Notes on The Pedagogy of St.

Augustine1 and The Foundations of Augustines Spirituality2

Sr. Ma. Luz Mijares

I. Notes on The Pedagogy of St. Augustine The Questions of Pedagogy In educational parlance, pedagogy refers to ones theory of learning and the methodology that appropriately accompanies such a theory. A theory of learning (or the theory that pertains to the process how one learns or acquires knowledge in a controlled educational process) is the very staple of educational practice but is itself based on a theory of knowledge (epistemology, as it is usually referred to in the philosophical academic circles). The practice of education, as in instruction and research, actually involves certain fundamental epistemological considerations that need to be made explicit, if educational practice is to be able to assure for itself some relevance, direction and effectiveness. Invariably, the fundamental philosophical questions involved are
1

Prepared from editing, with commentary, of Introduction by Peter King in Augustine, Against the Academicians and The Teacher. 2 Prepared from editing of The Journey: Augustines Spiritual Vision in Thomas F. Martin OSA, Our Restless Heart: The Augustinian Tradition.

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these: What is knowledge? How is knowledge possible? Or, how does knowledge occur? It is only from an informed grasp of these fundamental questions that one is able to draw up the practical directions of educational practice in terms of relevant pedagogy, which after all is a significant part of ones educational philosophy.

Augustine and Pedagogy: Platonist Roots Augustine was one among the ancient writers that explicitly addressed the epistemological questions involved in pedagogy. It was only natural that his early writings would be directed at this interest as he seriously pursued the career path of being a teacher at the onset of his adult life. Two of his early writings are principally concerned with the epistemological questions of pedagogy, namely, Against the Academicians and The Teacher. They actually belong together and must be read and studied together. In Against the Academicians, which as a polemical writing is directed at Ciceros Academica, Augustine defends the possibility of knowledge against the skeptical arguments of the New Academy. (Augustine identifies the New Academy as the successors of Plato, who endorsed skepticism. See Against the Academicians 2.5.13-2.6.15). In The Teacher, directed at one of Platos dialogues, Meno, Augustine offers his Platonist theory of illumination to explain how knowledge is acquired. In late antiquity, philosophy was more a way of life than an academic discipline. Philosophers were organized into schools (secta), each with a venerable tradition and its own worldview one that included specific arguments and points of view as well as positions on such major questions of general interest as the number of stars in the heavens and the nature of God. Some philosophical schools also held esoteric doctrines that were revealed in secret to a novice after he had served the requisite apprenticeship. Philosophers often lived in communities, adhered to the dictates of a common rule based on their doctrines, and wore distinctive clothing (the philosophers mantle) to indicate the school of philosophy to which they belonged. It was not uncommon for people to withdraw from the world to pursue philosophy especially if they had experienced a conversion of some sort. Thus philosophical schools were to all intents and purposes like religious orders, which in fact took on many of the practices, styles of living and traditions of their prototype.

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In Augustines view, (Christian) religion and (Platonist) philosophy were engaged in the same enterprise, namely, the quest for knowledge: Just as the Hebrews were prepared for Christianity by the law and the prophets, so too the Gentiles were prepared by Plato and Aristotle. And just as Christianity is the fulfillment of the Old Covenant, so too it is the fulfillment of Greek philosophy. (Spade, 1985, Chapter 7). The difference between them is that Christian doctrine succeeds where unaided Platonism fails. Hence Augustine could summarize his views as follows:
Ive renounced all the other things that mortal men think to be good and proposed to devote myself to searching for wisdom no one doubts that were prompted to learn by the twin forces of authority and reason. Therefore, Im resolved not to depart from the authority of Christ on any score whatsoever: I find no more powerful [authority]. As for what is to be sought out by the most subtle reasoning for my character is such that Im impatient in my desire to apprehend what the truth is not only by belief but also by understanding Im still confident that Im going to find it with the Platonists, and that it wont be opposed to our Holy Writ. [Against the Academicians 3.20.43.12-24]

Truth is one, however. It is reached through authority by means of belief and through reason (philosophy) by means of understanding. Philosophy thus proceeds autonomously to attain whatever truth it can. But the internal Teacher is the final arbiter of truth regardless of its source. (The internal Teacher is Christ operating within us to provide knowledge: this is the core of Augustines theory of illumination, discussed in The Teacher). When Augustine says, then, that he will devote himself to searching for wisdom, he is committing himself to a life of philosophizing along Platonist lines in the service of Christianity. In support of this vision of the philosophical way of life, Augustine could look back to a long tradition of Christian Platonism: Simplicianus and Ambrose of Milan, Marius Victorinus before them, Origen and Justin Martyr earlier still. Moreover, his apparently extravagant claims for Platonism were largely in keeping with a philosophical consensus that was a century old, for philosophical inquiry over the ages had reached the conclusion that Platonism especially of the sort defended by Plotinus was the correct view. (Philosophical thought in Augustines day was post-Plotionian, much as that of our own age is post-Freudian (Brown, 1967, p. 102). That is why Augustine does not draw a sharp distinction between philosophy in general and Platonist philosophy in particular.

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The consensus on Platonism, combined with the view that Christianity is Platonism perfected, led Augustine to adopt a tolerantly dismissive attitude toward most other philosophical schools: the Peripatetics really have the same system as the Platonists, one that leads to Christianity when improved by philosophical argument; the Cynics can be dismissed because of their lax morality, and the Stoics and the Epicureans dismissed because of their materialism.

The Academicians Yet there was one philosophical school that claimed to hold no doctrines and that criticized other schools including the Platonists for their dogmatism, namely the Academicians. Standing apart from the clash of dogmatic philosophies, these thinkers prided themselves on their restraint and detachment, and on their avoidance of error into which others had raced headlong. In addition, their school had the sanction of Cicero, who was venerated as the Latin master of literary, legal, rhetorical and philosophical writing. The late Roman intellectual who claimed to be Ciceronian skeptic must be a familiar sight. Thus for Augustine the live options were Ciceronian irony and philosophical commitment. In his early works they were what engaged his philosophical interest. When Augustine became disillusioned with Manichaeanism in 383 he despaired of finding the truth and went through a period of being a skeptic. Consequently, he had an insiders knowledge and experience of skepticism, though he never apprenticed himself to any skeptical school. Eventually his reading of Platonist books convinced him that skepticism was mistaken. In 386 he resigned as court rhetorician, broke off his engagement to be married, gave up life on the fast track, and went on philosophical retirement to a country house in Cassiciacum. Against the Academicians was the first fruit of this retirement, containing among other things, Augustines explanation of why he abandoned public life. It is a manifesto written by a former skeptic presenting himself for the first time as a Platonist and a Christian.

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Against the Academicians The heart of the matter in Against the Academicians is Augustines impassioned contention that, against the intellectual wave of skepticism of the day, knowledge is possible and must be sought relentlessly. He concludes his discussion by asking how anyone could take skepticism seriously when all one has to say to a skeptic is: It seems to me that someone can know the truth (3.16.36.60-62). He reasons that the Academicians were too clever not to have recognized the force of his refutation, and, therefore, they could not have held the skepticism they publicly professed. In fact they held a secret doctrine, namely Platonism! (Augustine is careful to say that he does not know this to be the case but only thinks it to be so [3.17.37.3-4]). His inference was no doubt credible in a world of warring philosophical sects some of whom did have secret doctrines, but it has found no support among modern scholars.

The Teacher If the upshot of Against the Academicians is that knowledge is possible, in The Teacher Augustine explains how knowledge is acquired by means of a philosophically improved Christianized version of Platos theory of recollection, known as the theory of illumination. According to Platos theory of recollection, all instances of learning are merely apparent. Learning is in reality the souls recollection (un-forgetting) of truths it already possesses: recollection is recovering knowledge by oneself that is in oneself (Meno 85d6-7). (Plato argues that such knowledge must have been acquired by the soul before its present incarnation in this life; Augustine, though he remained neutral on the possibility of the souls preexistence, finds the latter part of this doctrine dispensable, and accordingly dispenses with it). Plato supports his theory of recollection by the vivid example of the dialogue between Socrates and a slave, complete with a running commentary to Meno (82b-85b). Socrates sets the slave, who is ignorant of geometry, the problem of constructing a square with an area twice the area of a given square. The slave suggests that a square with sides of double length will have twice the area; recognizing his mistake, however, he proceeds to generate the correct construction, which is obvious from simple diagrams. During the conversation the slave has come to see why his first answer is wrong and why correct answer is correct. Socrates later tells us that beliefs, even true beliefs, are not worth much until they are tied down by reasoning about the explanation and this is recollection, as previously agreed (Meno
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98a3-5). The slave has acquired knowledge by coming to understand the reasons behind the proof. And that, as Plato concludes, is a process internal to the slave. Plato and Augustine do not hesitate to draw the consequences of this insight. Whatever grasping reasons may be, it is not the result of an external causal process: some students in the classroom understand the teachers explanation of the proof and some students dont; the difference is internal to each student, not found in their identical external circumstances. Teaching as it is usually understood, namely as a process by which knowledge is transferred from one person to another, is therefore not possible. Learning is a purely internal matter. Consider the following example. You recite to yourself the steps of mathematical proof while attempting to understand it, but without understanding it; youre merely parroting the proof. Yet in thinking it through you suddenly have a flash of insight and see how the proof works you comprehend it, and thereby recognize its truth. There is a real difference between your situation while not understanding it and your situation after understanding it. We commonly describe this difference with visual metaphors the flash of insight, seeing the truth, enlightenment, and so on. Augustine calls it illumination. It is an internal event whereby we see the truth. The power that reveals the truth to us, Augustine maintains, is Christ as the Teacher operating within us (The Teacher 11.38). The very understanding we have testifies to Gods presence in the world, since the mind is illumined with knowledge by the inner Teacher.

Relevance of Augustines Pedagogy Today The question now that remains for us to confront is: how do we evaluate the pedagogical underpinnings of Augustines theory of knowledge? Perhaps it is best in the first instance to recognize those basic principles promoted by his theory, namely: (1) Knowledge is possible; (2) Learning is a mysteriously internal matter to the learner; (3) Christ is the Teacher operating within us. Augustines assertion on the possibility of knowledge is no longer a problem to us. Epistemological skepticism is no longer a problem of our age as it was a problem of Augustines time or as it has once again become a problem among modern philosophers of the 18th century, like Hume and Kant. What remains a problem to us is the almost total surrender of our present mode of thinking to relativism. Pope Benedict XVI, writing then as the theologian Joseph Ratzinger, identifies the culture of relativism as the malaise of our time. Thus it is not so much the question of possibility of knowledge that confronts us as a challenge. Rather, it is the ethical imperative of what the epistemological question implies that challenges us, that is, the relentless pursuit of
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knowledge based on the belief that ultimate and abiding truth exists. Augustine remains a valid voice to us today in reminding us of the dangers of the skepticism of our day though knowledge is possible, eternal and abiding truth is not attainable. Augustines theory of illumination comes to us not as an ancient theory of learning that now can be dismissed as pre-scientific. We now realize that there are modern theories that can amply explain the existence of so-called innate ideas. Enculturation is one of them. But the point of Augustines theory of illumination is not so much to provide a scientific explanation of how learning occurs as to recognize the mystery of the learning process. It is a process that is internal to the learner, a process that, because of the minds kinship with the Spirit, remains unfathomable. This insight remains valid and remains a subject of inquiry by modern study. Furthermore, the sense of mystery in the learning process leaves us in respect and awe of the continuing human enterprise, the pursuit of knowledge. Finally, in his assertion that Christ is the Teacher operating within us, Augustine crosses the line that separates philosophy and Christian faith. Here Augustine speaks not merely as a disassociated teacher but as a Christian pedagogue. His assertion is therefore not a speculatively philosophical one. That Christ is the Teacher operating within us is an assertion of faith. It is such assertion that provides the guarantee for the possibility of knowledge and the attainability of truth as it provides an explanation in faith of the mystery of learning. It is thus an assertion that points to a type of knowledge that is beyond the philosophical realm, the knowledge of faith that contemplates on Christs promise: I am the way, the truth and the life.

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II. Notes on The Foundations of Augustines Spirituality

The Problem of Volume and Nature of Augustines Writings A perennial problem for students of Augustine is both the sheer volume of his writings and the nature of those writings. The output of four decades of pastoral ministry, controversy and devotion, it is the largest collection of any ancient author. It presents a lifetime project for anyone undertaking a complete knowledge of Augustine. What makes such a study even more daunting is the fact that the vast majority of his works are situational, addressing particular problems at a particular point in history. They do not represent an ordered system of thought. Furthermore, Augustine makes it clear that there was movement and development in his thinking. Late in life he would chide some of his devoted but confused admirers for not growing with him in theological understanding, even regarding his own works.

Augustines Writing Techniques Modern readers will also often find themselves tested by Augustines writing techniques. What may appear to us as a rambling and digressive approach must be understood in the light of an ancient world that remained more oral than literary. It was indeed a world of great literature but even the written word was set down to be spoken out loud and heard. Thus readers in the ancient world were almost always listeners as well, even when reading alone. Furthermore, an oral culture might be said to reason cumulatively rather than systematically. Thus when one reads Augustine for any length of time, one can have the feeling of being pummeled by wave after wave of scriptural quotes, repeated words or phrases, questions asked over and over again; and sometimes all this occurs in the course of a single dense paragraph. This is not our world of communication but an oral world where repetition and redundancy are standard fare. What often holds his thought together is not systematic or thematic order but verbal and rhetorical resonance and repetition. Arguments, concepts, questions and principles are repeatedly reasserted, but these recurring themes, when taken together, reveal the center and unity of his spiritual vision.

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The Context of Augustines World and Personal History We quite possibly know more about Augustine of Hippo than any ancient figure; and this knowledge equips us to see his spirituality as flowing from and inserted into this very real world. Augustines spirituality was never a theoretical exercise but always an attempt to respond to the demand to be a Christian in the religious, cultural and political setting that was late fourth and early fifth century Roman Africa. Augustine of Hippos life (354-430 CE) spans a knotty yet pivotal period of early Christian history. At the time of his birth the Christian theological world was still bitterly divided over questions concerning the Council of Nicaea (325). At the time of his death, the Western Roman Empire was fast approaching political disintegration, thus bringing to a close more than a thousand years of history. This Roman world of Late Antiquity was by no means a gentle world: violence was ever at its frontiers and local political rebellion was common. Neither complacency nor tolerance was considered virtuous in this world, and this held true also for the Christian church. It is against this backdrop that a Roman landowner of modest means named Patricius and a remarkably resilient North African woman named Monica welcomed a son whom they named Augustine, on 13 November 354. The mothers devout Catholic piety was matched by the nonChristian fathers religious indifference, and in the course of first decades the promising young boy would reflect both parents religious stance. Similarly for the rest of his life, Augustine was shaped by his personal history. An understanding, therefore, of his personal history is important for a study of his spirituality.

The Journey As we keep all the above in mind, a foundational metaphor or image is at this point offered to help us understand the spirituality of Augustine. The notion of the journey (peregrinatio) seems to be a key to understanding and living Augustinian spirituality. For Augustine and his world peregrinatio connotes not only the actual traveling to a desired destination, but all of the preparations and concerns necessary for its accomplishment: mapping, over-nighting, provisioning, security, choice of companions, and most importantly, knowledge of the destination. Everyone, Augustine will insist, knows what the journey demands (en. Ps. 42.2). Of course, he did not invent the image; it is an integral part of ancient thought from Homers Odyssey to Virgils Aeneid, and even to Plotinus Enneads, which offers a map for the souls journey to the One.

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In drawing upon this profoundly resonant ancient image, Augustine offers a compelling vision of the Christian life and it destination. His world knew that the journey was always unpredictable and arduous, but this very fact only served to increase longing for a safe homecoming: there is only one sweet homeland, one true homeland, everything else for us is pilgrimage (peregrinatio) (en. Ps. 61.7). Augustine will allow neither himself nor his listeners to forget the journey, unceasingly chiding all to hold the course, to remember they are pilgrims, members of a community of journeyers. Augustines spiritual vision is that he came to know the journey: where he was going, how he was going there, where constantly to direct his gaze, and that it was a journey to be shared. Augustine heart was ever on a restless journey and we need to see if the Augustinian tradition remained and remains true to this foundational insight and perspective.

The Christ Journey Perhaps the best-known incident in the life of Augustine, recorded in the final paragraphs of Book Eight of his Confessions, is his conversion. It began with a bout of tears that sent him to a remote corner of the garden of his house in Milan. His dear friend and heart brother Alypius, present at a discreet distance, was witness to the event. A strange and unaccustomed voice wafting from a nearby house interrupted his cries and laments directed to God: Pick it up! Read! Pick it up! Read! Tolle! Lege! Tolle! Lege! (conf. 8.12.29). It sounded like the game-chant of children at play but Augustine could not remember hearing such a rhyme. He took it, in imitation of the Life of Anthony, as Gods voice addressed specifically to him and hurried back to the place where he had left his dear friend Alypius as well as a copy of the Scriptures, in fact a book of St. Pauls letters. The Pick it up! Read! became Read Paul! as he committed himself to take to heart the first passage he lighted upon. It was Romans 13:13-14: Not in dissipation and drunkenness, nor in debauchery and lewdness, nor in arguing and jealousy; but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh or the gratification of our desires. It is striking and even dismaying to note how often commentators emphasize the asceticism of the first and closing words of the Pauline message from Romans and completely ignore its central call: Put on the Lord Jesus Christ. This central call can indeed be looked upon as the absolute statement of the nature of Augustines spiritual journey. It is the key to understanding Augustine himself. To know Augustine is above all to recognize that Jesus Christ is at the foundation and core of all he did and wrote.

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Students of Augustines spirituality have tended to ignore his theology of Christ, often for the simple reason that his undoubtedly Trinitarian efforts have for so long held their primary attention. Recent scholarship, however, has begun to insist upon the central place that the mystery of Christ plays in his thought. Augustines Christological intent, and the key to the spirituality he offers, was a lifelong theological-spiritual project to place the person, identity, mission and presence of Jesus Christ the human divinity and divine humanity humana divinitas et divina humanitas Christi (s. 47.21) at the center of the spiritual consciousness, religious imagination and daily living of his Christian community. All of Augustines efforts must be understood to point towards Christ: Youre not yet home (in patria), youre still on the way (in via) Where are we going? To Christ. How do we get there? Through Christ (Quo imus? Ad Christum. Qua imus? Per Christum) (en. Ps. 123.2). Christ is the only way (via), as well as the final destination or true homeland (patria) for humanity. While such an insistence upon the centrality of Christ might be expected of any Christian thinker, in Augustines case, and especially considering his precise historical and theological moment, one can say without exaggeration that no previous Christian thinker had sought with such comprehensiveness and rigor to place every aspect of human life and created reality under deliberately Christological lens: from the heart, to human body, to relationships, to politics and beyond. And yet all the while he never allows us to lose sight of the profound Trinitarian dimensions of this affirmation. Jesus the Christ reveals the Trinity and the Trinity is once and for all manifested in the life and teaching of Jesus Christ.

A Journey of Grace Christian tradition as bestowed upon Augustine was the title Doctor of Grace, and not without reason. From his day and down to the present his teaching remains the center point for discussion concerning an authentic theology of grace and its implications for spirituality. In facing this dimension of Augustines teaching, one must keep in mind that his insistence upon the primacy of grace is not first and primarily a speculative or theoretical question. Rather it is an attempt to articulate the Christian experience of humanity before God, learned certainly in his understanding of himself before God. From Gods initial free act of creation, to the son of Gods free, loving, and unthinkable becoming incarnate for humanitys redemption, to his very own graced conversion, Augustine exclaimed with Paul What do we have that we have not received? (1Corinthians 4:7) And yet dismay is all some have been able to muster before his unyielding insistence that all is grace. While the last two decades of his life
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were engulfed in debates on the nature and role of grace, called by scholars the Pelagian controversy, his discovery on the centrality of grace occurred early on. Late in life he sums up his position on grace while commenting on a work written shortly after his episcopal ordination: In trying to come to a solution I was in favor of the freedom of choice of the human will but grace won! (retr. II.1). The foundational issue is what maters here for Augustine; he reduces it starkly to this antithesis: are we saved by Gods grace or by ourselves (i.e. by our own strength of will)? To understand the power of Augustines assertion, it is important to note that his mention of grace always implies the grace of God through Jesus Christ our Lord or simply the grace of Christ. For Augustine, the issue of grace is simply a consequence of the centrality of Christ for humanity. The emphasis on grace is accordingly a constant reminder that one can never compromise or modify the absolute necessity of salvation and redemption in Christ.

Guided by the Scriptures One of the most remarkable features of Augustines Confessions is the role which this strikingly original work gives to the word of God, the Scriptures. The narrative content is so systematically imbued with quotations, images, allusions and the vocabulary of the Scriptures, that in many ways it can be considered a biblical narrative. As such, it stands as a lasting monument to the foundational place and action of the biblical word in Augustines coming to, understanding and living out of the Christian life. The first words of the Confessions (1.1.1) are from Psalm 47:2 You are great, Lord, and highly to be praised. The final words of the work are a paraphrase of Matthew 7:7, a text that occurs again and again throughout Augustines writings. Thus even when he speaks of himself in his Confessions, it is Scripture that is speaking about Augustine (though we need to keep in mind that it is equally Augustine speaking about Scripture); Augustine demonstrates by his practice the absolute centrality of and power of the scriptural word for understanding and living the Christian life.

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The Journeying Community In the garden in Milan, at the precise moment of Augustines deepest spiritual crisis, we also find close at hand his dearest friend Alypius. Not only was he witness to the event of conversion, but he was its first beneficiary (see conf.8.12.30). Throughout the Confessions, as Augustine is offering us a deeply personal story of a spiritual journey, it should be noticed that he is never journeying alone. Friends, cherished friends, are always at hand, and as we learn Augustines story we also learn theirs. There is a poignant witness to this in the story of the death of a friend in Book Four. He has led the unnamed companion into Manichaeism but, having taken ill and fallen into unconsciousness, he was baptized a Catholic Christian. When the friend regained consciousness Augustine derided the baptism, expecting the same from a compliant friend, but instead received a harsh rebuke: If you wish to be my friend, stop saying such things. Augustine left shattered, but expecting another chance to reclaim his friend it was not to be.
he died and I was not there. Black grief closed over my heart and wherever I looked I saw only death. My native land was a torment to me and my fathers house unbelievable misery. Everything I had shared with my friend turned into hideous anguish without him. My eyes sought him everywhere, but he was missing (conf. 4.8.9)

As Augustine continues to tell of his grief he also introduces us to true friendship: He alone loses no one dear to him, to whom all are dear in the One who is never lost (4.9.14). There is a tension in Augustines spirituality that is all too easily misunderstood, or all too easily resolved. There is throughout his writings a striking and provocative sense of the subject, the personal self; yet at the very same time there is an equally striking and provocative sense of shared humanity, shared community. In an otherwise penetrating work on Jesus and Community the noted theologian Gerhard Lohfink laments what he sees as Augustines diverting of ancient Christianity from community to individualism (Lohfink, 1984). Does Augustinian spirituality lead to a privatized spirituality? While it is clear that Augustine privileges the heart and the journey within, he would be the first to decry any reading of him that would turn the Christian life into a solitary journey. It is always a shared pilgrimage, a community of fellow believers on a journey of faith to God.

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Conclusion Augustine concludes his arguably most profound theological exploration, On the Trinity, with a prayer, one that serves as a vivid reminder that for him not only are spirituality and theology inseparable, but both are deeply plunged into the mystery of God, and it is that which fires the journey:
Directing my attention toward this rule of faith [in the Trinity] as best as I could, As far as you enabled me to, I have sought you and desired to see intellectually what I have believed, And I have argued much and toiled much. O Lord my God, my one hope, listen to me lest out of weariness I should stop wanting to seek you, But let me seek your face always, and with ardor. Do you yourself give me the strength to seek, having caused yourself to be found and having given me the hope of finding you more and more. Before you lies my strength and my weakness; preserve the one, heal the other. Before you lies my knowledge and my ignorance; Where you have opened to me, receive me as I come in; Where you have shut to me, open to me as I knock. Let me remember you, let me understand you, let me love you. Increase these things in me until you refashion me entirely. (trin. 15.51; WSA I/5, 436)

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References Augustine. (1995).Against the Academicians and The Teacher, trans. with Introduction and Notes by Peter King Indianapolis, pp. vi-xx. Hackett Publishing Company.USA. Martin T., OSA. (2003). Our Restless Heart: The Augustinian Tradition, pp. 19-52. Orbis Books. Maryknoll, New York. Lohfink G. (1984).The Heritage of Augustine in his Jesus and Community: The Social Dimension of Christian Faith, trans. John P. Galvin pp. 181-5. Fortress Press. Philadelphia:

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