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The Evolution of Physical Education in the Curriculum

Amelia C. Canon, M.A.

Physical education (PE) started thousands of years, in ancient Greece. Plato mentioned physical education in "The Republic" about 380 B.C., He wrote that there were two types of education that are necessary: educating the mind and educating the body (Jowett, n.d.). The Greeks believed that the human body is a temple that housed the mind and the soul, and gymnastics kept that temple healthy and functional. Gymnastics was the form of physical education taught in ancient Greece. Two of the most powerful and rival city-states in Ancient Greece were Athens and Sparta. The Spartans and Athenians were the first to have a type of physical education. The Spartan male children learned basic military skills at the age of seven. When they reached the age of fourteen, they began learning group-fighting tactics. At the age of thirty, the men could marry women who is also undergoing some training of their own in order to make strong babies (Kirk, Macdonald, & O'Sullivan, 2006). Physical education during the Roman era was about athletics and entertainment. People were forced to fight to death or be fed to lions. During the dark ages, religion saw physical education as a waste of time and anti-moral. It is during this period that Olympic Games were stopped. After the dark ages were the time for crusades where Christians believed physical education as a worthwhile activity by training Christians to become good soldiers. Approximately 1400 was the Renaissance period wherein the objective of physical education is quite similar today which is to improve ones self. During this period, there were several factions like the Humanist faction where they get education in sports such as fencing, archery, swimming, running, and ball games. The Moralist faction, influenced by the Protestant Reformation, saw physical activity only as a way for carrying out work. On the other hand, Realism, favored physical education as part of a sound mind in a sound body.

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During the 1700's, there was a big change in physical education that can be largely attributed to three people: Rousseau, Johan Simon, and Guts Muths. Rousseau was the first person to promote education for the masses and he also thought of play as being educational. In 1712, Rousseau invented an activity that is still used by millions of children everyday, recess. Johan Simon was the first physical education teacher and believed physical education should be taught along with reading and writing. Simon believed physical education should include a lot of physical labor. Guts Muths developed a series of gymnastic apparatuses and believed physical education developed very important social skills. During the 1800's, physical education programs were finding their way into universities which contributed to many things we have today. New sports were being invented, intramurals were being brought into schools, women began exercising, gymnasiums could be found in most colleges, and many recreational areas and parks were being built in order to decrease the crime rate. This continued on into the 1900s, which brought on the creation of the National Collegiate Athletic Association to regulate college athletics, and the golden age of sports during the 20's and 30's. During this golden age of sport, the number of people in sport increased dramatically, the number of teachers increased, and physical education began moving toward the involvement of sport. In the 19th century European countries developed the system of gymnastics. The first indoor gymnasium building was built in Germany. During this period, studies on anatomy and physiology in relation to exercise were conducted. Physical education in schools was required in Denmark. In the early 20th century, the rise of Communism and physical fitness played an important role in military strength. During this period, sports were viewed as a way of achieving international fame. During the Colonial period, war required physical training as a part of military preparation. In 1941, World War II began which brought a big shock along with it. Of the first 2 million males drafted in the United States, 45% failed their physical test. With this, physical education began to be very strongly pushed in schools in order to improve the health of the American people.

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Nowadays, physical education is a course taken during primary, secondary, and tertiary education that encourages psychomotor learning in a play or movement-exploration setting. Merriam-Webster Dictionary (n.d.) defined physical education as instruction in the development and care of the body ranging from simple calisthenics exercises to a course of study providing training in hygiene, gymnastics, and the performance and management of athletic games. This definition is broad because you can learn several topics ranging from the rules of basketball to sex education. It depends on the school policies of the educational system. According to Anderson (1989), however, the term physical education is most commonly used to denote they have participated in the subject area rather than studied it." Physical Education in the United States In the early 1800s, physical education was officially recognized in the United States. California was the first to mandate physical education in 1886. Within the next 30 years, many states followed this mandate. Educational system in the United States is not only focused on enriching the mind with knowledge but also recognized the importance of training the body. In 19th century, physical education has generally been a required course in most U.S. school programs. After the American Civil War, many states passed laws requiring physical education programs to be taught in schools. For the first time, training for physical education instructors were conducted. By 1950, there were over 400 United States colleges and universities offering majors in physical education and there was increasing recognition of the scientific foundation of physical education. The Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) opened its first American chapter in 1851. Many sports gained popularity around this time, including baseball. In 1896, after 1,400 years of interlude, Olympic games were restored. During World War I, many Americans were not physically fit for military service. After the war, physical education at all levels of schooling was required. In all states in the United States, physical education is offered to students from grades K through 12. Most states do require physical education from 6th through
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9th grades and offer "elective" physical education classes from 10th through 12th grades. During World War II, physical fitness was again required for soldiers. Soldiers once again came up short in physical fitness requirements, so after the war, schools instituted more rigorous physical education requirements, and there was greater interest in the teaching of physical education. A series of 1970s and 1980s recessions brought about cutbacks in many school programs, including physical education. During the 1990s many school districts have limited the amount of time students spend in physical education or have even dropped the program in response to economic problems or concerns about poor curriculum. Some reformers in the field are turning to sports education as away of reengaging the students. The 20th century brought varying levels of physical education to each state. Presidents such as Eisenhower and Kennedy promoted physical education and fitness. Children took the Presidential Fitness test each year to assess their physical fitness level. This arose from the need for U.S. students to be as physical fit as their European counterparts. Physical education is a key subject that ensures that each student is physically fit and holistically developed. Even the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) also considers physical education programs an important part of its mission. At present, physical education in US curriculum is designed to allow school pupils a full range of modern opportunities, dozens of sports and hundreds of carefully reviewed drills and exercises, including exposure to the education with the use of pedometer and heart rate monitors, as well as state-of-the-art exercise machines in the upper grades. Physical Education in United Kingdom The Scottish Parliament required students to have two hours of physical education a week; each school may vary these compulsory combinations. Students are expected to do two periods of PE in first year, one in second year and two in third and fourth year. In fifth and sixth year, PE is voluntary. In England, pupils are expected to do two hours of PE a week in Year 7, 8 and 9 and at least 1 in year 10 and 11. In Wales, pupils are expected to do only one hour of PE per fortnight.
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Physical Education in Asia In Singapore, pupils from primary school through junior colleges are required to have two hours of PE every school week, except during examination seasons. Pupils are able to play games like football, badminton, 'captain's ball' and basketball during most sessions. Unorthodox sports such as fencing and skateboarding are occasionally played. In more prestigious secondary schools and in junior colleges, sports such as golf, tennis, shooting, squash are played. A compulsory fitness exam, National Physical Fitness Award (NAPFA), is conducted in every school once every year to assess the physical fitness of the pupils. It was introduced in 1982 as a gauge of a students physical fitness and ability. Pupils are given a series of fitness tests (Pull-ups/ Inclined pullups for girls, standing broad jump, sit-ups, sit-and-reach and 1.2km for secondary/2.4km for junior colleges run). Students are graded by gold, silver, bronze and fail. NAPFA for Year 2 males in junior colleges serves as an indicator for an additional 2 months in the country's compulsory national service if they attain bronze or fail. In Nepal, physical education is poor and poorly organized because the educational system has only been recently established and is still adjusting to recent changes and updates. In 1990 democracy was restored and the education sector started to flourish. Since then, Physical Education became part of the school curriculum. At the primary level (1-5), some minor and local games are now taught, like hide and seek and some athletic based local events. In lower secondary level (6-8), the students are taught general concepts on major games like football, volleyball, basket ball, Kho-Kho and Kabaddi. They also learn some athletics like 100m race, 100 x 4m relay race and some other minor and lead-up games. In class nine and ten it is an optional subject where they specialize in some games like volleyball, basketball, handball, cricket, Kho Kho Kabaddi, Badminton, table tennis and some athletics are also taught. In college it is taught in the education stream. Even though it is included in school curriculum, Nepal is not able to produce any worthwhile products of games and sports for reasons ranging from poverty to decentralized government.

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Physical Education in the Philippines In 1901, Physical Education was first introduced in the public schools in the Philippines which is in a form of physical exercise in a regular program. In 1920, Physical Education was required in the curriculum of all public schools and made a curricular subject in the secondary school curriculum in 1937. The Constitution of 1987, Article 14, Section 19 states that, 1. The State shall promote physical education and encourage sports programs, league competitions, and amateur sports, including training for international competitions, to foster self-discipline, teamwork, and excellence for the development of a healthy and alert citizenry. 2. All educational institutions shall undertake regular sports activities throughout the country in cooperation with athletic clubs and other sectors. Pre-school education. The Physical Education in the Pre-school at the kindergarten level (age group 5-6 years) includes gross and fine motor coordination through play and manipulative activities like games and simple works. Table 1 shows a sample programme of pre-school activities highlighting the physical development with the number of minutes. Primary education. Elementary education provides basic education to pupils aged 7-12. The elementary course comprises six years (in some cases, seven years), the first four years termed primary grades and the last two years, intermediate grades. The weekly lesson timetables for elementary education according to 1999 and 2002 basic education curriculum are shown in Table 2 and 3 respectively.

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Table 1 Sample Programme of Pre-school Activities

Area of Development Communication skills and socio-emotional development Activities Sharing period (experiencies, songs, poems, news and informal conversation Self-selected activities No. of Minutes 10

Cognitive development, socio-emotional development, physical development, creative development Cognitive development, socio-emotional development

20

Working period, including more structured activities Supervised outdoor play

45-60

Physical development, creative development, socioemotional development Personal-social development, health care Physical development Any of the areas of development Total minutes

30

Clean up and snack

30

Rest Story time or indoor activities

15 15 165-180

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Table 2 Elementary education: Weekly lesson timetable (1999)

Subject I Characterbuilding activities Filipino language English language Mathematics Civics and culture History, geography, civics Science and health Arts and physical education, home economics and livelihood education Optional Total minutes per week Total minutes per day Weekly time allocated to each subject (in minutes) II III IV V VI
100-150 300 300 200 200 100 300 300 200 200 100 300 300 200 100 300 300 200 100 300 300 200 -

100-150 300 300 200 200

200

200

200

200

200

200

200

200

200

200

200

1,100 1,150 220-230

1,100 1,150 220-230

1,500 300

200 1,700 340

300 1,800 360

300 1,800 360

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Table 3 Elementary education: weekly lesson timetable (2002 basic education curriculum)
Learning area Weekly time allocated to each subject (in minutes) I II III IV VI VII 400 400 400 300 300 300 500 400 300 300 500 400 300 300 500 200 400 300 300 400 300 300 500 200 200 400 300 300 600 200 200 400 300 300 600 200 200

Filipino language English language Science (1) Mathematics Makabayan: (2) Civics and culture Social studies (3) Home economics and livelihood Values education, good manners and right conduct (5) Total minutes per week

1,600

1,600

1,800

1,800

1,900

1900

Source: Department of Education (2002)

Makabayan is a learning area that serves as a practice environment for holistic learning to develop a healthy personal and national self-identity. Ideally, Makabayan entails the adoption of modes of integrative teaching which will enable the learner to personally process and synthesize a wide range of skills and values (cultural, aesthetic, athletic, vocational, politico-economic, and ethical). In Grades I - III, Makabayan competencies and topics are developed through Civics and culture. Children engage in character-building activities, develop good behaviour, and are taught values like love for the country, good citizenship, and
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respect for ones cultural heritage. Children are also introduced to basic health knowledge, healthy practices, and simple scientific skills. Civics and culture also nurtures creative expressions through music, arts, physical exercises and games. In Grade III, Civics and culture focuses on the development of a work ethic. Secondary education. The secondary course consists of four years. Curricular offerings are classified as either general or vocational/technical secondary. Elementary and secondary education levels are considered basic education. Secondary education is addressed to students aged 13-16. The weekly lesson timetables for secondary education according to1999 and 2002 basic education curriculum are shown in Tables 4 and 5 respectively. Table 4 Secondary education weekly lesson timetable
Subject English language Filipino language Science and technology Mathematics Social studies Physical education, health and music Values education Technology and home economics Total minutes per week Total minutes per day Total hours per day Weekly time allocated to each subject (in minutes) I II III IV 200 200 200 200 200 400 200 200 200 200 400 2,000 400 6h 40m 200 400 200 200 200 200 400 2,000 400 6h 40m 200 400 200 200 200 200 400 2,000 400 6h 40m 200 400 200 200 200 200 400 2,000 400 6h 40m

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Table 5 Secondary education: weekly lesson timetable (2002 basic education curriculum)
Subject Weekly time allocated to each subject (in minutes) I II III IV 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 780 240 300 300 300 780 240 300 300 300 780 240 300 300 300 780 240

Filipino language English language Science and technology (1) Mathematics Makabayan: (2) Social studies (3) Home economics, agriculture & fisheries, industrial arts, and entrepreneurship Music, arts, physical education and health Values education (4) Total minutes per week

240 240 60 1,980

240 240 60 1,980

240 240 60 1,980

240 240 60 1,980

Source: Department of Education (2002)

Sub-disciplines in Physical Education Sciences play an important role in studying the different intangibles of physical education in order to improve the health of every individual. These new sciences have obviously broadened the "umbrella of physical education. The following are some of the sub-disciplines in Physical Education that have created many new jobs for people in the field of education, and will surely branch off to form others in the future. Exercise physiology. Exercise physiology is the study of bodily systems and their reactions to the stress of exercise.

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Kinesiology. Kinesiology is the study of how the muscular system moves the bony structure of the body. Biomechanics. Biomechanics is study of the human body as a mechanical system, utilizing principles and applications from physics. Motor learning. Motor learning is the study of the changes in motor performance related to experience and practice. Sport sociology. Sport sociology is the study of the social structure, social patterns, and social organization of groups engaged in sport. Sport psychology. Sport psychology is the study of psychological issues and problems in sport. Sport pedagogy. Sport pedagogy is the study of the processes of teaching and coaching, the outcomes of such endeavours, and the content of fitness, physical education, and sport-education programs. Conclusion Physical education has definitely come a long way since the Spartans and Athenians. From an authoritarian-dictatorial system to the different sub-discipline of Physical Education. The growing "umbrella" of Physical Education will continue to broaden as new thoughts and ideas come, and with them, new sciences also. The primary objectives of physical education varied based on the needs of the time and place. Activities included in the program are designed to promote physical fitness and to develop motor skills. Students learn to either work as part of a team, or as individuals, in a wide variety of competitive activities.
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In the Philippines, Physical Education is an integral part of General Education, and belongs within the core curriculum for Secondary Education. It fosters the holistic development of students and encourages students to broaden their experiences and take on physiological and psychological challenges. It ensures the development of appropriate social skills such as cooperation and teamwork. Thus, Physical Education does not only aim to develop the students physically but also socially. Like any other subject in the curriculum, Physical Education is not a stand-alone subject. It is connected to many of the other subjects in the core curriculum. It is closely linked to Visual and Performing Arts because it helps students to enhance their creative expression. The connections between Science and Physical Education are generally focused on the functioning of the human body as well as the basic scientific principles that are related to the human movement and body functioning. The Physical Education Department should be more than just Physical Education. There should be a planned sequence of learning experiences that are designed to support a progression of student development. Modern Physical Education can integrate martial arts and aquatic sports training into their Physical Education curriculum. References Anderson, D. (1989). The discipline and the profession. Foundations of Canadian physical education, recreation, and sports studies. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers. Aquino, G. (1998). Curriculum planning for better schools (2nd ed.). Manila: Rex Bookstore. Department of Education. (2002). 2002 Basic education curriculum. Manila: Department of Education. Education in Scotland. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Scotland Kirk, D. (1992). Physical education, discourse, and ideology: Bringing the hidden curriculum into view. Human Kinetics Journal, 44, 1.

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Kirk, D., Macdonald, D., & O'Sullivan, M. (2006). Handbook of physical education. London: Sage Publication. Meriam-Webster Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/ Melograno, V. J. (1996). Designing the physical education curriculum (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Jowett, B. (n.d.). The republic. (Plato, Trans.). Retrieved from http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/republic.mb.txt The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines. Retrieved from http://philippineconstitution1987.wordpress.com/2009/01/11/ philippine-constitution-article-xiv/ ThinkQuest (n.d.). Education: Key to our future. Retrieved from http://library.thinkquest.org/05aug/01348/pe.html UNESCO. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/ unesco/

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