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dt t h | ) ( |
2.2 Linearity
The basic system input-output characteristics is defined by the following transformation
)] ( [ ) ( t x T t y = (12)
If x
0
(t) and x
1
(t) represents two different inputs to the system, the system is considered linear if
)] ( ) ( [ )] ( [ )] ( [
1 0 1 0
t x t x T t x T t x T + = + (13)
) ( ) ( ) (
01 1 0
t y t y t y = +
The assumption of linearity also allows the following
)]] ( [ [ )]] ( [ [ ) ( t x S T t x T S t y = = (14)
where S[ ] and T[ ] are linear transformations.
2.3 Convolution
Many naturally occurring phenomena can be modeled as a convolution process. It is defined as
y(t)=h(t)*x(t) (15)
y(t)=x(t)*h(t) (16)
where h(t) and x(t) are the system impulse response and input signal respectively. If defined in
integral form, it can be expressed as
(17)
)
= d t x h t y ) ( ) ( ) (
(18)
)
= d t h x t y ) ( ) ( ) (
Example:
Consider the LTI system with an impulse response as
1 ) ( = t h 2 0 s s t
= 0 elsewhere
If the input to the system is given by
1 ) ( = t x 1 0 s s t
= 0 elsewhere
then the output of the system is
)
= t t d t h t x t y ) ( ) ( ) (
The convolution procedure described in graphical form is as shown below.
0 2
h(t)
t
0 1
x(t)
t
a) The definition of the system impulse response h(t) and the input signal x(t).
1 -2 0
1
1 0
1
-2 0
1
1
1 1
h(0-t)
t
x(t)
t
x(t)*h(0-t)
t
Then
)
= = 0 ) 0 ( * ) ( ) 0 ( t t t d h x y
b) The result at t=0.
1 0
h(1-t)
-1 1 0
x(t)
x(t)*h(1-t)
1 0 -1
t
t
t
Then
)
= = 1 ) 1 ( * ) ( ) 1 ( t t t d h x y
c) The result at t=1.
x(t)
h(2-t)
x(t)*h(2-t)
2
0
1
1 0
1
2 1 0
1
t
t
t
Then
)
= = 1 ) 2 ( * ) ( ) 2 ( t t t d h x y
d) The result at t=2.
x(t)
h(3-t) x(t)*h(3-t)
0 1 0 1 3 1 0
1
3
t
t
t
1
1
Then
)
= = 0 ) 3 ( * ) ( ) 3 ( t t t d h x y
e) The result at t=3.
0 1 2 3
y(t)
t
1
f) The overall results.
Figure 1 The steps and overall results for the computation of convolution.
3.0 Fourier Series
The Fourier series describes that any periodic signal can be defined as a weighted sum of
complex exponentials. The series can be defined in terms of the analysis and generation
functions
)
=
2 /
2 /
0
0
0
0
) 2 exp( ) (
1
T
T
k
dt t kf j t x
T
c t (19)
) 2 exp( ) (
0
t kf j c t x
k
k
t
_
=
= (20)
where f
0
is the fundamental frequency, T
0
is the period and the fundamental frequency is the
inverse of the period. The analysis function estimates the frequency content of a signal that is
represented by the coefficients c
k
. The generation function can be used to reconstruct the signal
based on the coefficients.
3.1 Characteristic of Fourier Series
Time domain
x(t)
continuous in time
periodic
Frequency domain
a
k
discrete frequency
aperiodic (non periodic)
The properties of the Fourier series are shown in Table 1.
Properties x(t) c
k
Differentiation
n
n
dt
t x d ) (
| |
kt f j
n
n
k
e
dt
d
c
0
2t
Integration
)
2 /
2 /
0
0
) (
T
T
dt t x dt e c
T
T
kt f j
k )
2 /
2 /
2
0
0
0
t
Time-shift ) (
d
T t x d
T f j
k
e c
0
2t
Frequency-shift
t f k j
e t x
0 1
2
) (
t
t f k c
k k 0 1 1
2 where
1
t e =
+
Even symmetry ) ( ) ( t x t x =
Odd symmetry ) ( ) ( t x t x =
Linearity ) ( ) ( t y t x +
k k
d c +
Product of two signals ) ( ) ( t y t x
_
l
l k l
d c
Convolution of two signals ) ( * ) ( t y t x
k k
d c
Parsevals theorem
| |
)
=
2 /
2 /
2
0
0
0
) (
1
T
T
x
dt t x
T
P
_
=
=
k
k x
c P
2
Table 1 Fourier series properties.
3.2 Sample Calculations for the Fourier Series
A periodic signal defined within a period T is
x(t)=1 -T
0
/4<t<T
0
/4
=0 -T
0
/2<t<-T
0
/4, T
0
/4<t<T
0
/2
Based on the analysis function, the Fourier series coefficients are
4 /
4 /
0
2
0
4 /
4 /
2
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
) 1 (
1
T
T
t kf j
T
T
t kf j
k
kf j
e
T
dt e
T
c
= =
)
t
t
t
(
+
=
0
4 / 2 4 / 2
0
2
1
0 0 0 0
kf j
e e
T
T kf j T kf j
t
t t
since f
0
T
0
=1, further simplifications results in
2 /
) 2 / sin(
2
1 ) 2 / sin(
k
k
k
k
c
k
t
t
t
t
= =
f
0
=1/T
Figure 2 Time domain and frequency domain representation of a signal
3.3 Derivation of the Parsevals Theorem
The Fourier series is an example of an orthogonal transformation. As a result, the energy is
conserved in both the time and frequency domain. If a periodic signal is defined as a Fourier
series
(21)
t kf j
k
k
e c t x
0
2
) (
t
_
=
=
The power of the signal is
dt e c e c
T
dt t x t x
T
P
t lf j
l
l
t kf j
k
k
T
T
T
T
x
*
1
) ( * ) (
1
0 0
0
0
0
0
2 2
2 /
2 /
0
2 /
2 /
0
(
= =
_ _
) )
=
t t
(22)
Rearranging the terms will result in
dt e e c c
T
T
T
t lf j t kf j
k
l
l
k
)
_ _
=
=
2 /
2 /
2 2 *
0
0
0
0 0
1
t t
(23)
Since the Fourier series is linear transformation, the integration and summation order can be
interchange that results in
dt e
T
c c dt e c c
T
k l
T
T
t f l k j
l k
t f l k j
k
l
l
T
T
k _ _
)
_ _
)
= =
2 /
2 /
) ( 2
0
* ) ( 2 *
2 /
2 /
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
1 1
t t
(24)
For k=l, the integration of the complex exponentials is
1
1
2 /
2 /
) ( 2
0
0
0
0
= =
)
dt e
T
T
T
t f l k j t
(25)
and is zero otherwise. Thus, the results is now
(26)
_ _
=
= =
k
k
k
k k
c c c
2 *
Thus, it is proven that relationship between the power in the time and frequency domain is
_ _
)
= = =
k
k
k
k k
T
T
x
c c c dt t x t x
T
P
2 *
2 /
2 /
0
0
0
) ( * ) (
1
(27)
4.0 Fourier Transform
The Fourier series is not practical because a signal that is periodic does not exist in practice. A
modification in the assumption of the Fourier series results in the Fourier transform that
applicable for practical signals.
4.1 Derivation of the Fourier Transform
By redefining the coefficients as
(28)
k
c T k X
0
) ( =
the Fourier series analysis and generation functions are now
)
=
2 /
2 /
2
0
0
0
) ( ) (
T
T
t kf j
dt e t x k X
t
(29)
t kf j
k
e k X
T
t x
0
2
0
) (
1
) (
t
_
=
= (30)
By making the period T
0
large, the result is
0
T
from discrete to continuous variable f kf
0
for the generation function
)
_
The Fourier series has now become the Fourier transform that is defined in terms of the analysis
and generation function as
)
= dt e t x f X
ft j t 2
) ( ) ( (31)
)
= df e f X t x
ft j t 2
) ( ) ( (32)
4.2 Characteristic of Fourier Transform
Time domain
x(t)
continuous in time
aperiodic
Frequency domain
X(f)
continuous frequency
aperiodic (non periodic)
The properties of the Fourier transform are shown in Table 2.
Properties x(t) X(f)
Differentiation in time
n
n
dt
t x d ) (
| |
ft j
n
n
e
dt
d
f X
t 2
) (
Integration in time
)
2 /
2 /
) (
T
T
dt t x dt e f X
T
T
ft j
)
2 /
2 /
2
) (
t
Time-shift ) (
d
T t x
d
fT j
e f X
t 2
) (
Frequency-shift
t f j
e t x
1
2
) (
t
) (
1
f f X
Linearity ) ( ) ( t y t x + ) ( ) ( f Y f X +
Product of two signals ) ( ) ( t y t x
)
dv v f Y v X ) ( ) (
Convolution of two signals ) ( * ) ( t y t x ) ( ) ( f Y f X
Time scaling ) (at x
|
.
|
\
|
a
f
X
a
1
Parsevals theorem
| |
)
= dt t x E
x
2
) ( | |
)
= df f X E
x
2
) (
Table 2 Fourier transform properties.
4.3 Example of Fourier Transform
A signal is defined as
) 2 cos( ) (
1
t f t x t = -T/2<t<T/2
= 0 elsewhere
x(t)
T/2
-T/2
Figure 3 Time domain representation of signal.
The analysis function is
)
= dt e t x f X
ft j t 2
) ( ) (
The signal x(t) can be represented in terms of complex exponentials
2
) 2 cos( ) (
1 1
2 2
1
t f j t f j
e e
t f t x
t t
t
+
= =
Substituting the signal into the analysis function result in
dt e e dt e e
dt e t f f X
ft j
T
T
t f j ft j
T
T
t f j
ft j
T
T
t t t t
t
t
2
2 /
2 /
2 2
2 /
2 /
2
2
1
2 /
2 /
1 1
2
1
2
1
) 2 cos( ) (
) )
)
+ =
=
dt e dt e
T
T
t f f j
T
T
t f f j
) )
+ =
2 /
2 /
) ( 2
2 /
2 /
) ( 2
1 1
2
1
2
1
t t
2 /
2 /
1
) ( 2
2 /
2 /
1
) ( 2
) ( 2 2
1
) ( 2 2
1
1 1
T
T
t f f j
T
T
t f f j
f f j
e
f f j
e
+
+
+
(
=
t t
t t
(
+
+
(
=
+ +
+
) ( 2 2
1
) ( 2 2
1
1
2 / ) ( 2 2 / ) ( 2
1
2 / ) ( 2 2 / ) ( 2
1 1
1 1
f f j
e e
f f j
e e
T f f j T f f j
T f f j T f f j
t
t
t t
t t
The equation is further simplified by using the complex exponential representation for the sine
function
T f f
T f f T
T f f
T f f T
f X
) (
) ) ( sin(
2 ) (
) ) ( sin(
2
) (
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
=
t
t
t
t
Figure 4 Frequency domain representation of signal.
If T=> then
X(f) = (f-f
1
)+ (f+f
1
)
Figure 5 Frequency domain representation as T approaches infinity.
4.4 Fourier Transform and Time Domain Convolution
If the input-output relationship is a convolution, then the relationship can be expressed as
multiplication in the frequency domain. The input and output of a system h(t) is x(t) and y(t)
respectively. When expressed in terms of the Fourier transform is
(33)
) ) )
= = dt e d t x h dt e t y f Y
ft j ft j t t
2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
By changing variables t
1
=t-, t=t
1
+, and dt
1
=dt, the above equation becomes
) ) ) )
+
=
1
2 2
1 1
) ( 2
1
1 1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( dt d e e t x h dt d e t x h
ft j f j t f j
t t t
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
1
1 1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( dt e t x d e h dt d e e t x h
ft j f j ft j f j
) ) ) )
= =
t t t t
(34)
Based on the definition of the Fourier transform, the equation is further simplifies as
) ( ) ( ) ( f X f H f Y = (35)
This shows that time-domain convolution is equal to multiplication in the frequency domain.
Similarly, a multiplication in time-domain results in convolution in frequency domain.
Example
If a system h(t) has Fourier transform that is defined as
H(f)=1 -1000sfs1000
=0 elsewhere
it is desired to determine the output of the system y(t) when subjected to an input
) 1500 2 cos( ) 750 2 cos( ) ( t t t x t t + = s s T T t T , 2 / 2 /
=0 elsewhere
The Fourier transform of x(t) is
) 1500 (
2
1
) 1500 (
2
1
) 750 (
2
1
) 750 (
2
1
) ( + + + + + = f f f f f X o o o o
The Fourier transform of the output is
) 750 (
2
1
) 750 (
2
1
) ( ) ( ) ( + + = = f f f X f H f Y o o
By using the generation function, the output in time is
) )
+ + = = dt ft j f f dt ft j f Y t y ) 2 exp( ) 750 (
2
1
) 750 (
2
1
) 2 exp( ) ( ) ( t o o t
Using the properties of the delta function, the output is simplified as
) 750 2 cos( ) ( t t y t =
4.5 Derivation of the Parsevals Theorem
Similar to the Fourier series, the Parsevals theorem is also applicable to the Fourier transform.
Assuming the signal aperiodic, the energy is
) )
= =
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
2
) ( * ) ( ) (
T
T
T
T
x
dt t x t x dt t x E (36)
When expressed in terms of the analysis function of the Fourier transform, the energy can be
expressed as
(37) dt dv vt j v X df ft j f X
T
T
* ) 2 exp( ) ( ) 2 exp( ) (
2 /
2 /
(
(
(
(
=
) ) )
t t
The linearity of the Fourier transform allows changing the order of integration that results in
dfdv dt t v f j v X f X dt dfdv vt j ft j v X f X
T
T
) ) ) ) )
(
(
=
(
(
=
2 /
2 /
) ) ( 2 exp( ) ( * ) ( ) 2 exp( ) 2 exp( ) ( * ) ( t t t
(38)
Since the terms within the square brackets is non zero for f=v, then the equation simplifies as
(39) dfdv v X f X
) )
= ) ( * ) (
The functions X(f) and X(v) are essentially the same. Thus, the above equation becomes
) ) ) )
= = = df f X df f X f X dfdv v X f X
2
) ( ) ( * ) ( ) ( * ) ( (40)
Thus, it is shown that the energy in time and frequency is
) )
= = df f X df t x E
T
T
x
2
2 /
2 /
2
) ( ) ( (41)
By dividing both sides of the equation by the signal duration T, the theorem is extended to
power.
5.0 Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform originated from the Fourier transform. As known, the Fourier transform
enables us to understand the behaviour of a system in the frequency domain by allowing a signal
x(t) to be represented as a continuous sum of complex exponential. Thus, the introduction of the
convergence factor into the Fourier transform integral leads to the Laplace transform.
5.1 Derivation of Laplace Transform
Recalling the definition of the Fourier transform pair for a signal x(t),
dt e t x f X
ft j
)
=
t 2
) ( ) ( (42)
df e f X t x
ft j
)
=
t 2
) ( ) ( (43)
Defining a function y(t) as
(44) ) ( ) ( t x e t y
t o
=
The term is introduced known as the convergence factor. An appropriate choice for
t
e
o
o will
make y(t) absolutely convergent and its Fourier transform will exist for a large number of
functions. By substituting Equation 45 into Equation 43, the Fourier transform for y(t) is given
by
dt e t y f Y
ft
)
=
t 2
) ( ) (
(45)
)
+
= dt e t x
t f j ) 2 (
) (
t o
The equation can be rewritten as
(46)
)
+
= + dt e t x f j X
t f j ) 2 (
) ( ) 2 (
t o
t o
A variable s is used to represent f j t o 2 + is defined
f j s t o 2 + =
It is customary to call s as the complex frequency variable as f t 2 appears in the imaginary part
of the complex variable s.
Since , the Equation 46 can be written as jdf ds =
(47)
)
= dt e t x s X
st
) ( ) (
)
+
=
t o
t o
t
2
2
) (
2
1
) (
j
f j
st
ds e f X
j
t x (48)
The Equations 47 and 48 are known as the bilateral Laplace Transform. Since we consider a
causal system, unilateral Laplace transform are usually used.
(49)
)
=
0
) ( ) ( dt e t x s X
st
ds e f X
j
t x
f j
st
)
+
=
t o
t
2
0
) (
2
1
) ( (50)
5.2 Laplace Transform Properties
The properties of the Laplace transform are shown in Table 3.
Properties x(t) X(s)
Linearity
) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
t x a t x a + ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
s X a s X a +
Shift in time ) ( t t x
) (s X e
st
Shift in s-plane
) (t x e
t o
) ( a s X
Time scaling ) (at x
) (
1
a
s
X
a
Differentiation
dt
dx
) 0 ( ) (
x s sX
Integration
)
t
d x t t ) (
)
+
0
) (
) (
t t d x
s
s X
Multiplication by t ) (t tx
ds
s dX ) (
Division by t
t
t x ) (
)
s
du u X ) (
Convolution in time
t t t d t x x ) ( ) (
2 1
) ( ) (
2 1
s X s X
Convolution in frequency
2 1
x x
du u s X u X
j
j c
j c
) ( ) (
2
1
2 1
)
+
t
Initial value theorem
) 0 (
+
x
) ( lim s sX
s
Final value theorem
) ( lim t x
t
) ( lim
0
s sX
s
(Valid only if sX(s)
has all its poles in
the left half of the
s-plane.)
Table 3 Laplace transform properties
5.3 Laplace Transform Examples
This section show some examples of calculations involving the Laplace transform.
A signal is defined as
at
e t x
= ) ( 0 > t
= 0 0 < t
) )
= =
0 0
) exp( ) ( ) ( dt e at dt e t x s X
st st
+
+
= =
)
0
) (
0
) (
) ( s a
e
dt e
t s a
t s a
) (
1
) (
exp
) (
0 ) ( ) (
a s s a s a
e
s a s a
+
=
+
+
+
=
+ +
A sinusoidal signal is expressed as
) 2 cos( ) (
1
t f t x t = 0 > t
= 0 0 < t
) )
= =
0
1
0
) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( dt e t f dt e t x s X
st st
t
By defining the cosine function in terms of complex exponentials, the Laplace transform is
) )
+ =
0
2
0
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
) ( dt e e dt e e s X
st t f j st t f j t t
) )
+ =
0
) 2 (
0
) 2 (
1 1
2
1
2
1
dt e dt e
t s f j t s f j t t
+
+
=
0
1
) 2 (
0
1
) 2 (
) 2 ( 2
1
) 2 ( 2
1
1 1
s f j
e
s f j
e
t s f j t s f j
t t
t t
) 2 ( 2
1
) 2 ( 2
1
) 2 ( 2
1
) 2 ( 2
1
1
0 ) 2 (
1
) 2 (
1
0 ) 2 (
1
) 2 (
1 1 1 1
s f j
e
s f j
e
s f j
e
s f j
e
s f j s f j s f j s f j
+
+
+
=
+ +
t t t t
t t t t
) 2 )( 2 (
) 2 ( ) 2 (
2
1
) 2 (
1
2
1
) 2 (
1
2
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
s f j s f j
s f j s f j
s f j s f j +
+ +
=
+
+
=
t t
t t
t t
( ) ( )
2
1
2
1 1 1 1
2
) 2 )( 2 ( ) 2 )( 2 (
2
2
1
f s
s
f j s f j s
s
s f j s f j
s
t
t t t t
+
=
+
=
+
=
( ) ( )
2
1
2
2
) (
f s
s
s X
t +
=
5.4 Solution of Differential Equation and Transfer Function
The Laplace transform can be used to determine the solution to differential equations. Given
that the input-output relationship of a linear time-invariant system is as follows
) ( ) ( ) 2 ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) (
2
2
t x t y a t y
dt
d
a t y
dt
d
= + + (51)
By taking the Laplace transform, the above equation becomes
(52) ) ( ) ( ) 2 ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) (
2
s X s Y a s sY a s Y s = + +
Putting all the s terms together results in
| | ) ( ) ( ) 2 ( ) 1 (
2
s X s Y a s a s = + +
) (
) 2 ( ) 1 (
1
) (
2
s X
a s a s
s Y
(
+ +
= (53)
The transfer function of the system obtained by taking the ratio of Y(s) and X(s) is
) 2 ( ) 1 (
1
) (
) (
) (
2
a s a s s X
s Y
s H
+ +
= = (54)
For a more general case, the transfer function is in the form of
_
_
=
=
+ + + +
+ + + +
=
N
n
n N
N
n
n N
N N N
N N N
s n a
s n b
N a s a s a s
N b s b s b s b
s H
0
) (
0
) (
2 1
2 1
) (
) (
) ( ...... ) 2 ( ) 1 (
) ( ...... ) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) 0 (
) ( (55)
where N is the polynomial order. The transfer function when factorized in terms of its roots is
( )( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
( )
[
[
=
=
+
+
=
+ + +
+ + +
=
N
n
N
n
n s
n s
N s s s
N s s s
s H
0
0
) (
) (
) ( ....... ) 1 ( ) 0 (
) ( ....... ) 1 ( ) 0 (
) (
o
|
o o o
| | |
(56)
The roots in the numerator |(0), -|(1) -|(N) are referred as the zeros while the roots in the
denominator o(0), -o(1) -o(N) are the poles.
The s-plane refers to the domain where all the possible values of H(s) occur. If the polynomial
order is 2 with real poles and zeros, the positions of the poles and zeros in the s-plane is shown
in Figure 6(a). Similar example for complex poles and zeroes are shown in Figure 6(b). For
causal systems, the system is stable if the poles are on the right hand side of the s-plane.
4
4
je je
o
o
(a) Real poles and zeros. (b) Complex poles and zeros.
Figure 6 Pole and zero plots.
5.5 The Inverse Laplace transform
By taking the inverse Laplace transform, the system impulse response h(t) is obtained from H(s).
If the following transfer function is used as example
( )( ) ) 1 ( ) 0 (
1
) 2 ( ) 1 (
1
) (
) (
) (
2
o o + +
=
+ +
= =
s s a s a s s X
s Y
s H (57)
the application of the partial fraction expansion results in
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ) 1 ( ) 0 ( ) 1 ( ) 0 (
1
) (
1 0
o o o o +
+
+
=
+ +
=
s
A
s
A
s s
s H (58)
Since
( )
at
e t h
a s
s H
=
+
= ) (
1
) ( , then the system impulse response obtained from the
transfer function is
(59)
t t
e A e A t h
) 1 (
1
) 0 (
0
) (
o o
+ =
If the poles are complex conjugate pole pairs, then the transfer function is
( )( ) | o | o j s j s a s a s s X
s Y
s H
+ + +
=
+ +
= =
1
) 2 ( ) 1 (
1
) (
) (
) (
2
(60)
By applying the partial fraction expansion, the transfer function is
( )( ) ( ) ( ) | o | o | o | o j s
A
j s
A
j s j s
s H
+
+
+ +
=
+ + +
=
1 0
1
) ( (61)
The resulting system impulse response is
(62)
t j t t j t
e e A e e A t h
| o | o
+ =
1 0
) (
If A
0
=A
1
, then the system impulse response is in the form of
(63) ) cos( 2 ) (
0 0 0
t e A e e A e e A t h
t t j t t j t
|
o | o | o
= + =
Thus, o contributes to the exponential decay in the amplitude level and | describes the
sinusoidal behavior of the signal.
5.6 Inverse Laplace Transform Examples
A system is defined by a transfer function
( ) 1
1
) (
+
=
s
s H
If the input to the system is
t
e t x
1 . 0
) (
= 0 > t
= 0 0 < t
then it is the objective to determine the output of the system. The Laplace transform of the input
signal is
( ) 1 . 0
1
) (
+
=
s
s X
and the resulting output signal is
( )( ) 1 . 0 1
1
1 . 0
1
1
1
) ( ) ( ) (
+ +
= |
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
= =
s s s s
s X s H s Y
1 . 0 1
1 0
+
+
+
=
s
A
s
A
The constants A
0
and A
1
can be determined by applying partial fraction expansion
( ) ( )
( )( )
1 . 1
9 . 0
1
1 . 0 1
1
1 . 0 1
1
1 ) ( 1
1
1
0
= =
+
=
+ +
+ = + =
=
=
s
s
s s
s s Y s A
( ) ( )
( )( )
1 . 1
9 . 0
1
1 1 . 0
1
1 . 0 1
1
1 . 0 ) ( 1 . 0
1 . 0
1
1
= =
+
=
+ +
+ = + =
=
=
s
s
s s
s s Y s A
The output signal when expressed in terms of the Laplace transform is
1 . 0
1 . 1
1
1 . 1
) (
+
+
+
=
s s
s Y
and its inverse is
t t
e e t y
1 . 0 1
1 . 1 1 . 1 ) (
+ = 0 > t
= 0 0 < t
A transfer function of a system that has a complex conjugate pole pair is defined as
( )( ) 100 2 5 . 0 100 2 5 . 0
1
) (
t t j s j s
s H
+ + +
=
It is desired to determine the system impulse response. Solving the partial fraction expansion
results in
( )( ) 100 2 5 . 0 100 2 5 . 0 100 2 5 . 0 100 2 5 . 0
1
) (
1 0
t t t t j s
A
j s
A
j s j s
s H
+
+
+ +
=
+ + +
=
( ) ( )
( )( )
) 100 2 5 . 0 (
) 100 2 5 . 0 (
0
100 2 5 . 0 100 2 5 . 0
1
100 2 5 . 0 ) ( 100 2 5 . 0
t
t
t t
t t
j s
j s
j s j s
j s s H j s A
+ =
+ =
+ + +
+ + = + + =
100 4
1
100 2 5 . 0 100 2 5 . 0
1
t t t j j j
=
+
=
( ) ( )
( )( )
) 100 2 5 . 0 (
) 100 2 5 . 0 (
1
100 2 5 . 0 100 2 5 . 0
1
100 2 5 . 0 ) ( 100 2 5 . 0
t
t
t t
t t
j s
j s
j s j s
j s s H j s A
=
=
+ + +
+ = + =
100 4
1
100 2 5 . 0 100 2 5 . 0
1
t t t j j j
=
+ + +
=
The resulting transfer function becomes
100 2 5 . 0
1
100 4
1
100 2 5 . 0
1
100 4
1
) (
t t t t j s j j s j
s H
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
The system impulse response is
t j t t j t
e e
j
e e
j
t h
100 2 5 . 0 100 2 5 . 0
100 4
1
100 4
1
) (
t t
t t
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
) 100 2 sin(
100 2
1
5 . 0
t e
t
t
t
|
.
|
\
|
= 0 > t
= 0 0 < t
5.7 The Laplace Transform and its relation to the Fourier transform
The complex variable s in the Laplace transform consist of a real component o and complex
component j2tf. By making the real part zero, the Laplace transform becomes the Fourier
transform. For example, a transfer function is
( )
2 2
) 100 2 (
1
) (
t + +
=
s s
s H (64)
By making the substituting s= j2tf, the Fourier transform of the transfer function is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) f j f f j f
f H
t t t t t t 2 2 100 2
1
100 2 2 2
1
) (
2 2 2 2
+
=
+ +
= (65)
The magnitude and phase based on the above equation is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2 2
2 2 100 2
1
) (
f f
f H
t t t +
= (66)
( ) ( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
2 2
1
2 100 2
2
tan ) (
f
f
f
t t
t
| (67)
The frequency response when represented as a function of magnitude and phase is shown in
Figure 7.
Figure 7 Frequency response represented as a function of magnitude and phase.