor services in urban area, continually with examination of land use change in the east of Bandung Raya area. It will be ended with a short remark on the next discuss for initiating the research themes of fringe urban development.
INFORMAL HOUSING 4
The formal housing sector in developing countries has difficulty in providing appropriate and sufficient dwellings. Public housing products are not
affordable by the majority of people. Most people who are still below a marginal income level will build their dwelling by themselves. An effective approach to housing provision should recognize that development resources are partly embodied in the people themselves. Families often perceive a gap between their needs and the condition of their housing. The responses from them are: (i) to move, (ii) to stay without housing modification; and (iii) to stay with housing modification. The impact of the first option is to change the place and find the perceivable area for the future live followed by physical features changes. In most developing countries, very rapid growth in urban populations occurs without commensurate expansion in public housing and infrastructure provision. The result is that many people, especially low-income families, live in urban areas with little or no provision of infrastructure, services and facilities. They live in crowded dwellings that provide physical shelter with only limited and basic services and facilities5. Local government authorities have failed to match the growth with investment in services in the (predominantly) poor areas. Formal housing sector has difficulties in providing appropriate dwellings and the housing units provided have tended to be relatively expensive due to construction cost. Even with subsidies, low-income families cannot afford them6. Despite the fact that most urban poor do not have access to basic services, cannot afford a decent standard of living through formal market mechanisms, and have an unstable relation with the authorities, informal housing provides an opportunity to construct gradually a housing environment parallel with the alteration of family needs and aspirations. A negative evaluation of a housing environment will reach a threshold of stress before stimulating an individual to search for a new housing environment. Three variables, the environment, the individual and interaction between the two, are part of measure of individual stress in a housing environment7. The stress can be measured by the level of
4 Taking from Samyahardja, P (1994), Residential Attitudes and Gradual Residential Improvement: A Case Study in Bandung, Indonesia, unpublish Thesis, UNSW, Sydney 5 Hardoy JE and D. Sateterrthwaite (1989), Shelter in the Third Word: Peoples Needs and Governments Response, International Development, 10-15 6 Cairncross, S et.al (1990), The Poor Die Young: Housing and Health in Third World Cities, Earthscan, London 7 Golant, S,M. (1971), Adjustment Process in System: Behavioral Model of Human Movement, Geographical Analysis, 3:203-220
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satisfaction with the environment. The more people are satisfied with their house and its environment, the less likely they are to consider moving. Using the satisfaction and dissatisfaction approach, it shows that a low level of residential satisfaction can predict such behavior as moving. The predictors of moving are stage in the family life cycle and resident Another life cycle measure which is related to housing adjustment through mobility is position in the labor market. Residents who are in strong positions in the labor market are generally also in a stronger position in the housing market than are the weaker residents8. The stronger parties in general can manage to get better dwellings, and the weaker parties have to search harder for appropriate housing. In some cases, the poorer the household, the more the pressure in the labor market and location preference contribute to the decision to move. There are three stages of housing adjustment for low income inhabitants in view of different locations and different dwelling environments. Each stage expresses one specific housing condition and place in urban areas. Families who are in the process of altering from one stage to another will fulfill their needs by moving to and choosing the right residential location within the city. The first stage is bridgeheader in which families are recent migrants and , they only seek physical shelter to avoid natural hazards. The intermediate stage and often final stage is the consolidator who wants to maintain the present place. The alternative and/or final stage is taken by the status-seeker who seeks a higher standard of amenity and locational-prestige. In fact, people have the ability to build their own dwellings themselves. Urban development policies by ignoring this, misapply those abilities. In urban areas in developing countries, between 30 and 60 per cent of people live in illegal houses or neighborhoods, and between 70 and 95 per cent of total houses are illegal9. Illegal housing areas are often classed informal housing areas Over time, families can gradually and progressively develop their houses according their needs
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and their capabilities. As their opportunities expand and diminish, housing works can start and stop, and materials can be obtained gradually. Homes may never be complete and may represent a continuous process of housing adjustment over time. Perlman10 (1986) indicates that families who live in informal residential areas are not only very likely to self-build their shelters, but also to construct and improve utilities and public services around their dwellings; such things as stairways, storm drainage and footpaths. This highlights the fact that the territory in which families may be involved in physical constructions and improvements includes their occupied dwellings and land as well as the immediate housing environment that directly contacts their dwellings or land According to current urban regulations, informal housing areas are not permitted to exist because these areas are characterized by the illegal land occupations and physical characteristics that are not keeping with building and site codes (Lim, 1987). Most urban regulations are not, however, effective or even implemented in informal housing areas because the capability for urban management policy is limited The notion of illegal and legal residential areas can be traced from the era of colonization era. Segregation appeared when colonial powers created formal residential areas provided especially for European inhabitants. These areas were in cities where cultural and social segregation was imposed. Illegal residential areas have several names with various connotations. A slum is results from the degeneration of houses that were at one time in good condition. Uncontrolled settlements instead of squatter or slum area is used in term of autonomous settlementUncontrolled settlement indicates that . urban regulations do not operate in an area; the term autonomous settlement implies that the area is self-governing or self-determining. In other perspectives illegal residential areas are called the squatter area . In Australia, in early history, squatter meant a person occupying Crown land for sheep raised
Priemus, H. (1986) Housing as Social Adaptation Process, A Conception Scheme, Environmental and Behavior 18(1):31-52 Hardoy, JE and D. Satterthwaite (1989), Squatter Citizen: Life in the Urban Third Word, London, Earthscan Publication 10 Perlman, J (1986), Six Misconception about Squatter Settlement, Development: Seeds of Change, vol 4:40-44. 10 Lim, G et al. (1980). Determinant of Home-ownership in a Developing Economy: The Case of Korea,. Urban Study, 17:13-23
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under a lessor license The squatter, in Australia, had . a legal basis for occupying the land and utilizing it. In American terms, squatters are defined as persons who settle on land without any legal authority, and intruders are persons who have some relationship to the property and enter upon it. In Indonesia, an illegal settlement in urban area is called kampong liar . Illegal housing can be defined as housing area where several facilities are unacceptable according to the formal rules of the urban authority. The deficiencies of informal housing compared to formal housing relate mostly to: access to formal infrastructure and services, building quality, and absence of standard building materials. By definition, informal housing is delimited by the legal aspect and physical characteristics. It is not defined specially in term of the people who inhabit informal areas. In terms of legality, it classifies illegal settlement in terms of legality of land occupancy and legality of physical characteristics Three . segments may be highlighted. The regular housing segment indicates that both land occupation and physical characteristics of building are legal according to government regulation. Slum housing falls into the segment in which building occupancy is legal but physical construction standards do not meet with the legal minimum requirements. Invasion housing is illegal land occupancy are illegal. In his explanation, Lim11 changes the terms illegal settlement to informal settlement Informal . settlement covers explicitly the three types of housing which have illegal characteristics (segment B, C and D in Diagram 2.2). Initially, kampungs were rural housing types in urban areas and were characterized by their agricultural activities and socially homogeneous residents with traditional cultural orientations. In recent times, however, the image of the kampung has included poverty, lack of education, and lower income and Table 1. Typology of Housing Occupancy.
more mixed in-migration has lessened homogeneity. Formally, Kampung is defined as uncontrolled areas, and this indicates that they are informal, unplanned and un-serviced areas. In some legal housing areas such as site-and-services housing and core-housing areas where legal standards do not apply to buildings component, these housing areas also classified as informal housing areas. Although inhabitants in informal housing areas have difficulties in entering the normal housing and goods market systems, the amount of housing construction actually done indicates that they have a particular form of market system. The problem is that the product fails to meet legal requirements for occupancy and housing structures and land tenure problems mean the low income inhabitants fail to achieve their rights concerning property and construction. Kampungs have existed in the urban areas of most big cities since the Dutch colonial era. In the colonial period, urban areas were planned to accommodate colonial people only. Most cities in Indonesia were born as rural settlements that consisted of clustered villages. Formal community services and houses were constructed along the main roads, with vacant land behind them. Indigenous laborers who worked for colonists resided in the vacant lands and maintained their original customs. As cities grew, but the kampungs, or informal housing, still follow some local community customs. According to their location in urban areas, there are two types of kampung: those located in the older parts of cities which are poor and more crowded, and those located near the edge of the cities which are less crowded, contain better constructed houses and are populated by higher income residents. In central kampungs while the , urban activities were growing and job opportunities
Land occupancy LEGAL Physical characteristics of land and structure

Source: (Lim, 1987:178)
LEGAL ILLEGAL
A REGULAR HOUSING MARKET B SLUM HOUSING MARKET
ILLEGAL C INVASION HOUSING MARKET D SQUATTER HOUSING MARKET
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were available, numbers of inhabitants increased rapidly as rural migrants moved into the city for employment, making do with the humble shelters they could find to accommodate themselves and to avoid the expense of transportation to work-places. After Indonesia became independent from Dutch colonization, kampung areas grew rapidly, particularly starting in the early 1960s. Land tenure in kampung areas in some cases is different from the housing tenure. In kampung which were originally villages, land status is based on traditional tenure. Kampung areas originally owned by colonial companies or by absentee and large landlords found the land nationalized at the end of the 1950s, so the lands automatically came under government control. Later, government controls became more effective and public housing programs were gradually provided. At the low income urban family levels, kampungs still catered for much of the increasing need in housing. Squatter areas were created because the original kampungs became overcrowded and the public authorities did not react. New urban inhabitants thus began to settle on river banks, along the railways, and on settle in the same kampung areas when they succeed in earning a reasonable income. Faced with financial problems and high dissatisfaction levels with original accommodations, urban residents often move away from the central city kampungs to peripheral areas which are still within easy reach of most urban services12. As the urban area develops, squatter clearance in certain areas for immediate construction of urban facilities cannot be avoided. Some inhabitants move to controlled settlements and others move to kampung areas. The image of the poor settlement seems to exemplify urban kampung areas, although considerable changes and developments have taken place. Physical improvement of kampungs was undertaken even during the Dutch colonial era and encouraged people to settle in there. Inward and outward mobility continued in line with the increase of
demand for urban land. Open lands among the formal settlement areas were inhabited by those who could not afford the original kampungs. Although there has been some improvement in conditions in Kampungs, semi permanent housing structures, dense population, and low health quality are still encountered. Housing is erected only in accordance with inhabitants needs rarely paying attention to the immediate environment. The building permit scheme still cannot be applied, not only because of their sub-standard physical condition, but also because the procedures and cost of obtaining building permits are generally inaccessible for inhabitants in kampungs. The mode of occupation in informal residents cannot always be defined as squatting. It can, however, be called informal Some of residents rent a plot of . land, buy a piece of land or occupy a relatives land, and then erect shelters on it. The extent of kampungs is still not clear because of the different definitions of kampung areas. They contain approximately 25 per cent of the urban population. In Bandung the uncontrolled settlement is about 20 per cent13 (Judohusodo, 1991). Non official estimations are considerably higher and suggest that about two-thirds of the urban population lives in kampungs .
THE SIFT OF LAND COVER AND ENVIRONMENT CONFLICT

The rapid and random expansion of urban centers along their peripheries is a typical phenomenon of urban landscape in developing countries in general and in Indonesia particular. The emergence of fringe zone with its complex problems of adjustments in between rural and urban ways of life has led to serious land use problems-loss of agricultural land, unauthorized urban sprawl, high land values, speculation in land and related problems and has assumed great topical importance but sadly remained a neglected area in urban research. Many terms synonymous to fringe such as urban fringe, rural urban fringe, sub-urban areas, suburbs,
12 Atman, R. (1975). Kampung Improvements in Indonesia , Ekistics, 238 (Sep):216-220 and Patton, CV and Subanu, LB, (1988). Meeting Shelter Needs in Indonesia, Spontaneous Shelters: International Perfectives and Prospects, Philadelphia, Temple University Press 13 Judohusodo, S, (1991), Tumbuhnya Permukiman-permukiman Liar di Daerah Perkotaan Sebagai Akibat dari Urbanisasi yang Tinggi, Jurnal Ilmu-ilmu Sosial, 1:1-13
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urban periphery and more recently extended metropolitan regions have been used in planning literature. Whatever may be the designations, conceptually, fringe is related to the growth of cities which lies immediately outside the designated urbanizable limits and has strong interaction with present city and bears an urban reflection on the physical, occupational and demographic characteristics. By and large, the residents of the fringe enjoy the urban services and facilities but usually do not pay for them. The process of urbanization operating in the fringe has given rise to typical land use associations where the contemporary and dynamic land use pattern is developing side by side in the contemporary context, the various land uses, Old villages, new residential extensions, commerce, industry, city service and farming are not nearly sorted out into homogenous areas but are intermingled in a random fashion which gives a distinctive quality to the land use pattern of rural urban fringe. The disorganized of development of slums, unauthorized colonies, piecemeal commercial development, intermix of conforming and non-conforming uses of land coupled with inadequate services and facilities have become a common features in the fringe. The dynamic change from rural to urban land use is so fast that the resultant need and complex uses coupled with shortage of land have led to speculation and increase in land values. The ever-growing difference between the demand and supplies of house sites and units on other forms of supply and very high cost of land in the city have increased the pressure of fringe area tremendously which has given rise to proliferation of unauthorized development of land uses-residential and industries etc. The fringe areas are generally within the jurisdiction of Kabupaten14 which has neither the financial resources nor the technical expertise to plan and manage the rapidly developing fringe. The urban authorities also ignore the problems of fringe as it
falls outside their limit. Thus the city and fringe, although, administratively fall in different areas, for the residents of the fringe there is hardly any difference between the two and their movement is unrestricted and they use the municipal services without paying for it. As a metropolitan city, the management of Bandung City could not be limited to its administrative boundary. The citys activities have expanded outside its administrative borders and as such, crosssect oral and cross-regional management is needed. Kota15 Bandung, the capital of West Java Province, is a vibrant city of 2.1 million inhabitants. Its urban activities have actually expanded beyond its citys boundary into parts of the Regency (Kabupaten) of Bandung, which has a total population of 4.1 million. The expanded urbanized areas form the urban agglomeration that is often referred to as the Greater Bandung Metropolitan Area (Metropolitan Bandung Raya or MBR).16 Like municipal areas, Kabupaten have no town planning rules, sub-division regulations and rules for provision of services suited to the dynamic situation of the fringe and haphazard development takes place. Since land in the city is beyond the reach of middle/low income group people, they look for land outside the city limit. The speculator who holds the land for quick profit starts selling it by parceling it unauthorized without any services. The buyers who are in urgent need for housing build houses on inserviced plot whereas others hold the plot without use in anticipation of infrastructure development. Unplanned development of fringe areas leads to the lack of public facilities- public open spaces, health centers and schools and degradation of environment as the required sanitary and water disposal services are not provided. The agricultural land around the city is eaten away and the agriculturists and workers are forced to change their occupation. In brief, it may be concluded that in order to offset and contain urban sprawl, green belt has been
Kabupaten is a political subdivision of a province in Indonesia. The Indonesian term kabupaten is also translated as district or regency 15 Kota is a political subdivision of a province in Indonesia which where the area is dominated by non-agriculture usage. The Indonesian term kabupaten is also translated as municipal 15 The MBR is not an institution that can actually coordinate development or activities of the City of Bandung and the surrounding regencies. Instead, coordination is more often conducted on a case-to-case basis either by the West Java Province or between local administrations
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statutorily provided in the plan which however has presented several difficulties. The extent of the area is so vast that it virtually impossible to prevent nonconforming uses in the green belts. The Kabupaten lack the men, material and the will to look after enforcement whereas the local authority has its own priorities within the conurbation to develop housing and services. Thus there is always a variety of pressures by vested interest groups for conversion of land use in the green belts. Industrialists press for large and cheap sites with less controls. Cooperative housing societies, which have purchased land for housing from farmers prior to notification of the green belts press for exemptions. Established industries have pressed for expansion and housing. Speculators have entered into deals with farmers for sale of their lands even after notification of green belt. Failure to prevent unauthorized development in the green belt has created serious environmental problems. In case of Kawasan Bandung Raya (Great Badung Area), the official urban areas inside the Kota Bandung area actually decline, while the region immediately surrounding have continued to grow quite rapidly. In 1998, population growth in Kabupaten Bandung is 5,7 %, Kabupaten Sumedang is 2,1 % and the Kota Bandung is around minus 0.1 %. It was predicted that some people move to the outer urban areas because of lack of housing in Kota Bandung. Urban Development Strategy for The Bandung Metropolitan area (1990) predicted that within the years of 1990 to 2000, population growth of Kota Bandung is 0,8 % and Kabupaten Bandung is 2.6 %.
Year 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 rate
Kota Bandung 1,819,356 1,816,385 1,809,964 1,817,939 1,782,466 1,806,409 -0.1 %
Kabupaten Bandung 3,169,637 3,223,710 3,267,761 3,529,584 3,557,417 4,438,605 5.7 %
Source: Bandung and Sumedang Regional Planning Agency (1998)
Table 3. Population growth projection in Kota Bandung and Kabupaten Bandung (1971-2000) in 1000 persons17
Year 1971 1980 1985 1990 2000 Kota Bandung % 1,00 2.1 1,61 2.2 1,04 1.9 1,14 1.3 1,60 0.8 Kabupaten Bandung % 1,95 2.4 2,669 3.3 3,079 2.9 3,529 2.8 4,558 2.6
Source: Urban Development Strategy Bandung Metropolitan Area.
Quote
Table 2. Population growth in Bandung Raya (Kota Bandung and Kabupaten Bandung).16
The outer city of Bandung (means Kabupaten Bandung) is still dominated by the agriculture activities in the total area. However, since the sift of non agriculture activities from the inner city, the urban fringe areas is now change from agriculture usage to non agriculture usage. Manufacturing and services employment has grown in urban fringe areas, encouraging the expansion of local housing market despite the existing of planning control. It has shown emerging a new form of settlement organization. In the formal and legal form outward spread of settlement and land use change should be followed the existence urban planning. It is to over-simplify. A variety planning between the Kabupaten Bandung and Kota Bandung and other factors effect settlement change in urban fringe areas. Here the settlement is heterogeneous: the squatter, the kampong, isolated masse housing, the commuter villages, new and expanded central trade activities, industrial and retail centre, second homes (villas) all set within a varied landscape, farm land and woodland.
16 E. Suhaedi, Phd, (2004) Kebijakan dan Strategi Pengembangan Program Tindak Pembangunan Perumahan dan Permukiman pada Kawasan Cekungan Bandung, Un-Publish, Diskusi Teknis Penyusunan Kebijakan dan Strategi Pengembangan Kawasan Cekungan Bandung, Dept. Pekerjaan Umum 17 E. Suhaedi, Phd, (2004). 18 E. Suhaedi, Phd, (2004)
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Table 4. Employment condition in Kota Bandung and Kabupaten Bandung18

Sectors Agriculture Industry Trade Services Others Kota Bandung persons % 6,215 0.69 238,938 26.68 243,790 27.22 336,710 37.59 70,045 7.82 895,698 100 Kabupaten Bandung persons % 338,577 41.15 78,123 9.49 93,808 11.40 154,668 18.80 157,627 19.16 822,803 100
Source: Bandung and Sumedang Regional Planning Agency (1998)
As predicted, the urban activities will expand to the outer urban areas. The debate about whether there exists a land shortage in Kawasan Bandung Raya is the central question of how far urban development should allowed encroaching upon the urban fringe. There is disagreement among the government official, the private company, and the common community about the rate of land transformation and about the regulation in urban planning policy. The local government side argues that urban sprawl create some inefficiency in urban infrastructure services and land usage. In this case the planning control has been in effective in controlling the rate of change. Others claim the reverse, advocating much stronger containment within definitions of national strategy for protecting food supply and the protection of natural resources in the environmental sound. Fears have already been voiced about relatively high proportion of new building taking place farmland outside the main formal urban areas as well as about the increased number of urban development effecting farmland not followed the public authority plans. The encroachment of industrial activity of all kinds has brought with it loss of farmland and woodland, a fragmented of farm, and steady deteriorating in the quality of landscape in urban fringe, although transferring the greenery to urban use is permitted in area where planning restriction have limited the scale of urban growth. In the most urban fringe areas, the growing scale of vacant land, damage or derelict land left behind as
developers seek new sites further out are pressing issues. The increase demand for urban land in the outer city especially in metropolitan zones is partly associated with the population growth, but it is also determined by the policy which are creating new kind of development pressure in the more attractive and accessible locations. An analysis of east Bandung Raya Areas20, in the border of Kota Bandung and Kabupaten Bandung, called Cileunyi Areas indicates that in 1997 there was still existing primary forest and sadly, in 2001 it was disappear. In other, the wet farmland (sawah) increased around 45 %. This data indicate that the inner city of Bandung had still land for housing development. In contrast, along the urban development in year of 1994 to 2005, the primary forest does not exist anymore, the secondary forest nearly half disappear. Most of greenery areas were decreasing. The industrial zone increase doubled, Housing areas increase more than 79 %. Surprisingly the bush areas appear in 2005, around 0.15 % of total analytical area. Table 5. Land cover (percentage) of Cileunyi Area in year of 1994, 1997, 2001 and 2005
Types Primary forest Secondary forest Industrial zone Mixed farm Dry farmland grassland plantation Settlement/housing Wet farmland Watery area Bush area TOTAL Land cover (%) 1997 2001 0.08 0.50 0.21 0.52 0.46 2.90 2.75 3.40 2.96 0.11 0.09 0.21 0.13 58.32 43.96 33.96 49.43 0.02 100 100
1994 0.07 0.42 0.44 2.48 2.91 0.09 0.18 42.86 50.55 100
2005 0.22 0.94 1.82 1.27 0.09 0.06 79.69 15.76 0.01 0.15 100
Source: Digital measurement on LandSat Image (1994, 1997, 2001, 2005)
The Cileunyi area is located in the edge of Kota Bandung and it part of Kabupaten Bandung. It is comparable situation between the development process settlement in inner city of Bandung and the Cileunyi Areas located in the outer city areas. It is
20
The land cover analysis is used the Landsat Image. The measurement is using GIS method system from the images taking in 1994, 1997, 2001 and 2005.
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also called the peri-urban area of Bandung City. Some observers still recognize the un-pleasant housing site in Kota Bandung. It characterizes by informal building permit, squatting, lack of clean water and insufficient sanitation services. In some cases, it is not only physical degradation, but also socio-economic decay. It believes that this condition occur also in the peri urban areas. From the urban managerial aspect, it is predicted that the Kota Bandung has sufficient detail planning for controlling urban settlement development. It is abounded in the notion of Kota (municipal) to arrange the non agricultural development similar with the notion of urban and /or City . Instead of Kabupaten that has duty to manage the rural-urban areas. When the Cileunyi area is dominated by the housing (settlement is 79.69 %), it sifts from the rural area to the urbanized area. The question is: Could The Kabupaten manage the areas characterized like the Cileunyi Area?
CLOSE REMARK
Land conversion from agricultural and natural to residential uses is typical process taking place in the Fringe area. Environmental impact is not only associate with the scale of land conversion but also with the type of land being lost to urban uses. Greenery areas that support the urban life are converted to urban uses, such as residential, Hypermarkets, sewerage treatment plans, landfills, waste treatment plans, military installations etc. These infrastructure developments have changed the nature and significantly impact on environment. Land cover change increases conflicts over land use priorities between urban based demand and environmental valuable function. In short time, it is disrupting the life and live hood of people who depend on agricultural production and continuously generates number of the poor. In long term, this process produces multiple effects on sustainability of urban development. A poor environment is a cause of poverty, and in turn poverty contributes to the poor environment. Urban populations in south Asia are expanding rapidly, placing enormous pressures on urban services. The proportion of urban residents living in slums is high and continues to grow. Provision of land is a key issue to alleviate the
shortfall of housing for the urban poor. There are already several solutions to the problem of access to land, ranging from provision of the most basic element, tenure security to the sites-and-services programs and land readjustment schemes. The urban poor are capable of improving their housing conditions by themselves if they are provided some type of security, or at least perceived security, of tenure. The governments would have to provide land which is reasonably close to income opportunities and basic amenities in order to make it a real alternative to squatting. Land and infrastructure provision for settlement in urban fringe gives effect to the sustainability of natural resources base and quality of life. From the environmental perspective, the threshold of urban manageable area for the Kota and Kabupaten faces two main challenges: a set of challenges is related with environmental condition of the fringe area as living and working environment of a large number of people characterized heterogeneous in social composition, and low income communities which is vulnerable state. It is not only the physical hazards related with unsuitable sites, but also lack of access to basic water and sanitation and poor residential conditions. the challenges link to sustainability of regional pattern on renewable and non renewable resources in fringe areas eco-systems. This is the effort to minimize the hazards and environmental cost of land transformation from rural to urban system. Adequate control for urban fringe is not really exist in most Indonesian institutional framework, even though the urban fringe is subject to many competing and interest. The Kota and the Kabupaten race to explore profitable resources with minor considerations on contribution to relieve poverty, protect the environment, maximize the productivity and represent synergy from urban and rural relationship.
NOTE
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DOMESTIC WASTEWATER REUSE

Ida Yudiarti Sumidjan Research and Development Centre for Human Settlements, Ministry of Public Works Jl. Panyaungan, Cileunyi Wetan, Kab. Bandung, Bandung 40393, Indonesia Telephone: 62-22-7798393, Fax: 62-22-7798392
ABSTRACT
One of water sources which has not been utilized is domestic wastewater which is usually discharged to the environment after being treated through Wastewater Treatment Plant (WTP). Domestic wastewater reuse represents an alternative way to overcome the current and future crisis of potable water supply. Wastewater reuse must be very helpful in minimizing the amount of wastewater in the environment. Wastewater reuse means giving adding value to un-economical wastes to become valuable raw water. The execution of wastewater reuse can be on site or off site. Techincally proven wastewater treatment processes such as Johkasou, Wastewater Treatment Plant (WTP) with activated sludge system are exist that its effluent can be used to produce water for water reuse. its effluent can be passed through a constructed SANITA garden or aquatic plants pool to improve the clarity of the effluent and remove algae.Wastewater reuse systems is providing water for toilet and urinal flushing in houses, office buildings, schools, shopping malls, and plants. In SANITA system, the removal efficiency of BOD is around 80 90%, of TSS is around 75 - 95% and around 97% for Coliform bacteria removal. In WTP system, the removal efficiency of BOD is around 95,64 99,16%, of TSS is around 92, 4599, 07% and around 99,91 99,99% for Coliform bacteria removal. SANITA and aquatic plants pool system are easy to implement and maintain (only to remove the old or dry the aquatic plants from the system), as well as both environmentally friendly and aesthetically pleasing to the public. Keywords : reuse, recycle, wastewater treatment
INTRODUCTION
Interest in reuse is increasing, as existing water supplies are unable to meet the demands of urban growth. Wastewater cannot be detached from peoples daily life. Therefore, wastewater will always be treated in any ways to protect the environmental and peoples health condition. Otherwise, it can affect activities of people living in unhealthy environment. People are increasing in number quite rapidly now meanwhile water resources are decreasing in its quantity and also quality, which has particularly happened to groundwater contaminated by improperly, handled domestic wastewater. The definition of terms used in water reuse application is the use of treated wastewater for a beneficial use, (Metcalf, 2002) such as watering plant, toilet flushing, cooling water, agricultural irrigation etc. Domestic wastewater is defined as human excreta, urine, and the associated sludge (collectively
known as black water), as well as, kitchen wastewater and wastewater generated through bathing (collectively known as grey water). According to MACMILLAN Dictionary of The Environment, Sewage is produced as a consequence of human activities; a method of disposing of it safely must be devised. There used to be time when people did not treat their wastewater because its quantity was not high enough to give impact to the surrounding environment and also its quality could still be naturally treated, known as self-purification. Domestic wastewater has been the main source of pollution to urban water bodies, which has reached 50 to 70 percent level according to Agenda 21 of Indonesia. The main quality of the domestic wastewater is biodegradable organics (organic formed) or feces and urine. Individual wastewater treatment system such as septic tank is still suitable with the service level of
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communitys environmental sanitation from rural, town to urban area. To learn whether on-site wastewater treatment is appropriate, some cases of residential development, which are lack of attention or even completely unconcern with the standards of wastewater treatments construction, can be referred to. Public sewerage covers only 1.26% of Indonesian population and a third of houses discharge black water directly without any means of treatment such as septic tanks, leaching pit etc (Collaborative Research for Implementation Strategy of Johkasou in Indonesia, 2005). Greywater, in particular, is not treated in most cases. Indonesian law requires the treatment of blackwater to meet the effluent standard of 100 mg/L in BOD (Decision Letter of Environment Minister No. 112 Year 2003 concerning Domestic Wastewater Standard). Therefore, on-site treatment such as Biofilter or Johkasou, Septic Tank and Night Soil Treatment Plant is still necessary. Indonesian Government identifies the living environment and public health as the key issues for development. In its development plan, the targets are set by 2009 for universal use of toilets and appropriate treatment of 60% of greywater. By the end of 2015, following commitment in the Millenimum Development Goal (MGD) program, Indonesia pledges that sanitation services should be covered by minimum 50% of total population. As technology evolves, wastewater treatment installation and its components applied lately have utilized modern technology also. Nevertheless, because of limitation in operation and maintenance skill, Indonesian people still need certain level of technology, which is appropriate with present social and economic condition, such as on-site sanitation treatment. Water resources are decreasing in its quantity and also quality, which has particularly happened and caused by improperly handled domestic wastewater. Effluent from on site wastewater treatment such as Johkasou in residential area or office building has not been optimally used. Meanwhile, drinking water from Municipal Water Enterprise, besides for daily needs, is also still used for planting and toilet flushing. Actually, the Johkasous effluent can be used for plantation watering and treatment, but its quality should be concerned
whether it is appropriate for reuse and recycling system. Concerning this, the system of domestic wastewater will be tried in the office area of Research Center for Human Settlements. The model which will be attempted is the technology resulted from research and development through Wastewater Treatment with Johkasou system and reuse of the effluent of Johkasou with Sanitation Garden. The model will act as field laboratory of Sanitation Garden in small scale. Sanitation Garden gives technical and economical benefits because it includes reuse and recycle processes.
WASTEWATER QUANTITY
Wastewater is produced as much as 40 80% from drinking water consumption which is allocated for the domestic purposes (National Urban Development Cooperation, 1996).
DOMESTIC WASTEWATER QUALITY

Typical data on the composition of untreated domestic wastewater as found in wastewater collection system is described as follows: Table 2. Typical composition of untreated domestic wastewater
Concentration a No Contaminant Units mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L Low strength 120 25 95 110 50 Medium strength 210 50 160 190 90 High strength 400 85 315 350 100
1 Suspend Solids Total (TSS) Fixed Volatile 2 BOD, 20C 3 Oil and grease 4 pH
Note: mg/L= g/m3

a
Low strength based on an appropriate wastewater flow rate of 750 L/capita/day Medium strength based on an appropriate wastewater flow rate of 460 L/capita/day High strength based on an appropriate wastewater flow rate of 240 L/capita/day Value should be increased by amount of constituent present in domestic water supply.
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due to a reason that the area needed per capita is higher than the other common conventional systems, although if compared with stabilization pond system it is still much less.
Edition Mc Graw Hill, Boston USA.
NOTE
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, Sanitation Garden works on a variety on organic and compound although still takes time. The result indicates that SANITA as a concept of reuse is becoming accepted more widely as other areas experience water shortages. It is clear that used water collected from household or other building must be viewed not as a waste to be disposed off but as a resource that must be reused. The existing wastewater treatment facilities can be used to produce water of almost any quality for water reuse. So, water reuse has a rightful place and has an important role in planning and practicing an efficient use of water resources. Several possible models of SANITA are suggested to be conducted to study the relevance of biodegradation process in treated water of SANITA system and the compound removal due to chemical and physical transformation.
REFERENCES
Gregory D. Rose, Spring 1999, Community-Based Technologies for Domestic Wastewater Treatment and Reuse: Options for Urban Agriculture, United State; Kawamura. Kiyoshi et al, 2005, Collaborative Research for Implementation Strategy of Johkasou in Indonesia, Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center- Japan, Research Institute for Human Settlement Ministry of Public Works of Indonesia, Institute Teknologi Bandung and Ciirebon Water Supply Enterprise, Bandung Indonesia; Ida Yudiarti Yunus, 2005, Pengaruh Daurulang Limbah Cair Domestik Terhadap Efisiensi Penyediaan Air Bersih , Padjadjaran University, Bandung Indonesia; Medawaty; Tohir, 2005, Pengembangan Pengolahan Air Limbah Rumah Tangga dengan Sistem Ekologi Sanitasi, Research Center for Human Settlements, Bandung Indonesia; Metcalf and Eddy, 2002, Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse, 4th Edition, International 108 PUBLIC WORKS International 2006
due to a reason that the area needed per capita is higher than the other common conventional systems, although if compared with stabilization pond system it is still much less.
Edition Mc Graw Hill, Boston USA.
NOTE
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, Sanitation Garden works on a variety on organic and compound although still takes time. The result indicates that SANITA as a concept of reuse is becoming accepted more widely as other areas experience water shortages. It is clear that used water collected from household or other building must be viewed not as a waste to be disposed off but as a resource that must be reused. The existing wastewater treatment facilities can be used to produce water of almost any quality for water reuse. So, water reuse has a rightful place and has an important role in planning and practicing an efficient use of water resources. Several possible models of SANITA are suggested to be conducted to study the relevance of biodegradation process in treated water of SANITA system and the compound removal due to chemical and physical transformation.
REFERENCES
Gregory D. Rose, Spring 1999, Community-Based Technologies for Domestic Wastewater Treatment and Reuse: Options for Urban Agriculture, United State; Kawamura. Kiyoshi et al, 2005, Collaborative Research for Implementation Strategy of Johkasou in Indonesia, Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center- Japan, Research Institute for Human Settlement Ministry of Public Works of Indonesia, Institute Teknologi Bandung and Ciirebon Water Supply Enterprise, Bandung Indonesia; Ida Yudiarti Yunus, 2005, Pengaruh Daurulang Limbah Cair Domestik Terhadap Efisiensi Penyediaan Air Bersih , Padjadjaran University, Bandung Indonesia; Medawaty; Tohir, 2005, Pengembangan Pengolahan Air Limbah Rumah Tangga dengan Sistem Ekologi Sanitasi, Research Center for Human Settlements, Bandung Indonesia; Metcalf and Eddy, 2002, Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse, 4th Edition, International 108 PUBLIC WORKS International 2006
INDONESIAS EXPERIENCE ON MANAGING PUBLIC-PRIVATE-PARTNERSHIP (PPP) INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

Andreas Wibowo Research Centre and development for Human Settlement Agency for Research and Development, the Ministry of Public Works of Indonesia Jalan Panyaungan Cileunyi Wetan Kabupaten Bandung E-mail: andreaswibowo1@yahoo.de
ABSTRACT
As with other governments in both industry and developing countries, the Government of Indonesia (GoI) has also acknowledged that the availability of adequate and reliable infrastructure facilities has a pivotal role for the national economic growth. However, the financing gap between the amount of funding required and the Government of Indonesia can afford to provide them is substantial. To bridge the gap the GoI is proactively encouraging private financing under the so-called public-private-partnership (PPP) contracts. This paper highlights the latest status of the PPP projects, risk and return trade-off in the infrastructure sector, the countrys policies to make business climate in the sector more conducive and investor friendly and important issues that need to be resolved. Keywords: Indonesia, public-private-partnership, infrastructure, risk, support
INTRODUCTION
It was Chile, New Zealand and the United Kingdom that re-popularized the use of private resources for public infrastructure development in the early of 1980s. Their successful stories then inspired many other governments in both industrial and emerging countries to adopt similar approaches. The World Bank reported that between 1990 and 2003, a total of 120 developing countries carried out nearly 8,000 privatization transaction in infrastructure, raising US$410 billion in privatization proceeds. In the early to mid 1990-s annual proceeds has averaged between US$20 billion and US$30 billion [1]. The rationale for privatization may greatly differ from country to country. However, two primary driving common factors normally include the financial resource scarcity of public sector and increasing disenchantments with the quality of services delivered by public utilities. It is widely acknowledged that the importance of the availability of adequate and reliable infrastructure facilities in sustaining economic growth. The central issue is that the Government of Indonesia (GoI) has long been being faced with acute financial problem in particular in the aftermath of the 1997 Asian Crisis. Before the crisis, infrastructure investment in percentage of
GDP was ever at the level of 5.34% in 1993/4 but it then exhibited progressively diminishing figures from year to year. In 2002 it hovered at only 2.33% of total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) [2]. The GoI estimates that the infrastructure investment, excluding operation and maintenance expenses should be at least 5% of GDP in order to reach the average GDP growth of 6.6% annually. This growth level is required to reduce the unemployment rate from 9.7% in 2004 to 5.1% in 2009 and the poverty rate from 16.6% in 2004 to 8.2% in 2009. The total required funding is on the order of Rp.1,300 trillion (or approximately US$145 billion under the assumption US$1 is rated at Rp.9,000) [2]. The State Budget can only cover 17% or about US$25 billion while other domestic resources, including commercial banks, insurance, and mutual funds account for 21% of total requirement, thereby leaving a financial gap of US$90 billion or about 62% of total requirement. Of this amount US$80 billion is expected to come from private sources and the remaining from donor countries. In light of the objective, the GoI initiated the Jakarta Infrastructure Forum in January 2005 in which a total of 91 infrastructure projects with a total worth of approximately US$22.5 billion in
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various sectors including toll roads, railways, electricity, airports, drinking water, ports, telecommunication and gas piping will be partnered with private sector in their development under public-private-partnership (PPP) contracts. The forum was successful in attracting the investors interest but it failed to generate real investments. A great interest is indeed expressed by prospective investors but the interest alone is insufficient; it must be subsequently followed with commitments. As of December 2005, only six projects were at the construction and operation stage. Tables 1 and 2 present the status of state-owned enterprise and private enterprise implemented infrastructure projects offered in the Infrastructure Summit 2005. This paper highlights the critical issues on PPP projects, including the risk-return mismatch which may explain the reluctance of private investors to commit their resources to infrastructure projects and policies taken by the GoI to create more conducive and supporting environments for private investment in the infrastructure Tabel 1 State-owned Enterprise Implemented Infrastructure Project Status as of December 2005
Sector Toll Road (PT Jasa Marga) Electricity (PT PLN) Gas Piping (PT PGN) Drinking Water Port Airport (PT Angkasa Pura I&II) Railway Telecommunication Total
Source: www.kkppi.go.id
Number of Project 4 4
FS, Design, Land Expropriation, Financial Closure 4 3
Constructi on 1
Operati on
3 11
2 9
1 2
Table 2 Private Enterprise Implemented Infrastructure Project Status as of December 2005

Sector Toll Road Electricity Gas Piping Drinking Water Port Airport Railway Telecommuni cation Total
Source: www.kkppi.go.id
No. of Project 34 8 6 24 4 2 1 1 80
Tender Preparat ion 10 5 4 6 1 1 1 28
Tender 4 1 1
Tender Award 4 1 1
Resumption of Prev. Investors 15 2
Constru ction 1 2
Operati on
17
Table 3 Evaluation of Risk-Return Mismatch in Indonesias Infrastructure Sector

Sub-sector Gas Toll road Telecommunication Transportation Non-building construction Return on Asset (%) 2003 2004 2005 14.00 3.00 5.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 11.14 9.18 13.34 6.06 6.98 10.50 -0.90 10.41 10.48 Cost of Capital (%) 13.92 17.94 16.58 23.08 15.09
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sector.
RISK-RETURN MISMATCH
Infrastructure privatization is nothing more than a transfer of some risks which are traditionally borne by the government to a private investor for which the investor is compensated with projectbased revenues which may take on several forms such as a full commercial operation right or a certain percentage of generated revenues and normally for a certain contractual period. The return of a project should then be commensurate with all projectassociated risks the investor must assume; otherwise, the project would not be attractive unless it is attached with some government support. To evaluate whether or not a risk-return mismatch exists in current practice, the author conducts a study on the historical financial performance of infrastructure portfolio in five sub-sectors: gas, toll road, telecommunication, transportation and nonbuilding construction and compares the average return on asset (ROA) or return on investment (ROI) to the cost of capital that is the return level that investors can earn elsewhere when taking investments of similar risk. The data used for this study are stock price indexes during the period January 2003December 2005 and financial statements of publicly listed infrastructure operators in the Jakarta Stock Exchange (JSX). The former are used for the purpose of estimating the cost of capital based on the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) and the latter are for measuring the portfolio financial performance. The results are tabulated in Table 3. As shown, there is no single sub-sector generating ROA higher than the corresponding cost of capital for three consecutive years. In many cases infrastructure industry is natural monopoly or semi natural monopoly one that provides their operators more incentives to set excessive prices. In a competitive market, firms can expect to earn only their cost of capital. Therefore, a high ROA is sometimes cited as an indication that the firm is taking advantage of a monopoly position [3]. This position advantage appears to be unlikely in Indonesia. Some factors which may explain why infrastructure investment in Indonesia is very risky include (i) tariff regulation ambiguity between rate-of-return system and pricecap system as occurred in toll road sector, (ii) inefficient risk allocation practices i.e. risk is assumed
by a party that is not in a better position to manage than its counterpart, (iii) heavy reliance on amicable negotiations rather than detailed and binding contractual agreements to solve a contractual dispute whereas negotiations may cause significant additional cost and time, create opportunities for unfair practices and make high uncertainties for contracting parties; (iv) strong public opposition in particular when dealing with land expropriation for project development and (v) tariffs which are often politically sensitive.
REVIEW OF LEGAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK Regulation On PPP Infrastructure

One of the criteria to successful PPP infrastructure projects is a stable and comprehensive legal and regulatory framework. This becomes relevant when experiences in partnering infrastructure facilities development are new for both government and private investors. In this respect, the GoI has continuously been reviewing prevailing laws and regulations and removing obstacles to private capital inflow in the infrastructure sector. Originally, PPP infrastructure projects were institutionalized through Presidential Decree No7/1998 on PublicPrivate-Partnership on Infrastructure Development and Management. The Decree covers the detailed aspects on how an infrastructure project can be implemented under PPP schemes, including technical and financial proposal evaluation methods in a competitive bidding and how to deal with unsolicited proposals. The GoI amended the Decree with the Presidential Regulation No 67/2005 on PublicPrivate-Partnership on Infrastructure Provision. One of the striking features that distinguish the new regulation from the previous one is that the GoI may provide some government support for infrastructure projects that meet the criteria set by the Minister of Finance when support is made available by the central government and by a local taskforce when support is to be provided by local government. Government supports may take on the forms of contingent liabilities (e.g., guarantees) and noncontingent liabilities (e.g., tax incentives, direct subsidy, equity participation, etc.). Intentionally the initial tariff and their regular adjustments are set to cover investment cost,
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operational and maintenance cost and to allow the operator to earn reasonable profit for a certain period. If not possible, the ability to pay will be a determinant in designing the tariff structure and the GoI will provide the investor with compensation for taking the project. The compensation level will serve as a bid criterion. A bidder who bids the least compensation wins the contract.
Right of way expropriation

Right-of-way expropriation for infrastructure project development often ranks high on the list of risks the private sector investor is much concerned. The emerging problem often centers on determining the appropriate compensation for landowners. This issue is non-trivial in Indonesia in particular in the toll road sector. The completion of the Jakarta Outer Ring Road (JORR) toll road project, for example, must be delayed for years because of protracted negotiation processes. As this paper is being written, a dispute between Jasa Marga and landowner on land prices remains unsettled. Another interesting example is the already operating JakartaSerpong toll road that was blockaded by a group of people that claimed they had not been compensated for their 1,000 m2 land. To facilitate the investor to procure land for the project development, the Government issued the Presidential Regulation No. 36/2005. The Regulation dictates that any compensation dispute case between landowner and the investor will be settled in court and the lawsuit should not interrupt the on-going project development process. In practice, the Regulation was tested in the Waru-Juanda and Middle East Ring Road II toll road projects. However, the implementation is still challenged by strong public resistance.
acting only as a toll road investor and the firm must fairly compete with other investors to win a concession contract. Their role as a toll road regulator is replaced by Badan Pengatur Jalan Tol, an independent body established according to the Law No. 38/ 2005. In the railway sector, the GoI is preparing a new law on railways to amend the Law No. 13/1992. As with the Law No. 38/2005, the new law will revoke the monopoly right of PT Kereta Api Indonesia which has traditionally the operation monopoly right of the railway networks in the country. The revocation of the monopoly right of PT Pelindo and PT Angkasa Pura for port and airport development and operation respectively is also being under consideration for the same objective.
INITIATIVES FOR ATTRACTING PRIVATE INVESTORS

In March 2006, the Government announced the national infrastructure policy package. It aims at creating more conducive business climates for PPP infrastructure projects. A set of action plans is specified along with the timetable. In general, the package raises seven policy issues: (i) promoting the private sector participation in the infrastructure provision; (ii) project financing from non-banking institutions; (iii) land procurement; (iv) authority discrimination between central and local governments; (v) financing capacity improvement; (vi) policies on public sector obligation; (vii) organizing infrastructure summit II. In an international conference on PPP infrastructure project, the Minister of Finance emphasized that the GoI will not provide any blanket guarantee as it may create moral hazard for guaranteed parties. Fiscal support will be targeted and used efficiently and effectively by scrutinizing project by project on individual basis. The criteria for projects to be eligible for some government support include the fiscal space availability when assuming new sovereign risk and the acceptability of the individual project risks. As part of the efforts to promote PPP projects, the GoI aims at establishing a PPP Centre under the coordination of the Komite Kebijakan Percepatan Pembangunan Infrastruktur Indonesia (Committee for Infrastructure Development Acceleration in Indonesia) to streamline the administrative procedures and processes related to PPP infrastruc-
Revocation of monopoly right

There is a tendency to revoke some monopoly right of state-owned enterprises. This begins with PT Jasa Marga that developed and operated toll roads throughout the country. Previously, PT Jasa Marga has a dual function: a toll road regulator and a toll road operator. Any entity is obliged to partner with PT Jasa Marga to develop and operate a toll facility. Many argued that the dual function no longer fit the requirement for promoting private financing in the toll road sector. At the present time, Jasa Marga is
112
ture projects. Under the land procurement issue, the GoI will limitedly revise the Presidential Regulation No. 36/2005 to more approach public aspiration. A high required bid bond might be a barrier for prospective investors to bid, as evidenced by unsuccessful tender of the Jakarta Outer Ring Road (JORR) project before it was taken over by Jasa Marga. In this project the GoI had to disqualify four pre-qualified bidders because of their inability to provide the bid bond in amount of about Rp.240 billion or 5% of the total project cost. Learning from past experiences, the Ministry of Public Works is considering cutting the required level up to only 2.5% of total project cost in the toll road sector. Until recently the GoI adopts the policy to take over a project once their investor is declared default in order to ensure the continuity of service delivery to public. The GoI considers changing the policy as it is believed to cause an infrastructure project less bankable. It must be well understood that whenever a project is less bankable, equity capital must be more employed. This makes the project financing high because equity is expensive capital owing to the fact that it possess residual payment characteristics.
OTHER REMAINING ISSUES

Providing some government financial support is perhaps the effective way in the short-run. One of the support types is guarantee. A guarantee can transform an infeasible risky infrastructure project into a financially attractive one because it provides a downside risk protection. The critical problem is policymakers tend to have an incentive to provide guarantees rather than cash subsidies, as they let the fiscal position of the government to appear better than it actually is [4,5]. Fortunately the GoI has realized that a contingent liability must be assumed when providing a guarantee. It is important to quantify the maximum possible exposure whenever the guarantee is called but it is not less important to value the estimated or likelihood of cost, to record it as government cost and allow it to appear in the government account. This practice has been implemented in some industrial countries. Valuing guarantees is complicated but some approaches can be used. Standard option techniques such as Black and Scholes model or binomial model, for instance, can be employed to compute the guarantee cost.
Even contingent liability analysis is becoming far less complicated with the availability of commercial simulation software packages. Using the software, an analyst may effortless conduct thousands of calculation iterations to generate all possible outcomes of guarantee payments. Another important issue is the selection of government support to provide. The most appropriate support one should be the one that imposes the least expected cost to the GoI but delivers the greatest impact on the project feasibility. A comparison of different supports is only possible when a contingent liability analysis is carried out. In case of the Indonesias toll road sector, the interested reader may consult with [6]. Again, a sound and comprehensive contingent liability analysis will certainly help promote transparency and accountability. The macro environment is expected to improve under the new infrastructure policy. However, it must be followed with supportive concession environment. As already mentioned, concession contracts, at least in the toll road sector, are so poorly designed that might create potential contractual disputes. Concession contracts must be detail and comprehensive to limit any negotiation possibility for either contracting party. Contract standardization might be an option in effort to produce high-quality contracts. The GoI must also be aware of the implication of a change in laws and regulations in particular when it contradicts the substance of concession contracts. For example, the Government Regulation No. 40/2001 stipulates that a periodical review for toll adjustments is three years whereas most, if not all, concession contracts regulate that the periodical review is two years. It is worthy noting here that extending one year has significant impact on project cash flows.
CONCLUSION
The GoI recognizes the indispensable role of the availability of adequate and reliable infrastructure facilities in sustaining national economic growth. However, there is a substantial financial gap between the GoI can afford and the amount required for infrastructure investments to catch up with the expected level of GDP growth. This gap is expectedly to be bridged by private financing. Past
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practices have shown that attracting private sector investors is not simple, as evidenced by unsuccessful of the infrastructure forum held by the GoI in generating real investments in the sector. The GoI has announced the infrastructure policy package in effort to create more conducive business environment, including reviewing legal and regulatory frameworks which may hinder private capital inflow to the sector. One of the important issues is that the GoI is willing to provide some government support for an individual infrastructure project given that the project meets the specified criteria. The supports may be in the form of contingent liabilities such as guarantees and non-contingent liabilities such as subsidy, equity participation, tax incentives, etc. It must be well understood that any support provision must take into account its impact on the state budget as well as its impact on project viability.
REFERENCES
Kikeri, S. and Kolo, A., Privatization Trends Note No. . 303, World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2006. Coordinating Minister for Economic Affairs of Indonesia, Infrastructure Development Strategies in Indonesia Infrastructure Summit, Jakarta, , January 17-18, 2005. Brealey, R.A. and Myers, S.C., Principles of Corporate Finance. Sixth Edition., Irwin McGraw-Hill, New York, 2000. Mody, A. and Patro, D., Methods of Loan Guarantee Valuation and Accounting CFS Discussion Paper . Series No. 116, World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1995. Kerf, M. et al., Concession for Infrastructure Technical . Paper No. 399, World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1998. Wibowo, A., Valuing Guarantees in a BOT Infrastructure Project Journal of Engineering, Construction, . and Architectural Management, Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 395-403, 2004.
NOTES
This paper was presented at the 10th East Asia Pacific Conference on Structural Engineering and Construction, Bangkok, 3-5 August 2006.
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ISSN : 1907-0004

Jakarta, December 2006

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FLASH FLOOD AND ITS PROBLEM

Swollen water level in upstream submerged houses

Collapse of soil mass of Landslide Debris Flow, Flood

Flash Flood At Nias Island (North Sumatera) In July 2001

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Flash Flood At Padusan, Pacet on 11 December 2002

Flash Flood At Bahorok, Langkat on 2 November 2003

FLASH FLOOD MANAGEMENT Flash Flood Control

FLASH FLOOD DAMAGE MITIGATION POLICY

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Scores and criterions

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Industrial Area Objects Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area etc

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area etc

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area etc

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area etc

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area etc

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area etc

Table 2. Questionnaire results for criterions determination

Table 4. Illustration problem to determine the priority index of each area

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Figure 1. Mechanism of Filtration by aquatic plants

2. Material and method

OFF-SITE DOMESTIC WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEM

Table 1. Present Domestic Wastewater Service through Piping Network in Indonesia

3. Results and discussions

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4. Ecotech Garden Treatment Performance

5. Ecotech Garden Construction Cost

6. Improvement of EG-2006 Performance

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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

7. Application of Ecotech Garden as a Contribution to the Conservation of Water Sources.

Influencing factors on the pollutant removal percentage:

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REVITALIZATION OF LAKE PLUIT

2.2 Sampling for Water Quality Analysis

2.1 Sounding of Lake Pluit

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Depth (m) Ked alam an

Fig 3. Location of Water Sampling Points and Discharge Measurement

I. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Hydrological Data Analysis

3.1 Water Quality Data Analysis

Karang Creek 57.494 Ha

PLUIT PERMAI PUMP Cap = 2 x 0.3 m3/s

PLUIT SAKTI PUMP Cap = (1 x 0.1)+(3 x 0.05) m3/s

3.2 Concept of Revitalization

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Fig 6. Layout of Long-Storage Cross-Section WATER RESOURCES 29

IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

EFFECT OF SEDIMENT RATE AT SAGULING RESERVOIR TO ITS LIFETIME

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background

1.2. Problem Identification

1.3. Location and Period of the Research

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1.4. Purpose and Objectives