Pof 23 2011

Three-dimensional numerical simulation of hydrodynamic interactions
between pectoral-fin vortices and body undulation in a swimming fish

Cheng-Lun Yu,
1
Shang-Chieh Ting,
2
Meng-Kao Yeh,
1
and Jing-Tang Yang
2,a)
1
Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
(Received 2 February 2011; accepted 28 July 2011; published online 26 September 2011)
We investigated numerically the hydrodynamic interactions between pectoral-n vortices and body
undulation in a sh swimming with carangiform locomotion at a Reynolds number of 3.3 10
4
; the
three-dimensional, viscous, incompressible, Navier-Stokes equations were solved with a
nite-volume method. For a sh swimming with the pectoral ns abducted, we characterized the
wake ow structures, forces, and power consumption with respect to various Strouhal numbers. The
numerical results reveal that a pair of vortices is formed immediately behind the abducted pectoral
ns of a swimming sh. There exist hydrodynamic interactions between the pectoral-n vortices
and the undulating sh body. For Strouhal numbers in a range 0.20.8, the body undulation impedes
the shedding of pectoral-n vortices, resulting in vortices closely attached to the pectoral ns. In
contrast, for Strouhal number 0.1, the pectoral-n vortices are shed from the pectoral ns and drift
downstream. The low-pressure suction forces arising from the shed pectoral-n vortices facilitate
lateral movements of the sh body, decreasing the power consumption. This phenomenon indicates
the possibility for an actual sh to harvest energy from the shed pectoral-n vortices. VC
2011
American Institute of Physics. [doi:10.1063/1.3640080]
I. INTRODUCTION
The invention and development of energy-saving devices
or techniques are currently the focuses of many research
elds. In research concerning sh-swimming hydro-
dynamics
15
and biomimetic autonomous sh robotics,
6,7
energy-saving mechanisms have also received much attention.
A common objective is to decrease the power consumption of
a sh robot, so as to facilitate a protracted operation. From a
biologically inspired perspective, the propulsive performance
of an underwater vehicle of human manufacture can be signif-
icantly improved on introducing the swimming principles
employed by a sh into the design, so mimicking a live sh.
The reason is that, through evolution by natural selection, sh
exhibit exceptional propulsive efciency that is superior to
that of contemporary underwater vehicles.
Mechanisms of vortex control for saving locomotive
energy were originally proposed in the context of sh school-
ing behavior. The hydrodynamics in a sh school were inves-
tigated by Weihs and Webb;
8
they suggested that sh could
make effective use of the environmental vortices by means of
a tactical arrangement of their relative positions. A reversed
Karman vortex street
911
(see Fig. 1) is generally shed by a
sh swimming upstream, and the direction of uid jets
formed inside this reversed Karman vortex street is opposite
to the direction of a sh swimming downstream; thereby
the downstream sh must keep a greater distance from the
upstream sh to avoid impacting this jet. In contrast, the
direction of upward oriented ow formed by a reversed Kar-
man vortex street is identical to the direction of a downstream
sh that is situated laterally, propelling the downstream sh
forward. In terms of such impacts of uid jets on downstream
sh, a diamond-shaped sh school is typically recognized as
an optimal conguration to economize the overall energy
consumption for the schooling sh
8
(see Fig. 1).
There seemed to be insufcient empirical evidence of an
energy-saving mechanism in sh utilizing environmental
vortices until Liao et al.
1214
used the digital particle-image
velocimetry (DPIV) to reveal the hydrodynamics of a sh
(trout) swimming behind an upstream D-shaped obstacle.
They experimentally found that a sh slaloms between
Karman vortex streets generated by the upstream D-shaped
obstacle rather than to swim through them. A sh is able to
decrease effectively its muscular activity through exploiting
the oncoming Karman vortex street, harvesting the kinetic
energy of the vortices.
Drucker and Lauder
1517
also used DPIV to study the
hydrodynamic interactions of vortices between the upstream
dorsal n and the downstream caudal n in a swimming sh.
Their experimental results indicated that the vortices shed
from dorsal n enhanced the propulsive efciency of the
caudal n. Akhtar et al.
18
used two-dimensional computa-
tional uid dynamics (CFD) to verify this hypothesis; they
simplied the upstream dorsal n and downstream caudal n
as two foils in a tandem arrangement undergoing pitch and
heaving motions. Their numerical results revealed that vorti-
ces shed from an upstream foil can initiate the formation of a
strong leading-edge stall vortex on the downstream foil. The
thrust and propulsive efciency of the downstream foil can
be enhanced because this leading-edge stall vortex offers the
downstream foil a forward suction force. Exploitation of
environmental vortices shed from upstream ns is evidently
a signicant mechanism for a swimming sh to decrease
power consumption.
a)
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Electronic mail:
jtyang@ntu.edu.tw.
1070-6631/2011/23(9)/091901/12/$30.00 VC
2011 American Institute of Physics 23, 091901-1
PHYSICS OF FLUIDS 23, 091901 (2011)
Downloaded 27 Sep 2011 to 128.2.48.20. Redistribution subject to AIP license or copyright; see http://pof.aip.org/about/rights_and_permissions
According to Breder,
19
the modes of undulatory sh
swimming are classiable as types BCF (body and/or caudal
n) and MPF (median and/or paired ns), in terms of the be-
havioral characteristics of locomotion. The BCF mode is fur-
ther classied as carangiform (e.g., mullet), sub-carangiform
(e.g., trout), thunniform (e.g., tuna), and anguilliform (e.g.,
eel). Webb
2022
pointed out that abducted pectoral ns (see
Fig. 2) can generate trimming forces for posture control in a
BCF-mode swimming sh. The abducted pectoral ns, how-
ever, also shed vortices downstream; we term the vortices so
generated the pectoral-n vortices. The hydrodynamic
interactions between pectoral-n vortices and the body undu-
lation in a swimming sh remain unclear.
In this work, our objective was to explore numerically
the hydrodynamic interactions between pectoral-n vortices
and the body undulation in a sh swimming with carangi-
form locomotion. For the cases that we simulated, the
Strouhal number (St) was varied (i.e., 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6,
and 0.8). The Strouhal number is dened as fA/U, in which f
denotes the undulating frequency of the sh body wave, A
the peak-to-peak amplitude of tail beating, and U the sh
swimming velocity. We examined the simulated ow elds,
energy expenditure, and force production of a swimming sh
to unveil the hydrodynamic interactions between pectoral-n
vortices and body undulation. Our results provide a biome-
chanical and biophysical foundation for the design of
energy-saving mechanisms adaptable in biomimetic vehicles
mimicking an undulatory swimming sh.
II. PHYSICAL MODEL AND NUMERICAL METHOD
A. Physical model
For our numerical simulation, a sh with rigid, abducted
pectoral ns was modeled, as shown in Fig. 3(a). The Carte-
sian coordinate system shown in Fig. 3(a) corresponds to a
frame of reference xed at the sh, with x the longitudinal
(anterior-posterior) coordinate, y the lateral coordinate, and z
the vertical coordinate. In particular, the origin of the Carte-
sian coordinate system is placed at the snout of the sh; in
this simulation, the sh was considered to swim at a station-
ary point situated within a computational domain subject to a
background uniform free-stream velocity (U) (corresponding
to the swimming velocity of the sh but with an opposite
orientation);
2326
L represents the length of the sh ( 0.1 m),
as shown in Fig. 3(b).
In the numerical simulation, in this work, we did not
consider the uid-structure interaction problem. We assumed
also that the body length of the sh model remains constant
during undulation; only a lateral (i.e., y-direction) undulation
of the sh body is allowed. A lateral undulation of the body-
wave traveling backward from the snout to the tail of the sh
is prescribed with a formula of this form,
yx; t ax sin 2p
x
k
t
T
_ _ _ _
; (1)
in which t denotes time, k denotes the wavelength of sh
undulation, T denotes the period of sh undulation; in all
simulations k is the body length ( L), which is in the range
0.891.1 L observed in most sh swimming with carangi-
form locomotion;
27
a(x) depicts the amplitude envelope of
the lateral motion of the body wave (see Fig. 4(a)) and is
expressed here in a quadratic form,
ax C
0
C
1
x C
2
x
2
; (2)
in which coefcients C
0
, C
1
, and C
2
are solvable according to
kinematic data associated with a sh swimming with car-
angiform locomotion.
28
The results indicate that C
0
0.002,
C
1
0.12, and C
2
2, with a(0) 0.002 m, a(0.05)
0.001 m, and a(0.1) 0.01 m. The undulatory movement
of the sh was realized via a mesh deformation complying
with Eq. (1), forming a wave traveling backward along the
sh body, as shown in Fig. 4(b).
The simulations carried out in this study pertain to a sh
that executes steady straight-line swimming with a constant
forward velocity. Typically, for shes in a status of steady
straight-line swimming, their pectoral ns are kept abducted
and motionless with a xed inclination, rather than undergo
remarkable deformation. Large exibility and deformation
are usually observed only in shes executing maneuvers
such as braking and turning. Thereby, it is considered that
the exibility of the pectoral ns is negligible for the case
we studied which pertains to a sh in a steady straight-line
swimming status.
The numerical method employed in this work took no
account of the uid-structure interaction problem; that is, the
swimming sh simulated in this work is subject to a
tethered condition without self-propulsion. Such tethered
treatment requires a virtual stationary pivot to be attached to
the sh model; the pivot sometimes exerts a tethering force
on the sh model to ensure force balance necessary for the
condition of steady swimming. Despite these limitations of
the computational modeling, the numerical results of the
analysis are expected to yield useful insight into the FIG. 2. (Color online) A sh swimming with pectoral ns abducted.
FIG. 1. (Color online) Schematic illustration of the mechanism of vortex
control for saving locomotive energy in a diamond-shaped sh school. The
circles with arrows denote the reversed Karman vortex street shed by the
sh swimming upstream. The blue arrows represent uid jets formed inside
the reversed Karman vortex street. The block arrows represent upward ori-
ented ow formed by the reversed Karman vortex street. Dashed lines are
drawn to highlight the diamond shape of the sh school.
091901-2 Yu et al. Phys. Fluids 23, 091901 (2011)
hydrodynamic interactions between pectoral-n vortices and
body undulation in a swimming sh.
B. Numerical method
We employed the three-dimensional viscous incompres-
sible Navier-Stokes equations as governing equations,
r u 0; (3)
@u
@t
u u
g
_ _
ru
1
q
rp tr
2
u g; (4)
in which u is velocity, u
g
is mesh-grid velocity, q denotes
density, p denotes pressure, t is the uid kinematic viscosity,
and g denotes the body forces per unit mass.
The computational domain is illustrated in Fig. 3(b).
The computational domain around the sh body was a
cylinder with a hemispherical end at the head of the body.
The boundary conditions are as follows. A boundary condi-
tion of uniform inlet ow velocity was applied for the inlet
boundary at the left side (Fig. 3(b)) and a boundary condition
of constant pressure on the outlet boundary at the right side.
The no-slip surface of the sh was set with u
b
u
f
; u
b
and u
f
are, respectively, the velocities of the sh body and the uid.
All exterior boundaries of the computational domain that
were treated as no-slip surfaces had u0 imposed.
The governing Navier-Stokes equations were made dis-
crete with the nite-volume method; a second-order Crank-
Nicolson scheme was applied for discrete time and a
second-order upwind scheme for discrete space. These dis-
cretized governing Navier-Stokes equations were solved
with commercial software (CFD-RC). With the SIMPLEC
algorithm, we treated the pressure-velocity coupling, satis-
fying the continuity equation. Space discretization of the
FIG. 3. (Color online) Schematic diagram illustrating arrangement of the physical model and computational domain.
FIG. 4. (a) Amplitude envelope of the
body wave. (b) The undulatory body of
the sh model.
091901-3 Three-dimensional numerical simulation Phys. Fluids 23, 091901 (2011)
computational domain was performed on a block-structured
mesh; the mesh grids were locally rened and concentrated
near the sh body and the wake region. To enable the sh
models to undergo undulatory motions complying with that
prescribed by equation (1), grid deformation methods for
computation of unsteady ow were exploited. For the three-
dimensional sh model, the boundary displacements were
realized through the standard transnite interpolation (TFI)
re-meshing scheme.
29,30
We have conducted convergence tests to ensure the
insensitivity of the computed solutions to the size of the
mesh grids and the time step. For our simulation, the mesh
grids amounted to 3.2 10
5
; the dimensionless time step
(i.e., Dt/T) was 0.02. A ner mesh with 6.4 10
5
grid points
and a smaller dimensionless time step, 0.01, were also tested
in our simulation. In the convergence tests, the net longitudi-
nal force coefcient (C
D
) and net lateral force coefcient
(C
L
) were evaluated for the entire sh model (consisting of
both the body and pectoral ns) (Fig. 5(a)) and for solely the
pectoral ns (Fig. 5(b)). The dashed C
D
curve (for coarse
mesh-grids) agrees satisfactorily with the solid C
D
curve (for
ne mesh-grids). The dashed C
L
curve also agrees satisfacto-
rily with the solid C
L
curve. These results of the convergence
tests ensured that our numerical simulation rendered solu-
tions independent of both the grid size and the time step.
C. Simulation parameters
In our simulation, the two non-dimensional parameters
that characterize hydrodynamic performance of a swimming
sh with pectoral ns abducted are the Reynolds number
(Re) for the ow and the Strouhal number (St) for the body
undulation, dened as follows:
Re UL=t; (5)
St fA=U; (6)
in particular, A is twice the undulation amplitude of the tail,
i.e., A0.02 m (see Fig. 4 (a)).
The Reynolds number associated with a sh swimming
with carangiform locomotion is typically greater than
10
4
.
1,24
In this work, the Reynolds number associated with
all the simulated cases was set as 3.3 10
4
. We altered the
Strouhal number to study the hydrodynamic interactions
between pectoral-n vortices and the body undulation in a
swimming sh. The Strouhal number varied as 0, 0.1, 0.2,
0.4, 0.6, and 0.8. Because the uniform free-stream velocity
(U) and peak-to-peak amplitude of tail beating of a sh (A)
were xed, the Strouhal number was just adjusted by the tail
beat frequency (f) of a sh.
D. Performance parameters
According to our results of numerical simulation, the
hydrodynamic forces and power consumption of the undulat-
ing sh are evaluated as follows.
23,24
The friction and pressure
forces acting on the sh were evaluated respectively on inte-
grating the viscous stress and pressure around the sh surface.
The net longitudinal force (F
D
) acting on the sh body (i.e.,
along the x-axis) corresponds to a sum of longitudinal compo-
nents of friction force (F
F
) and pressure force (F
Pr
), i.e.,
F
D
F
F
F
Pr
. By denition (see Fig. 3(a)), the forces F
F
,
F
Pr
, and F
D
functionally act as thrust forces when they have
negative values, pushing the sh forward. The lateral compo-
nents of the friction and pressure forces are, respectively,
denoted F
Fl
and F
Prl
; the net lateral force F
L
equals F
Fl
F
Prl
.
These hydrodynamic forces were evaluated and normalized as
dimensionless force coefcients as follows:
25,26
C
F

F
F
1
=
2
qU
2
L
2
; C
Pr

F
Pr
1
=
2
qU
2
L
2
; and
C
D

F
D
1
=
2
qU
2
L
2
;
C
Fl

F
Fl
1
=
2
qU
2
L
2
; C
Prl

F
Prl
1
=
2
qU
2
L
2
; and
C
L

F
L
1
=
2
qU
2
L
2
:
(7)
For a swimming sh, the power (P
S
) required to perform a
lateral undulation of the body wave is dened as
P
S

_
pn v
s
dS; (8)
in which p is the pressure acting on the sh surface, n is the
normal vector of the surface element of the sh body, v
s
is
the lateral (i.e., y-component) velocity of the surface element
of the sh body, and dS is the differential surface element.
FIG. 5. The independence of the grid and of the time step during one undulation cycle for ow over a swimming sh with the pectoral ns abducted at
St 0.8. The net longitudinal force coefcient (C
D
) and net lateral force coefcient (C
L
) were evaluated (a) for the entire sh model consisting of both the
body and pectoral ns and (b) for solely the pectoral ns. Dashed lines: mesh number 3.2 10
5
, dimensionless time step 0.02; solid lines: mesh number
6.4 10
5
, dimensionless time step 0.01. The dashed lines agree satisfactorily with their corresponding solid lines.
The coefcient of power consumption, C
P
, is accordingly
dened as
C
P

P
S
1
=
2
qU
3
L
2
: (9)
The contribution from viscous stress forces to the power con-
sumption is omitted from Eq. (8), because, in practice, the
contribution from viscous stress forces is small and negligi-
ble relative to the contribution from the pressure force.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In our simulation, the time-dependent hydrodynamic
forces and power consumption of the sh varied periodically
after the rst six simulated undulation cycles; the time-
dependent and cycle-averaged quantities presented below
were evaluated after the tenth undulation cycle.
A. Lateral force versus Strouhal number
Our numerical results reveal that the Strouhal number
evidently affects the lateral force because of hydrodynamic
interactions between the pectoral-n vortices and the undu-
lating sh body. In Fig. 6, we exhibit the variation of the net
lateral force coefcient (C
L
) within an undulation cycle for
various Strouhal numbers. A phase difference p exists
between the net lateral force coefcient (C
L
) at St 0.1 and
that at other Strouhal numbers (i.e., St 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and
0.8). This condition implies that a sh swimming at varied
Strouhal number with the pectoral ns abducted is subjected
to hydrodynamic interactions of varied types between the
ambient uid and the undulating sh body.
In Fig. 7, we exhibit that, at time instant t/T 0.2, the
sh tail is beating upward (i.e., towards the y direction) for
all Strouhal numbers except St 0; note that St 0 corre-
sponds to a static sh without body undulation (see Fig.
7(a)). For St 0.1, the net lateral force coefcient (C
L
) has,
however, a small positive value (i.e., with the y orienta-
tion) at time instant t/T 0.2 (see Fig. 6). In brief, the lateral
force and the movement of the beating tail have an identical
orientation. This condition indicates that the ambient uid
provides the sh with a suction force that facilitates upward
undulatory movement; alternatively stated, the lateral force
serves as a suction force beneting the body undulation.
In contrast, for Strouhal numbers in the range 0.20.8,
the lateral force coefcients (C
L
) all correspond to negative
values (i.e., with the y orientation), as shown in Fig. 6.
Hence, for St 0.20.8, the lateral force and the movement of
the beating tail have opposite orientations at time instant
t/T0.2. For this situation, the undulating sh body provides
FIG. 6. Variation of the net lateral force coefcient (C
L
) within an undula-
tion cycle for various Strouhal numbers.
FIG. 7. (Color online) The undulating
movement of a sh swimming at various
Strouhal numbers with the pectoral ns
abducted, corresponding to time instant
t/T0.2. The blue solid arrow denotes
the moving direction of the undulating
sh body. The outline of the sh body is
highlighted in blue.
an upward propelling force on the ambient uid, accordingly
obtaining a downward reaction force. These ndings indicate
that a sh swimming at varied Strouhal numbers with the pec-
toral ns abducted is subjected to hydrodynamic interactions
of varied types between the ambient uid and the undulating
sh body.
B. Shedding of pectoral-fin vortices
Our numerical results indicate that a pair of vortices is
formed immediately behind the abducted pectoral ns of a
swimming sh. The Strouhal number is a crucial dimension-
less parameter that governs the shedding of pectoral-n vor-
tices. A decreased Strouhal number enables the shedding of
the pectoral-n vortices.
The hydrodynamic interaction between the ambient uid
and the undulating sh body was analyzed on examining the
vorticity (x
z
) and pressure contours of ow elds observed
on the horizontal midplane (z 0) intersecting the sh body.
The vorticity (x
z
) is dened as
x
z

@v
@x
@u
@y
_ _
; (10)
in which u and v are velocity components in x and y direc-
tions, respectively.
When a sh swims with the pectoral ns abducted, a
pair of vortices is formed immediately behind the pectoral
ns. The shear layers (subjected to strong vorticity) originat-
ing from the n tips roll up and evolve into the pectoral-n
vortices that structurally dominate the near-body wake
behind the pectoral ns. In Fig. 8, we exhibit the periodic
and symmetric shedding of pectoral-n vortices within a
shedding cycle for St 0. The pectoral-n vortices are shed
symmetrically, which is dynamically dissimilar to the asym-
metric shedding of a Karman vortex street.
911
The region
immediately behind the abducted pectoral ns is separated
symmetrically by the static sh body, which cancels the
instability between the pectoral-n vortices, accordingly
making pectoral-n vortices shed symmetrically. The func-
tion of the static sh body is functionally analogous to a
splitter plate situated behind a bluff body for control of the
dynamics of vortex shedding.
31,32
In Fig. 9, we exhibit the periodic and asymmetric shed-
ding of pectoral-n vortices within an undulation cycle for
St 0.1. Referring to Figs. 9(a)9(c), the upper ank (i.e.,
the right ank) of the posterior sh body gradually forms a
convex surface, whereas the opposite lower ank (i.e., the
left ank) gradually forms a concave surface. This concave
surface of the arched sh body is able to suck in the ambient
uid because a region of negative pressure is formed
23,24
(see Figs. 10(a)10(c)), which is favorable for the shedding
of pectoral-n vortices. Suction forces yielded from the low-
pressure region enhance the detachment (i.e., shedding) of
pectoral-n vortices. The pressure contours shown in Fig. 10
correspond to those of the sh ow elds shown in Fig. 9,
which is also for St 0.1.
For the succeeding lateral tail-beat towards the opposite
direction (see Figs. 9(d)9(f)), a region of negative pressure
occurs again downstream of the upper abducted pectoral n
FIG. 8. (Color online) Vorticity con-
tours (x
z
) of ow elds observed on the
horizontal midplane (z 0) intersecting
a sh swimming at St 0. The black
dashed ellipses with arrows denote the
pectoral-n vortices and their direction
of rotation. (a)(f) Six sequential images
illustrating the periodic and symmetric
shedding of pectoral-n vortices.
(see Figs. 10(d)10(f)). In brief, regions of negative pressure
occur alternately adjacent to the upper and lower anks of
the posterior sh body because of periodic undulation. As a
result, a region of asymmetric negative pressure behind the
abducted pectoral ns constantly occurs, which facilitates
the temporally and spatially asymmetric shedding of
pectoral-n vortices.
Referring to Figs. 9(a)9(c), the pectoral-n vortex is
shed from the upper abducted pectoral n and drifts down-
stream. Through scrutiny of the corresponding pressure con-
tours of the ow elds and the kinematic movements of the
sh (see Figs. 10(a)10(c)), we found that the low-pressure
suction force arising from the pectoral-n vortices is able to
facilitate the upward undulating movement of the posterior
sh body.
Referring to Figs. 9(d)9(f), the pectoral-n vortex is
shed from the lower abducted pectoral n and drifts down-
stream. Similarly, the low-pressure suction force arising
from the shed pectoral-n vortex in turn facilitates the down-
ward undulating movement of the posterior sh body (see
Figs. 10(d)10(f)). In terms of these ndings, it is clear that,
for St 0.1, the pectoral-n vortex is an ambient ow
motion of a kind that provides lateral suction forces assisting
undulation of the posterior sh body.
In contrast, for Strouhal numbers in the range 0.20.8,
the pectoral-n vortices are not shed downstream. The rea-
son is that rapid undulation of the posterior sh body at
increased frequencies (or St) produces a locally high pres-
sure in the region downstream of the pectoral-n vortices.
This downstream high-pressure region adversely suppresses
the detachment of pectoral-n vortices, resulting in vortices
closely attached behind the abducted pectoral ns. The struc-
tural characteristics of ow elds behind the pectoral ns are
similar for Strouhal numbers in the range 0.20.8, but subtle
differences remain recognizable from the results of the asso-
ciated performance parameters.
To address in detail the physical mechanism underlying
the close attachment of vortices to the abducted pectoral ns,
we show a representative case of the vorticity and pressure
contours of ow elds for one undulation cycle at St 0.8.
Referring to Figs. 11(a)11(c), the upper ank of the poste-
rior sh body gradually forms a convex surface, whereas the
opposite corresponding lower ank gradually forms a con-
cave surface. As noted above, this concave surface of the
arched sh body causes a negative pressure in the region
downstream of the lower abducted pectoral n. Contrary to
expectation, however, the pectoral-n vortex does not shed
off downstream, but remains closely attached to the lower
abducted pectoral n.
The pressure contours of ow elds shown in Fig. 12
correspond to those of the ow elds shown in Fig. 11. A
locally high pressure is induced in the downstream region
(the dark patches) because of high-frequency body undula-
tion (see Figs. 12(d)12(f)). Although suction forces arising
from the low pressure in the downstream concave region
enhance the detachment of the lower pectoral-n vortex, the
locally high pressure caused by the succeeding lateral tail-
beat adversely impedes the detachment of the pectoral-n
tours (x
z
) of sh ow elds observed on
the horizontal midplane (z 0) for
St 0.1. The blue solid arrow denotes
the moving direction of the undulating
sh body. The black dashed ellipses
with arrows denote the pectoral-n vorti-
ces and their direction of rotation. (a)(f)
Six sequential images illustrating the
periodic and asymmetric shedding of
pectoral-n vortices.
FIG. 10. (Color online) Pressure con-
tours of the sh ow elds shown in
Fig. 9, for a sh swimming at St 0.1.
The blue solid arrow denotes the direc-
tion of sh body movement.
tours (x
z
) of ow elds observed on the
horizontal midplane (z 0) intersecting
a sh swimming at St 0.8. The blue
solid arrow denotes the moving direction
of the undulating sh body. The black
dashed ellipses with arrows denote the
pectoral-n vortices and their direction
of rotation.
vortex. Alternatively stated, there is insufcient time for the
pectoral-n vortex to be detached because the locally high
pressure in the downstream region is rapidly created by the
succeeding lateral tail-beat, suppressing the vortex shedding.
The vortex thus remains closely attached to the lower
abducted pectoral n (see also Fig. 11). To conclude, for a
sh swimming at Strouhal numbers in the range 0.20.8, the
high-frequency undulation of the sh body actively provides
lateral propelling forces to the ambient uid. Accordingly,
the locally high pressure is induced in the downstream region
to suppress the shedding of pectoral-n vortices.
C. Forces versus Strouhal number
Our numerical results indicate that an increased Strouhal
number causes an increased cycle-averaged friction-force
coefcient (C
F
) and a decreased cycle-averaged pressure-
force coefcient (C
Pr
) in a sh swimming with the pectoral
ns abducted. This correlation has been reported in numeri-
cal treatments of the pectoral ns as adducted (or took no
account of the pectoral ns).
24,25
The cycle-averaged
friction-force coefcient (C
F
) and pressure-force coefcient
(C
Pr
) in a sh swimming with the pectoral ns abducted are,
notably, invariably greater than those in a sh swimming
with the pectoral ns adducted.
The friction force is dominated primarily by the uid ve-
locity relative to the surface of a sh body. For that reason,
the friction force in a swimming sh with the pectoral ns
adducted depends largely on the velocity gradient resulting
from the velocity disparity between the body-wave velocity
(V) and the uniform free-stream velocity (U), as shown in Fig.
13(a). In contrast, the friction force in a sh swimming with
the pectoral ns abducted is generated because of the velocity
gradient resulting from the velocity disparity between the
body-wave velocity (V) and the velocity of the recirculating
ows (i.e., the pectoral-n vortices) near the sh-body surface
(U
vortex
), as shown in Fig. 13(b); V and U
vortex
have opposite
directions. Accordingly, for a sh swimming with the pectoral
ns abducted, a larger velocity gradient is generally incurred,
producing a larger friction force. This condition accounts for
the fact that a sh swimming with the pectoral ns abducted
is capable of yielding a larger cycle-averaged friction-force
coefcient (C
F
) than a sh swimming with the pectoral ns
adducted, as shown in Fig. 13(c).
The pressure force was evaluated on integrating the sur-
face pressure around the undulatory body of a swimming sh
(see Fig. 14(a)). When a sh swims with the pectoral ns
abducted, high pressure is established in the regions immedi-
ately before the abducted ns because of the impact of the
incoming free stream, whereas regions subjected to low pres-
sure are formed immediately behind the abducted ns
because of the existence of pectoral-n vortices (see Fig.
14(b)). Large pressure (or form) drag forces are consequently
caused. This phenomenon does not occur in a sh swimming
with the pectoral ns adducted. The additional large pressure
drag caused by the abducted pectoral ns in a swimming sh
FIG. 12. (Color online) Pressure con-
tours of the sh ow elds shown in Fig.
11. The blue solid arrow denotes the
direction of sh body movement.
is accordingly capable of rendering a larger cycle-averaged
pressure-force coefcient (C
Pr
) than for a sh swimming
with the pectoral ns adducted, as shown in Fig. 14(c).
In nature, there is a great diversity of the pectoral-n
geometries and n inclination among distinct sh species. If
the geometry and inclination of the pectoral ns of the sh
model alter, the computational results pertaining to the sh
ow elds and force generation would correspondingly
change. A further systematic study is required to address the
effects associated with the geometry and inclination of the
pectoral ns.
D. Energy-saving mechanism
An energy-saving mechanism is found in a swimming
sh that sheds pectoral-n vortices downstream. A decreased
Strouhal number enables the shedding of pectoral-n vorti-
ces, consequently causing shed pectoral-n vortices to drift
downstream. The low-pressure suction forces stemming
from the shed pectoral-n vortices facilitate lateral undulat-
ing movements of the sh body, decreasing the power con-
sumption, which is a benecial and signicant mechanism
for a swimming sh to save locomotive energy.
To elucidate the energy-saving mechanism, we show an
illustrative and representative case (Fig. 15) for a sh swim-
ming at St 0.1. In Fig. 15(a), a pectoral-n vortex was shed
from the upper abducted pectoral n and drifted downstream.
Through scrutiny of the pressure contour of the sh ow
eld and kinematic movements of the swimming sh, we
found that the low-pressure suction forces stemming from
the shed pectoral-n vortex facilitate upward movement of
the posterior sh body (see Fig. 15(a)). We further inspected
the distribution of power-consumption coefcient (C
P
)
within the section alongside the upper (i.e., right) surface
that is in direct contact with the upper pectoral-n vortex.
The power-consumption coefcients (C
P
) within this section
all have negative values that signify negative work output
(see Fig. 15(b)). From an energetic perspective, this condi-
tion suggests that the undulatory body is capable of harvest-
ing kinetic energy from the shed pectoral-n vortex, which
might serve as a benecial and signicant mechanism for a
swimming sh to save locomotive energy.
As mentioned above, abducted pectoral ns are evi-
dently hydrodynamically unfavorable for swimming propul-
sion in a sh because of an increased friction force and
pressure drag force. A sh is, nevertheless, sometimes com-
pelled to swim with the pectoral ns abducted, so as to gen-
erate required trimming forces for posture stabilization. In
such circumstances, our ndings indicate that it is practical
for a sh to harvest kinetic energy sophisticatedly from the
shed pectoral-n vortices, given that the body undulation is
appropriately synchronized (or phase-locked) with the shed-
ding of pectoral-n vortices. Hence, a sh is likely to be a
swimmer capable of implementing the energy-saving action
described above.
E. A biohydrodynamic analogy
We propose a biohydrodynamic analogy (Fig. 16)
between a sh swimming with the pectoral ns abducted and
a sh swimming behind an upstream D-shaped obstacle.
Through examination of the energy-saving mechanism per-
taining to pectoral-n vortices and that pertaining to a Karman
vortex street shed by an upstream D-shaped obstacle,
1214
we
found that, as long as there exist environmental vortices, a
sh can readily initiate energy-saving actions. Although the
manners of operation of these energy-saving actions vary, the
exploitation of environmental vortices is common in sh.
As schematically illustrated in Fig. 16, the shed
pectoral-n vortices drift downstream. The low-pressure
FIG. 13. (Color online) Vorticity contours (x
z
) of ow
elds observed on the horizontal midplane (z 0) inter-
secting a sh swimming with the pectoral ns (a)
adducted and (b) abducted. The brighter and darker col-
ors of the contour represent positive and negative vor-
ticity values, respectively. The blue and black solid
arrows denote, respectively, the directions of body-
wave velocity (V) and background free-stream velocity
(U). The black dashed ellipses with arrows denote the
pectoral-n vortices and their direction of rotation, with
U
vortex
representing the velocity of the recirculating
ow near the sh-body surface. (c) Cycle-averaged fric-
tion-force coefcient (C
F
) versus Strouhal number.
suction forces arising from the shed pectoral-n vortices
facilitate lateral movements of the sh body, decreasing the
pertinent power consumption (see Fig. 16(a)). The sh body
posterior to the abducted pectoral ns is behaviorally similar
to a sh swimming between vortices generated from an
upstream D-shaped obstacle (see Fig. 16(b)) because both
cases slalom between the incoming vortices (Fig. 16). This
effect is proposed as a biohydrodynamic analogy.
In terms of this biohydrodynamic analogy, the abducted
pectoral ns act like a vortex generator and are hydrody-
namically similar to an upstream D-shaped obstacle. Other-
wise, the sh body posterior to the abducted pectoral ns
acts like a vortex adapter and is similar to a sh slaloming
behind an upstream D-shaped obstacle (Fig. 16). This biohy-
drodynamic analogy indicates that a sh can readily initiate
energy-saving actions; although the manners of operation of
energy-saving actions vary, an exploitation of environmental
vortices is common in shes. The associated energy-saving
mechanism serves as a potentially useful biomechanical
guide for the design of future biomimetic vehicles in a per-
spective of diminishing the power consumption.
FIG. 14. (Color online) Pressure contours of ow elds
observed on the horizontal midplane (z 0) intersecting
a sh swimming with pectoral ns (a) adducted and (b)
abducted. The brighter and darker colors of the contour,
respectively, represent negative and positive pressure
values. (c) Cycle-averaged pressure-force coefcient
(C
Pr
) versus Strouhal number.
FIG. 15. (Color online) Energy-saving mechanism in a sh swimming with
the pectoral ns abducted. (a) Pressure contour of the sh ow eld
observed on the horizontal midplane (z 0). The brighter and darker colors
of the contour, respectively, represent negative and positive pressure values.
The blue dashed arrow denotes the direction of local movement of the undu-
lating sh body. The black dashed ellipses with arrows denote the pectoral-
n vortices and their direction of rotation. The two vertical, dashed, and
black lines specify the borders of the section alongside the upper surface at
which the power-consumption coefcient (C
P
) exhibited in (b) is evaluated.
FIG. 16. (Color online) Schematic illustrations for the proposed biohydro-
dynamic analogy. (a) A sh swimming with the pectoral ns abducted. (b) A
sh swimming behind an upstream D-shaped obstacle. (a) and (b) The black
dashed ellipses with arrows denote the shed vortices and their direction of
rotation. The blue solid arrows denote the direction of motion of the sh
body. The black dashed rectangles highlight the vortex generator; the blue
dashed rectangles highlight the vortex adapter. Both abducted pectoral ns
and the D-shaped obstacle act like a vortex generator that sheds vortices
downstream. Both the sh body posterior to the abducted pectoral ns and
the sh slaloming behind the D-shaped obstacle act like a vortex adapter.
IV. CONCLUSION
In this work, we numerically explored the hydrodynamic
interactions between pectoral-n vortices and body undulation
in a swimming sh. Our numerical results indicate that a pair
of vortices is formed immediately behind the abducted pecto-
ral ns of a swimming sh. There exist hydrodynamic interac-
tions between the pectoral-n vortices and the undulating sh
body. For Strouhal numbers in the range 0.20.8, the body
undulation impedes the shedding of pectoral-n vortices,
resulting in vortices becoming closely attached to the pectoral
ns. In contrast, for Strouhal number 0.1, the pectoral-n
vortices are shed from the pectoral ns and drift downstream.
The low-pressure suction forces arising from the shed
pectoral-n vortices facilitate lateral movements of the sh
body, decreasing the pertinent power consumption. This effect
is conjectured as a benecial and signicant mechanism for a
swimming sh to save locomotive energy because kinetic
energy is harvested from shed pectoral-n vortices.
Although abducted pectoral ns are hydrodynamically
unfavorable for swimming propulsion, a sh is sometimes
compelled to swim with the pectoral ns abducted, so as to
stabilize its swimming posture. Our numerical results reveal
that, in such circumstances, it is practical for a sh to harvest
kinetic energy sophisticatedly from the shed pectoral-n vor-
tices, provided that the body undulation is appropriately
synchronized (or phase-locked) with the shedding of
pectoral-n vortices, rendering negative power-consumption
coefcients (C
P
) signifying negative work output.
We propose a biohydrodynamic analogy between a sh
swimming with the pectoral ns abducted and a sh swim-
ming behind an upstream D-shaped obstacle. Both the
abducted pectoral ns and the D-shaped obstacle act like a
vortex generator shedding vortices downstream. Acting like
a vortex adapter, the posterior sh body behind abducted
pectoral ns and the sh behind a D-shaped obstacle slalom
between the incoming vortices. A sh can readily initiate
energy-saving actions; although the manners of operation of
energy-saving actions vary, the exploitation of environmen-
tal vortices is common in shes. The energy-saving mecha-
nism revealed in this work provides a useful biomechanical
foundation for the design of future biomimetic vehicles with
a view to diminish power consumption.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The National Science Council of the Republic of China
partially supported this work under Contract Nos. NSC 96-
2628-E-002-256-MY3 and NSC 96-2628-E-002-258-MY3.
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Three-dimensional numerical simulation of hydrodynamic interactions

between pectoral-fin vortices and body undulation in a swimming fish

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