ht. .I. Pres.

Ves. & Piping

ELSEVIER

0308-0161(95)00086-O

66 (1996)v-98 Elsevier Science Limited Frlntcd GreatBritain in 030&0161/96/$15.00

A CASE STUDY OF DISTILLATE

PIPEWORK

FAILURES AT HENDRINA POWER STATION R J CROUS Eskom Hendrina Power Station, EngineeringDepartment, Private Bag X1003, Pullenshope,1096,South Africa and L PRETORIUS Rand Afrikaans University, EngineeringFaculty, Laboratoryfor Systems, Private Bag 524, Auckland Park, 2007, South Africa

INTRODUCTION Since the commissioning of Hendrina Power Station, numerousproblems havebeen encountered the on distillate pipework from the lowest high pressureheaterto the deaerator.From available generalliterature, clearly it is common practiceto designfeedheater shells with a sectionto subcoolthe drainsto approximately 30C below saturationtemperatureof the water at heatershell pressure, thus avoiding the possibility of flashing. Unaccountably,the Hendrina designis fairly unique in the sense the heatersdo not have such a that subcooling section and as the distillate flows up to the deaerator, frictional lossesand gravity causea reduction in static pressurewhich causes distillate to flash with consequent the violent pipe vibration and difficulties in automatic control of the heaterlevel.

GENERAL INFORMATION

ABOUT HENDRINA POWER STATION

Hendrina Power Station has 10 x 200 MW pulverized fuel coal-fired units. The first unit was commissioned in 1970, andthe last unit in 1976. The turbines are non-reheat AEG machineswith a reverse-flowhigh pressureand a single double-flow low pressurecylinder. The station is equippedwith 7 wet cooling towers. Unit 1 has a Babcock & Wilcox boiler of the once-throughdesign,but with a drum. Units 2 to 5 are Babcock & Wilcox El Pasoboilers, and Units 6 to 10 areof Steinmuller design,all being of the two-passtype. Although the units were designedfor baseload, the currentexcessgenerationcapacity in South Africa leads to the needto operateat lower loads during off-peak periods.

OVERVIEW OF RELEVANT PLANT DESIGN The feedheatingplant consistsof two low pressureheaters(LPHl and LPH2), a deaerator heaterand two banksof three high pressureheaterseach(HPHl, HPH2, HPH3; banks A and B). For the purposesof this study, only the HP heatertrain neededto be considered. (Seefigure 1) The HP heatersare of the vertical tube-platetype, with cascaded drains. The distillate from HPH3 cascades down through a flash box to HPH2, the HPH2 drainsthrough a flash box to HPHl, and from the HPHl at 1 m level up to the deaeratorat fl0 m level. The heaterdramsare saturatedliquid WITH NO SUB-COOLING. 71

78

R. J. Crow L. Pretorius

For those not very familiar with boiler feed water heating, distillate is (as the name implies) the water condensed from the steam extracted by each heater. This condensate assists in deaerating and heating the feed water from the last low pressure heater. It is standard practice to design the turbine with the deaerator working near atmospheric pressure, as this is most convenient for extracting the non-condensables (air, gasses, etc.). For various reasons, but mainly because it is preferable to have the boiler feed pump downstream of the deaerator, the deaerator is placed at a high level and therefore automatically provides adequate positive suction head to the booster feed pump. Thus, at Hendrina, the need for the vertical pipe from HPH 1 to supply distillate to the 28 m level. During very low load conditions, the pressure in the HPHl shell is not sufficient to sustain a flow of distillate to the deaerator. During such operating conditions, the so-called pitch-load valve opens, dumping the HPHl distillate to the LPI42 flash tank. This valve also opens. if the HPHl distillate control valve C (in figure 1) fails to cope with the distillate flow and thus prevents high HPHl distillate levels.

rl
HPH

Fig. 1: HP heater 1 /distillate

control

layout

OVERVIEW OF DISTILLATE
In essence, the problems encountered
l

PROBLEMS

may be divided into two parts:

Unstable control conditions. HPHl A & B distillate control valve cycling causing considerable maintenance and related process performance problems. Severe vibration of the distillate pipe from HPHl to the deaerator, with associated fatigue failures of the pipework and hangers.

Both problems are related to unstable flow conditions caused by the fact that the HPHl distillate is saturated liquid. Due to friction losses and the difference in height (28m) there is a drop in static pressure in the line to the deaerator so a proportion of the distillate flashes to steam. Severe cycling of control valve C leads to high rates of failure of both the valve and the actuator and causes the pitch load valve to open frequently, dumping hot distillate into LPI-I2 that will impact on its reliability and performance. Severe problems with the setting of the system have necessitated all units to be run with the control valves fully open and on manual. This is detrimental to performance as HPH 1 runs without a water level and the consequential increased bled steam flow to the heater is expected to impact on the life of the heater.

Case study of distillate pipework failures

79

EARLY HISTORY OF FAILURES

The Power Station records show that during the early years of operation erosion problems were experienced in the distillate pipes. In addition, the lines had plunger-type control valves which eventually became very expensive to maintain. A decision was made to replace the old valves with the newer ball type control valves. After approximately ten years of operation the pipes were found to be seriously eroded and consequently the pipe diameter was increased from 6 inch to 8 inch and manufactured from stainless steel. The intent of this modification was to facilitate lower flow velocities. This was a VERY expensive modification. After implementation, far from providing a cure, alarming pipe vibrations were observed, and some of the pipes fractured. An investigation of the matter by an external authority concluded that the vibrations were not caused by flow instabilities, but by inadequate hangers. Consequently the pipe hanger system was redesigned. However, in retrospect the calculations for the pipe hangers show that they were designed for constant loading, considering only the weight of the pipe filled with liquid, and thus still prone to failure. A proposal made at the time was to move the valves to the turbine hall basement and change the pipe diameter to 14, which was fortunately not adopted due to extremely high capital costs. During the past two years, due to consequent work-hardening of the material the distillate lines of several units have experienced fatigue failures which although undesirable in themselves, give rise to concern for personnel safety.

ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS

Rather than attempt to deal with the effects of the vibration, this investigation was conducted with the intent of dealing with the cause. Even at the early stages of the investigation and survey of literature it was clear that the vibrations were caused by flow instabilities, the nature of which is to be pursued in later sections. The analysis of these instabilities required modelling of the system, and this proved to be a formidable task. An understanding of two-phase liquid-vapour flow is essential to the analysis of the system and its problems. The extract of two-phase flow technology presented here is only superficial, and does not deal with any of the many modelling complexities, its main purpose is to simply establish an understanding of the mechanisms with the reader who may welcome a brief introduction to the subject.

TWO-PHASE FLOW Definition of multkhase flow

The Penguin Dictionary of Science defines the word phase as follows: Separate part of a heterogeneous body or system, e.g. a mixture of ice and water is a two-phase while a solution of salt and water is one-phase. system,

We are concerned in this context with the flow of two-phase mixtures of vapour and liquid, or gas and liquid. Vapour-liquid mixtures, where the vapour and liquid phases are of the same fluid are referred to as two-phase single-component mixtures. Gas-liquid mixtures, where the gas and liquid phases are not of the same fluid, are referred to as two-phase two-component mixtures. In the absence of phase change the flow of a twophase one-component mixture obeys the same physical laws as a two-phase two-component mixture.

80

R. J. Crow L Pretorius

Most engineers dealing with two-phase flow for the first time are surprised to find that pressure drops with such flows are often 10 times as great as they would have expected from their experience with single-phase flow. For flashing flows of a chemically stable medium, the problem may be described intrinsically as: A three-dimensional transient motion involving time-dependent compressible flow of two interacting metastable phases at different velocities in the same conduit. With a liquid at saturation temperature, condensation and evaporation are continuously occurring, thus the phases are met&able. Even with homogeneous flows, the two phases may be flowing at different velocities.

Overview

of Industrial

occurrence Some examples include: .

l l

Many industrial
l l l

processes involve two-phase flow systems.

tubular boilers boiling water reactors boiler blow down systems oil, gas and saturated steam transportation

refrigerators process pipe lines process heat exchangers

lines

The natural circulation water-tube boiler was one of the first installations to create an industrial demand for improved knowledge of two-phase systems. Due to the extreme precautions necessary with reactor design and control, the nuclear industry made a major contribution to this field of study. Currently the major users of such knowledge are the nuclear industry, petrochemical industry and heat exchanger designers. While the knowledge in the field has increased dramatically, the approach followed by process designers when dealing with a plant that may potentially produce two-phase flow is to design away from it. This is perfectly understandable and avoiding it altogether is also the recommendation of this author. Unfortunately, at Hendrina we have fait-accompli and must find a solution that works yet satisfies the ever vigilant accountants.

Accuracv

of Drediction

of two-Dhase

flow calculations

Chisholm2 writes: Despite the large number of studies related to two-phase flow, there are many situations where prediction may carry with it an uncertainty of 50%. In considering this figure it should be remembered that, for an air-water mixture at ambient conditions, for example, for the same mass flow rate the ratio of the friction pressure gradient with gas to that with liquid is about 800: 1. In many branches of engineering science, experience enables engineers to guess a magnitude to within 50%; this is not the case with two-phase flow. That the uncertainty in prediction remains high is due to the large number of variables encountered in two-phase flow. An extremely vast and systematic test programme would be required to provide data for a soundly based empirical correlation, and even our knowledge of single-phase flow is essentially empirical. Most engineering problems may be simplified by identifying the primary variable that has the largest effect. With two-phase flow such a primary variable does not really exist and many variables have equal effect. The high level of complexity of these studies is thus justified but most definitely is not an attempt to make it a difficult subject to understand.

Case study of distillate pipmork failures

81

Consider some of the primary variables in two-phase flow: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. mass flow rate mass dryness fraction liquid density vapour density liquid viscosity 6. vapour viscosity 7. surface tension 8. surface roughness 9. pipe inclination 10. pipe diameter

For the two-phase correlations to be entirely empirical it would be necessary to obtain data with each variable at five different value8 (say) for all combinations of the other variables. The number of test points required in that case would be 5 =9765625, yet only the case of incompressible flow is covered by this astronomical figure. Other parameters present in industrial measured or accounted for include: plant that will affect the nature of the flow, and that may not be

1. Changes in chemical composition of the fluids, e.g. through dosing. 2. Presence of entrained debris, which will act as nucleation seeds. 3. Changes in the surface roughness of the pipe, e.g. due to surface fouling by crud deposits.

PERSPECTIVE ON TWO-PHASE FLOW

It is clear from the study of the available literature that numerous years of field work would be required of anyone who intends to produce substantial results. However, the primary intent of this project is simply to successfully model a system with which to ultimately solve a specific problem. While the bulk of the available literature presents the results of research, very little material is available on the practical aspects of dealing with two-phase flow. A substantial portion of the work done by others in this field is related to the integration of the momentum or energy differential equations. To carry out such integrations, numerous simplifying assumptions are required, which may account for a sizable proportion of the relatively large uncertainty of prediction. While this is necessary for hand calculations, it may not be so for computer based finite models where the differential equations can be used as is. Using smaller and smaller elements, as their size approaches infinitesimal dimensions, the error becomes negligible. During the term of this investigation, several interested parties questioned the level of detail found necessary for it. ln particular, with mass qualities as low as 5% it may be difficult to visualise large volumes of steam Considering the in the flow. Furthermore, the effects of flashing on pressure drop required clarification. system to be modelled, with a saturated water-steam mixture at 7 bar, the properties of the substances are as follows (using the ASME Steam Tables3):
P = 7bar

T,, = 164.96C

9 L = 0.001108m~/R

8 G = 0.2727 m3/kg

The ratios of densities of water and steam are therefore: i3,/SL =246.1 Consequently, the gravitational for the vapour phase.

(1)

pressure drop for vertical flow of the liquid phase is also 246 times as large as

82

R. J. Crow L.. Pretorius

To relate the spatial location of the phases consider the volumetric quality is defined as the volume occupied by the vapour phase divided by the total volume occupied, (by analogy to mass dryness fraction or mass quality): p= XBG xS.+(l-x)9, (2)

Figure 3 presents a plot of volumetric quality versus mass quality. From this plot it can be observed that at a mass quality of 1% the volumetric quality is 70%, thus the vapour phase would occupy a significant portion of the conduit. The dramatic change in specific volume of the mixture would also have a significant impact on flow velocities and consequently frictional pressure drop. Using a pipe surface roughness of 0.02 mm, a pipe length of 30m and a mass flow rate of 18 kg/s for this system, the following values apply:

D = 8 = 203.2mm E = 9.843. 10e5

p, = 1.640.10-4

Ns/m

pG = 1.454. 10e5 Ns/m2

P(X) -

Fig. 3: Volumetric

quaI@ versus mass quality for water-steam

at 7 bar.

Evaluating

the pressure drop due to friction for a pipe length of 30 m, for the total mass flowing

as liquid:

ApL = pJ,

$5

0.353kPa
as vapour:

(4)

and for the total mass flowing

ApG = p&,
The ratio of the frictional

$$

= 757kPa

(5)

pressure gradients is therefore

& -- G _ 75.7kPa = 2144 0.353kPa . 4%

The results of this calculation are summarised in Table 1.

(6)

Case study of distillate pipework failures

83

Table I: Summary Case Total mass flows as liquid Total mass flows as vapour
R&i0

of ana&sis of water versus steam pressure drops Gravitational pressure drop Frictional pressure drop

265.5kPa 1.08kPa
246.1

0.353kPa 75.7kPa
214.4 is clear.

Considering

the magnitude

of these ratios, the necessity for appropriate modelling

FLOW

PATTERNS

The flow pattern, or flow geometry assumed by a two-phase flow system is one of the most problematic In gas-liquid flow the two phases can distribute in the aspects of the subject because it is three-dimensional. conduit in a wide variety of ways rarely under the control of the experimenter or designer. When changes occur in flow rates, fluid properties, conduit shape or inclination, this distribution will vary. In addition, the individual velocities and shapes of the interfaces are unknown. Because the spatial locations of the phases are unknown it is impossible to specify which fluid properties are applicable at each point in space and time. However, since the earliest visual observations of two-phase flow it has been recognised that there are natural groupings or patterns. Baketi (1954) published the first flow pattern map for horizontal pipes. Shortly afterwards, Baker5 (1958) also suggested that better correlations for pressure drop could be obtained by developing equations to be applied separately to each regime. He was able to show that even with empirical correlations, the accuracy of the pressure drop predictions varied substantially with the flow pattern they were applied to. Of course the pressure drop in a two-phase flow system is not the only factor of interest. Where, as at Hendrina the stability of a system is of concern, the pressure and mass flux oscillations have to be studied and these as well as others are of course highly dependent on the assumed flow pattern. If the models created for individual flow patterns are to be useful it is necessary to accurately predict the flow pattern that would actually exist. Numerous articles have been published on this subject, mostly using empirical mapping without any basis in the mechanisms that are responsible for the transitions. Each result is therefore only useful for a narrow range of pipe sizes and fluid properties with flow rates approaching the conditions of the experiments: Possibly due to financial limitations they tended to be carried out using small pipe diameters, typically 2.5 cm to 5 cm. A very brief extract from some of the better-known two-phase flow pattern maps will be presented in this chapter, principally to illustrate the constraints. The most elegant flow pattern transition modelling to date is that by Taitel and Dukler7, 8,g, loaI.

Classification

of flow patterns

With a sufficient supply of adjectives it would be possible to define innumerable flow patterns. As an illustration, consider the followin list of pattern descriptions extracted from only a handful of the more successful papers 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 1P , 18, 19,20. Horizontal tubes: Stratified, stratified smooth, stratified wavy, laminar-stratified, stratified-roll plug, slug, elongated bubble, proto slug, wavy annular, annular flow-through, annular mist, spray, homogeneous, bubble, dispersed bubble.

wave, stratified-inertia, wave, pulsating froth, semiannular,

84

R. J. Crow, L. Pretorius

Vertical tubes:
Bubble, dispersed bubble, homogeneous, slug, plug, slug-annular, pulsating annular, annular, annular-mist, wispy annular. chum, froth, frothy slug, quiet slug, piston,

Developing more detailed descriptions of flow patterns would not serve a very useful purpose as the main centre of interest is in the approximate spatial location of the phases in order that pressure drops and stability can be adequately modelled.

Flow patterns for horizontal pipes

Figure 4 shows the generally accepted flow patterns for horizontal the most unstable patterns are those classified as intermittent. tubes from which it will be observed that

STRATIFIED

SMOOTH

STRATIFIED

STRATIFIED

4 WAVY

ELONGATED

BUBBLE -1

INTERMITTENT

SLUG

ANNULAR / ANNULAR-MIST

ANNULAR

WAVY ANNULAR

DISPERSED

BUBBLE

Fig 4: Flowpatterns in horizontaljlow (From Taitel and DuklerO 1986)

Fig. 5: Flow patterns in verticalflow (From Taitel and DuklerO 1986)

tJ 1
0 0

OO

Q0 000

& 0

: .._ . . .. .:. .... .)....:. ........ ... . .. .... ...: . .;... .. . :.... : ..; .. :: .:.. ;_.. .. ;1 .t.,.

Flow patterns for vertical pipe8

Figure 5 shows the generally accepted flow patterns encountered in vertical pipes, the most unstable being slug flow and chum flow. Chum flow is the most chaotic and character&d by severe changes in value and direction of the velocities.

FLOW PATTERN DETECTION

Flow pattern detection is complicated by the fact that certain flow patterns contain arbitrary elements and the transistions between some of them is a gradual process, so there is some difficulty in defining the boundary. By the very nature of the problem, there is little point in attempting to make fine distinctions. The simplest method for detecting flow pattern is by visual observaipg t@ygh transparent test sections. This method may be refined through the use of high-speed cameras . Where the fluids are not transparent, X-ray photography has been used24 r . For practical reasons these methods are not very useful for the problem considered in this paper.

Case study of distillate pipework failures

85

The observationthat the time-aveT ed ressuregradient curve changedwith flow patternwith a systematic 2t 27 changein liquid or vapour flow rate , probably prompted Hubbardand Dukler28(1966)to suggesta method basedon the spectralanalysis of wall pressurefluctuations. Although condensationor vapourisation is consideredto occur at a specific saturationpressure a fixed temperature,in practice this doesnot for happen. For vapourisationto develop, a local condition of liquid superheat must first be establishedin order to producenucleation, and vice versa. It is thus observedthat the wall pressures fluctuate in sympathy with the physical distribution of the phasesin the conduit. The work was conductedwith a horizontal tube using analysis of the time traceof the static pressureat the wall to obtain the power spectraldensity of the wall pressurefluctuations. The time variation of the fluctuations are obtainedas follows:
P(t)= P(t)P

(7)

where P is the time-averageof the static pressures.If the autocorrelationfunction is defined as

q(7)= him; j P(t)P(t
0

+z)lt

(8)

then the power spectraldensity is the Fourier transform of the autocorrelation

S,, = i R; (+i2=Bdz (9

The measgments showedthat, despitea wide variety of apparentphasedistributions only three basic spectra existed,as shown in Fig. 6 andthesecan be used asfingerprints for the flow patterns. Type A, wherethe spectrais a maximum at f = 0 with decayas f increases found to be characteristicof separated was flow patterns,such as annularor stratified flow with low entrainmentrates. Intermittent flow patternsdisplayed characteristicssimilar to curve B and represented mean frequencyof slug passage.Dispersedor the distributed flow patternssuch as bubbly flow revealedspectrasimilar to band-limited white noise as shown by curve C. In practice what is observedis a superpositionof spectra.

Fig 6. Power spectral density of wall pressure fluctuations. (From Taitel and DuklerO (1986) ).

INSTABILITIES

IN TWO-PHASE FLOW SYSTEMS

Two-phaseflows are proneto a variety of instabilities leadingto oscillations or excursionsin flow rate,void fraction and quality. Reviews of suchunstablephenomenaaregiven by Yadigaroglu2g (1981) and Cho30 (1989).

86 Momentum flux oscillations

R. J. Crow, L. Pretorius

With intermittent flow patterns, very large reaction forces may be induced even in a straight pipe due to momentum flux oscillations. The magnitudes of these forces are dependent on the shape of the bubble which also determines the rate of change of momentum.

Excursive

of Ledinegg

instability effect known as the of the system. For a passes through a can occur between the

Various dynamic instabilities may occur independent of the flow pattern. A static Ledinegg instability follows from the pressure drop versus flow rate characteristics vertical channel with constant heat flux a multi-valued curve that characteristically maximum and then a minimum is obtained. For a fixed pressure drop, excursions three possible values of flow rate (see Fig. 7).

St am i AP

Flow rate Fig. 7: Flow rate versus pressure drop characteristics of a system dibiting the Ledinegg instability

Chueeiw

instability

Vapour formation does not necessarily occur when the fluid reaches its saturation temperature. Eventually, and sometimes with the presence of considerable liquid superheats, vapour nucleation can occur at the pipe wall and a situation can develop in which the vapour bubble grows rapidly into the superheated liquid causing a violent ejection of liquid downstream of the point of nucleation. Once the ejection has occurred, the tube refills with liquid and the process is repeated cyclically. Liquid metal systems are particularly prone to this form of instability. Reviews of the subject are given by Collier3 (1968) and Fauske32 (1968).

Dvnamic

instabilities

Possible dynamic instabilities include: l Low frequency oscillations due to compressible volumes either in or connected to the two-phase channel l High frequency acoustic oscillations associated by the propagation of pressure waves travelling at sonic velocity l Density wave instability caused by feedback from individual pressure drop components operating out of phase with the flow perturbations. Davies and Potter33 (1966) gave an explanation of density wave instability. In steady state, the various components of pressure drop are additive. With a given fluctuation in inlet velocity at a given frequency,

Case study of distillate pipework failures

87

consequentialoscillations may occur in the pressuredrop componentsthat are out of phasewith these fluctuations. A situation can arise wherethe total pressuredrop doesnot vary, in which casethere is nothing to opposethe rapid growth of fluctuation in inlet velocity at this frequency. For example, it may occur that the single-phasevariations in pressuredrop in the inlet region (which arein phasewith the velocity fluctuations) are counter-balanced two-phasepressureoscillations, 180degreesout of phasewith the by velocity fluctuations at the outlet. Linear theory would predict that the velocity fluctuations would reachan infinite amplitude dueto this resonance, non-lineareffects would dampenthis to a finite (though often but very large) value.

CONCEPTUAL SOLUTIONS The ideasconsideredarebasedon the following: Subcooling the distillate to ensuresingle-phase flow up to the control valve C in its currentposition Increasingthe distillate pressureto ensuresingle-phaseflow up to the valve Re-routingthe distillate elsewhere Stabilising the flow /control of flow patternassumedby the phases,which may be achievedthrough either or a combination of n Placing the valve C in the turbine basement,or n Changingthe pipe diameter
l l l l

Subcooling may be achievedby taking condensate from the extractionpump dischargeand injecting it into the distillate line, in effect lowering its temperatureto such an extent asto ensureno flashing beforethe control valve. The installation of an expansionnozzle at the deaerator inlet would ensureproper flashing of the distillate as it entersand also increases static pressurein the distillate line thus reducingthe required the attemperationflow. This would increasethe heatrate of the turbine cycle, as the cooling flow bypasses the Due to its simplicity sucha modification is expectedto be LP heatersand lowers the deaerator temperature. the cheapest terms of capital cost, but the efficiency losseswould also haveto be considered. in Alternatively HP 1 heatersmay be replacedwith a designhaving an integratedsub cooling sectionthat would unfortunately decrease cycle efficiency due to lowering of the deaerator the temperatureand pressure. The capital costs involved would undoubtedlybe prohibitive. Subcoolingmay also be achievedby the installation of a heatexchangerbetweenthe distillate line andthe condensate to the deaerator,with a bypassvalve to control distillate temperature. The requiredheat line exchangercould be very large yet it must be small enoughto be accommodatedwithin the existing plant, and this would thereforebe a limiting factor. In this casetherewould be no effect on cycle efficiency due to the fact that the mass and energyflows to the deaerator remain unchanged. Heaterdrain pumps may be usedto increasethe static pressurein the distillate line, thus preventing flashing. Due to the very low suction headavailable,the pumps would be very expensiveandhave beenfound elsewhereto be extremely maintenanceintensive. Apart from this, operatingexperienceat Amot Power Station shows that when a drain pump trips, the forcesgenerated the suddenonsetof flashing can fmcture by the pipe. There is also an impact on cycle efficiency throughthe pumping power required. In orderto ensurethat the distillate control valve C dealsonly with single phaseflow, it could be moved to the basementof the turbine hall. This should also preventthe possibility of density wave instabilities. Increasingthe pressuredrop acrossthe valve will encourage flashing dueto the reduction in static pressurein would be a higher drynessfraction that would increasethe the distillate line. Another possible advantage vapourvelocities and lead to a more stableannularflow but the vapourvelocity may still not be high enough to sustainthis. In thesecircumstancesa smaller pipe diametercould provide the increasedvapourvelocity requiredto achieveannular flow.

88

R. J. Crow, L. Pretorius

A common configuration in modem power stations is to pump the heater drains into the feedwater line after the heater. Since these drains contribute to maintaining feed water temperature, the impact on the heat rate and performance of the deaerator needs to be considered. The concept is not suitable for the Hendrina system as the distillate assists in heating the deaerator and so its loss would impact on deaeration efficiency and produce a considerable reduction in cycle efficiency. Although technically feasible, the subcooling concepts would add to the complexity of the existing plant. Furthermore, additional instrumentation would be required and maintenance of this new plant would most certainly be greater than for current requirements. The available pressure drop from HPHl to the deaerator and space limitations would mainly determine the feasibility of this solution. Because of its simplicity and from a practical point of view, the stabilised two-phase flow option, is thus preferred and would not complicate the design of the system. As this solution is passive, no extra instrumentation is required. It is however the most difficult to design due to the uncertainty associated with such calculations.

RESULTS OF CURRENT MODELLING AND MEASUREMENTS

The total two-phase pressure drop is the sum of the gravitational, frictional and accelerational pressure drops. For the model, the generalized frictional pressure drop correlation of Chisholm34 (B-coefficient) (1983) was used. To determine gravitational pressure drop, knowledge of the void fraction is required so for the model, the void fraction correlation of Permoli et al35 (1970) was used. The mechanistic models of Taitel and Dukler*O (1986) was used for predicting flow pattern transitions. Coding was done in Borland Turbo Pascal using object-oriented programming techniques. Early modelling suggested that moving the control valve C closer to the heater outlet may result in achieving annular flow due to the increased mass dryness fraction. As a test, this modification was performed on one unit (see Appendix A). In addition, pressure tapping points were installed at various points for the purpose of carrying out a spectral power density analysis of the wall pressure fluctuations and to compare the results to the model developed. Pressure transmitters were then connected to these tapping points and connected to a datalogger. A number of tests were then conducted with pressures being logged for each specific load and valve position. In the following sections the results of the modelling and measurements the results to the evidence found in the plant history. With the original system using 6 pipes, the records of erosion problems. It is also clear phenomenon as the intermittent flow pattern speculated that the smaller diameter system /or different geometry. will be discussed, whilst comparing

modelling reveals high flow velocities so agreeing with the that the pipe vibration problem is certainly not a new is dominant, especially in the vertical sections. It may be had a higher natural frequency due to stifIbess considerations

and

The model shows that with the current configuration, virtually the whole length of the lines. Consequently

all loads the intermittent flow pattern manifests itself in a high level of pipe vibration may be expected.

With the valve in the turbine hall basement the intermittent flow pattern is still observed, but transition to the more stable annular flow takes place before the bends are reached, with the exception of the lowest load of 160 MW. Pipe vibrations are thus reduced. As described in the next section the modelling results presented were based on the measured pressures. Upon processing of these results, it was clear that the isolating valve after the old valve position near the deaerator was not fully open during the tests, possibly as a consequence

Case study of distillate pipework failures

89

of the temporary mode of operation of the plant, to limit the flows. If this valve is to be opened fully, or removed completely, a further 2 bar of pressure drop becomes available for utilisation across the control valve, .which will result in annular flow. The only portion of the pipe that is then still prone to intermittent flow is the last section downstream of the original control valve position to the deaerator inlet, this could be obviated by the replacement of this section with 8 pipe. During the tests with the valve in its old position, severe level control problems were encountered which vanished when the valve was moved to the basement. This indicates the existence of a density wave instability. Pipe vibrations were substantially reduced with the new configuration. From the measurements, it is clear that the deaerator pressure is extremely sensitive to the distillate flows and subcooling the distillate would have had a serious impact on cycle efficiency. The power spectral density of each signal was obtained using a fast Fourier transform according to the method proposed by Hubbard and Dukler15 (1966). The results of this analysis are summarized in Table 2 and the detail spectra are included in the appendix. Table 2: Analysis Configuration Line A No evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow Slight tendency to intermittent flow Slight tendency to intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow Strong evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow of power spectral Position 1 density of wall pressure fluctuations Position 2 Position 3

200 MW, valve at the deaerator 160 MW, valve at the deaerator 200 MW, valve in the basement 160 MW, valve in the basement

Line

B No evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow Strong evidence of intermittent flow Strong evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow Very slight tendency to intermittent flow Very strong evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow No evidence of intermittent flow Very slight tendency to intermittent flow

200 MW, valve at the deaerator 160 MW, valve at the deaerator 200 MW, valve in the basement 160 MW, valve in the basement

CONCLUSIONS The analysis of the wall pressure fluctuations confirms the results obtained with the model of the system. When comparing the spectra obtained with the spectral analysis of the pipe vibrations as obtained by the independent authority, the similarities are clear and virtually identical. It is thus concluded that the pipe vibrations are indeed caused by flow instabilities, and that the modification of moving the valve to the turbine hall basement effectively and economically solves the problem by removing the cause. It is fortunate that the

90 R. J. Crous, L. Pretorius existing pipe diameter is suitable for the alternative valve position, as this saves considerable capital expenditure. As a point of interest, the modification proposed earlier to move the valve to the basement and replace the pipework with 14 lines was analyzed. It is clear that this diameter was chosen by considering the pressure drop of the distillate flowing in the steam phase. The model shows intermittent flow for all load cases, thus this modification would have been unsuccessful. The tests indicate that the dearator pressure is extremely sensitive to the state of the distillate entering the vessel, thus subcooling would not be a sensible option, and the stabilized two-phase flow option is superior both in terms of capital expenditure, technical feasibility and cycle efficiency.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I must give credit to a colleague Dr Fossil Mudguard for his insights into engineering philosophy who, although he is not an expert in two-phase flow has helped me stay on the right track. To my family, which has made peace with the terminal condition of curiosity that I suffer from, my sincerest apologies for not saying no to this challenge. Many thanks to Dr Hewitt and Dr Moore for coming to darkest Africa to look at a pipe, and supplying me with literature and confidence with the modelling done. Thank you to H. Pomeroy for reading all this and more, preventing me from inflicting mortal injury on the English language.

REFERENCES 1. Uvarov, E B and Chapman, D R, A dictionary of Science, Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books 2. Chisholm, D, Two-phase flow in pipelines and heat exchangers, George Godwin, London and New York in association with the Institution of Chemical Engineers: Longman Inc., New York (1983). 3. ASME, ASME Steam Tables Sixth Edition, ASME Press, New York, (1993). 4. Baker, 0, Simultaneous Flow of Oil and Gas. Oil Gas J. (1954) Vol53, p 185. 5. Baker, 0, Multiphase Flow in Pipelines 1958, Pipeline News, (1958) June, 23 6. Taitel, Y, Flow pattern transition in rough pipes. Int. J Multiphase Flow, (1977) Vo13, p 597 7. Taitel, Y, Bamea, D, and Dukler, A E, Modelling flow pattern transitions for steady upward gas liquid flow in vertical tubes. AIChE J. Vo126, (1977) p 345 8. Taitel, Y and Dukler, A E, A model for predicting flow regime transitions in Horizontal and nearhorizontal gas liquid flow. AIChE J. Vo13, (1976) p 585 9. Taitel, Y, and Dukler, A E, A model for slug frequency during gas liquid flow in horizontal and near horizontal pipes. Int. J Multiphase Flow vol. 3, (1977) p 585 10. Taitel, Y and Dukler, A E, Flow Pattern Transitions in Gas-Liquid Systems: Measurement and Modelling, Multiphase Science and Technology, Vo12, (1986) p l-94, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. 11. Taitel, Y, Lee, N and Dukler, A E, Transient gas liquid flow in horizontal pipes modeling flow pattern transitions. AIChE J. Vol 24, (1978) p 920 12. Griffith, P, and G B Wallis, Two-phase slug flow. J Heat Transfer., Vol. 83, (1961) p 307 13. Duns, Jr, H and N C J Ros, Vertical flow of gas and liquid mixtures from boreholes. Proc. 6th World Petroleum Congress, Frankfurt, (1963). 14. Stemling, V C, Two phase flow theory and engineering Decisions. Award lecture presented at AIChE annual meeting, (1965). 15. Hubbard, M G , and A E Dukler, The characterisation of flow regimes for horizontal two phase flow. Proceedings of the heat transfer andjluid mechanics institute (Saad, M.A. and J.A. Moller, eds.), (1966) Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Casestudyof distillatepipework failures 91 16. Wallis, G B, OneDimensional Two-PhaseFlow. New York: McGraw-Hill, (1969) 17. Hewitt G F , and D N Robers,Studiesof two-phaseflow patternsby simultaneousX-Rays and Flash Photography. Atomic Energy ResearchEstablishmentReport M-21 59; Harwell England, (1969). 18. Govier, G W , and K Aziz, The flow of complex mixtures in pipes. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, (1972). 19. Oshinowo, T and M E Charles,Vertical two-phaseflow. II. Holdup and pressuredrop. Can. J Chem. Eng. (1974) Vol56, p 438. 20. Spedding,P L, and V T Nguyen, Regime Maps for Air watertwo phaseflow. Chem.Eng. Sci. Vo135, (1980) p 779 21. Raisson,C, Flow regime studiesup to critical heatflux conditions at 80 kg/m2. CEA Grenoble,Report No 7722,(1965). 22. Hsu, Y Y, and R W Graham,A visual study of two phaseflow in a verical tube with heataddition. NASA Technical Note D-1564, (1963). 23. Bergles, A E, and M Suo, Investigation of Boiling Water Flow Regimes at High Pressure.Dynatech Report No. NYO-3304-8,mS 1909,(1966). 24. Derbyshire, R T P, G F Hewitt, and B Nicholls, X-Radiographyof Two-PhaseGas-Liquid Flow. Atomic Energy ResearchEstablishmentReportM-1 321; Harwell England, (1969). 25. Govier, G W, B A Radford, and J SCDunn, The upwardvertical flow of air-watermixtures: I. Effect of air and water rateson flow patternholdup andpressuredrop. Can .I Chem.Eng. Vo135, (1957) pp. 5% 70. 26. Isbin, H S, R H Moen, R 0 Wickley, D R Mosher, andH C Larson,Two phasesteam water pressure drop. Chem. Eng. Symp. Ser., (1959)Vol. 55, no 23, p 75 27. Chaudry, A B, A C Emerton, and R Jackson,Flow regimesin the concurrentupward flow of water and air. Paper presentedat the symposiumon two-phase$ow, Exeter, England, (1965). 28. Hubbard, M G, and A E Dukler, The characterisation flow regimes for horizontal two phaseflow. of Proceedingsof the heat transfer andjluid mechanicsinstitute (Saad,M.A. and J.A. Moller, eds.) Stanford: Stanford University Press,(1966). 29. Yadigaroglu, G, Two-phaseflow instabilities and propagationphenomena. Thermo-hydraulicsof TwoPhase Systems Industrial Design and Nuclear Engineering, HemispherePublishing Corporation,New for York, (1981). 30. Cho, S M, Single component,two-phase(boiling and condensation) flow instability. Heat transfer equipmentdesign, HemispherePublishing Corporation,New York, (1989). 3 1. Collier, J G, Boiling of liquid alkali metals. Chem.Proc. Eng. Heat TransferSurvey, (1968)pp. 167173and 180. 32. Fauske, Super-heating liquid metals in relation to fast reactorsafety. Reactorand Fuel Processing of Technology, 11, No. 2, (1968)pp.84-89. 33. Davies, A L and Potter, R Hydraulic instability. An anlysis of causesof unstableflow in parallel channels.UKAEA Report, AEEW-R446, (1966). 34. Chisholm, D, Two-phaseflow in pipelines andheat exchangers, GeorgeGodwin, London andNew York in associationwith the Institution of Chemical Engineers:Longman Inc., New York, (1983). 35. Premoli, A, Francesco,D and Prina, A, An empirical correlationfor evaluatingtwo-phasemixture density under adiabaticconditions, European Two-phaseFlow GroupMeeting, PaperB9, Milan, (1970).

92

Appendix

A: General

R. J. Crous, L. Pretorius

layout of distillate

lines, configurations

and positions

of pressure tapping

points

--

Dea

40 level

219.1 x 6 mm

HPH 1B

Case study of distillate pipework failures

93

APPENDIX B: RESULTS OF MODELLING Test 1:

FOR THE LOAD CASES OF THE TESTS

Lord Nl

: :
: :

200 166.3
219.1 355.6

rw mm
mm nn

e
#a

Flow Control
P<atn>

18.58ks/sec valve
: 84.7kPa

aosition

TOD

POS

Cl<bar> 7.367 6.821 5.967 5.611 5.528

8ibrr> 7.367 6.967 6.083 5.937 5.846

1
2 3 4 5 6 7

1.780 1.738

1.780 1.738

I
Test 2

Flow pattern legend: S - Stratified A - Annular I - Intermittent B - Bubble

LOad
Cl

:
: : : :

160 168.3 219.i 355.6

PW nn nn nm

c2
e Flaw

13.84kdsec

Control
P<atn> :

valve
84.7kPa

aosition

Too

POS

cI< bar 6.429 6.449 5.400 5.008 4.926

>

B<bar> 6.429 6.053 5.218 5.081 4.997

1
2 3 4 5 6 7

1.614 1.575

1.814 1.575

Flow pattern legend: S - Stratified A - Annular I - Intermittent B - Bubble

94 Test 6:

R. J. Crow, L.. Pretorius

Load

200

l 1 l
# Flow Control
PCatn>

: :

166.3 219.1

nn H"

:355.srrm : 16.7lks/sec value

: B3.6kPa

oosition

Botton

Pos

CI<bar> 7.283

B< bar

>

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7.263 2.33s 2.083 2.003 1.894 1.894 1.852

2.519 2.263 2.003 1.694 1.694 1.652

I - Intermittent
Test 5:
Load :

162 166.3 219.1 355.6

WI nn "ll mm

+I

: : :

rra Flow Control

P<atn>

14.2iks/sec value
: 83.6kPa

wsition

Botton

POS

Cl<bar> 8.481 2.180 1.952

6ibar>

1 2
3 4 5 6 7

8.48i
2.038 1.815

1.752
i -676 1.676

1.751
1.675 1.675 1.636

1.636

Flow pattern legend: S - Stratified A - Annular I - Intermittent B - Bubble

Case study of distillate pipework failures

95

Appendix C: Spectral analysis of wall pressure fluctuations Test 1: 200 MW, valve at the top

Pos

Line A

Line B

96

R. J. Crow L.. Pretorius Test 2: 160 MW, valve at the top

Pos

Line A

Line B

Case study of distilZate pipework failures

97

Test 6: 200 MW, valve in the basement

Pos

Line A

Line B

R. J. Crow L.. Pretorius

Test 5: 160 MW, valve in the basement

Line A

Line B