Alternatives to the Median Absolute Deviation Author(s): Peter J.

Rousseeuw and Christophe Croux Source: Journal of the American Statistical Association, Vol. 88, No. 424 (Dec., 1993), pp. 12731283 Published by: American Statistical Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2291267 . Accessed: 07/06/2011 12:41
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to Alternatives the Median Absolute Deviation

and Peter J. ROUSSEEUW Christophe CROUX*
estimateof scale. For thisone usuallytakes the median absoone frequently needs an initialor auxiliary In robustestimation needslittle computation time,and formula, lutedeviationMAD, = 1.4826 med,{ Ix, - med,x, }, because it has a simpleexplicit I and its 50% breakdown point.But thereis stillroom forimprovefunction by is veryrobustas witnessed its bounded influence In and distributions its low (37%) Gaussian efficiency. thisarticle mentin two areas: the factthatMAD, is aimed at symmetric We Sn that are more efficient. considerthe estimator explicitand 50% breakdownscale estimators we set out to construct = 1.1926 med,{med,Ix, - x,I} and theestimator givenbythe .25 quantileofthedistances Ixi - xj l; i < j }. Note thatS, and { Q, The Gaussian Both S, and Q, can be computedusing0(n log n) time and 0(n) storage. Q, do not need any locationestimate. theirbias curves(for functions, of efficiency S, is 58%, whereasQ, attains82%. We studyS, and Q, by means of theirinfluence Their behavioris also comparedat non-Gaussianmodels, performance. implosionas well as explosion),and theirfinite-sample than sensitivity theMAD. modelwhereS, has a lowergross-error the exponential including negative KEY WORDS: Scale estimation. Robustness; function; Bias curve;Breakdown point;Influence

point(50%,twice breakdown The MAD has thebestpossible function range), and itsinfluence as muchas theinterquartile of Althoughmany robustestimators location exist,the boundamongall scale possible the is bounded,with sharpest sample medianis stillthe mostwidelyknown.If {xj, . . .. by promoted Hampel(1974), The estimators. MAD was first we xn} is a batchofnumbers, willdenoteitssamplemedian who attributed to Gauss. The constant in (1.2) is needed b it by of for consistent theparameter interest. to maketheestimator a In thecase oftheusualparameter at Gaussiandistributions, medixi the we needto setb = 1.4826.(In thesame situation, average when n is odd. whichis simplythe middle orderstatistic in by deviation (1.1) needsto be multiplied 1.2533to become of statistics Whenn is even,we shalluse theaverage theorder consistent.) (n/2) and (n/2) + 1.The medianhasa breakdown with ranks The samplemedianand theMAD are simpleand easyto possible), because the point of 50% (which is the highest sturveryuseful.Theirextreme compute,but nevertheless than50% ofthedata boundedwhenfewer estimate remains the dinessmakesthemideal forscreening data foroutliers funcnumbers. influence Its by pointsare replaced arbitrary in a quick way,by computing with sharpest the boundfor location any tionis also bounded, lxi- medxjI Rousseeuw,and Stahel estimator (see Hampel, Ronchetti, (1.3) attesting the median's to 1986). These are but a fewresults MADn robustness. thosexi as spuriousforwhichthis foreach xi and flagging of Robustestimation scale appearsto have gainedsome(say, 2.5 or 3.0). Also, the statistic exceedsa certaincutoff methusersofstatistical whatlessacceptanceamonggeneral the used as initialvaluesfor medianand theMAD are often to ods. The only robustscale estimator be foundin most It robust estimators. was conof computation moreefficient range,which has a statistical packages is the interquartile by firmed simulation(Andrewset al. 1972) thatit is very it good, although breakdown pointof 25% (whichis rather valuesfor computation the starting to important have robust consider the can be improved on). Some peopleerroneously from average the and it ofM-estimators, that won'tdo to start deviation average and the standarddeviation. Also note that location Mestimate scale to makethem of need an ancillary estimators (x1.1) avei I xi - avexjI It equivariant. has turnedout thatthe MAD's highbreak(whereave standsfor"average") to be a robustestimator, down property makes it a betterancillaryscale estimator function thantheinterquartile its pointis 0 and itsinfluence although breakdown This also problems. range, in regression is unbounded.If in (1.1) one of the averagesis replacedby led Huber (1981, p. 107) to conclude that"the MAD has a median,we obtain the "median deviationabout the av- emerged thesingle of estimate scale." as mostuseful ancillary erage"and the"averagedeviationabout themedian,"both In spiteof all theseadvantages, MAD also has some the from breakdown a ofwhichsuffer pointof 0 as well. is drawbacks.First,its efficiency Gaussian distributions at A veryrobustscale estimator the medianabsolutede- very is efficiency the low;whereas locationmedian'sasymptotic by given viation aboutthemedian, Second,theMAD is still 64%,theMAD is only37% efficient. esview on dispersion, because one first takesa symmetric (1.2) MADn = b medi x - medjxjI. equal value (themedian)and thenattaches timates central a from Acit. deviations to name ofme- importance positiveand negative This estimator also knownundertheshorter is inthe the to dian absolutedeviation(MAD) or even mediandeviation. tually, MAD corresponds finding symmetric
* PeterJ.Rousseeuwis Professor Christophe and DeCrouxis Assistant, of Instelling and ComputerScience,Universitaire partment Mathematics The Belgium. authors 1,B-2610Wilrijk, (UIA), Universiteitsplein Antwerpen for comments. thanktheassociateeditorand referees helpful

1. INTRODUCTION

? 1993 AmericanStatistical Association Association of Journal the AmericanStatistical and Methods December 1993,Vol. 88, No. 424, Theory

1273

1274

Journal of the American Statistical Association, December Table 1. AverageEstimatedValue ofMAD,, Sn, Qn, and SDn at Gaussian Data Averageestimatedvalue MADn
.911 .959 .978 .987 .991 .992 .996 1.000

1993

terval (aroundthemedian)thatcontains50% ofthedata (or 50% oftheprobability), whichdoes notseemto be a natural approach at asymmetric distributions. The interquartile rangedoes not have thisproblem, thequartiles as need not n be equally faraway fromthe center.In fact,Huber (1981, p. 114) presented MAD as the symmetrized the version of 10 theinterquartile range.This implicit relianceon symmetry 20 is at odds withthegeneral in of theory M-estimators, which 40 60 the symmetry is is assumption not needed.Of course,there 80 nothing stop us fromusingthe MAD at highly to skewed 100 but distributions, it may be rather inefficient artificial 200 and oo to do so.

Sn
.992 .999 .999 1.001 1.002 .997 1.000 1.000

Qn
1.392 1.193 1.093 1.064 1.048 1.038 1.019 1.000

SDn
.973 .990 .993 .996 .997 .997 .999 1.000

2. THEESTIMATOR Sn

NOTE:

Based on 10,000 samples foreach n.

The purposeof thisarticleis to searchforalternatives to the MAD thatcan be used as initialor ancillary scale esti- (rousse@wins.uia.ac.be), and it has been incorporated in matesin the same way but thatare moreefficient not Statistical and Calculator(T. Dusoir,fbgj23@ujvax.ulster.ac.uk) slantedtowardssymmetric distributions. Two such estima- and in Statlib(statlib@stat.cmu.edu). torswillbe proposedand investigated; first the is To check whether correction the factor = 1.1926 (obc an tainedthrough asymptotic succeedsin making argument) (2.1) Sn = c medi {medjl x, - x,I }. unbiasedforfinite Sn approximately we samples, performed This shouldbe read as follows. For each i we computethe a modestsimulationstudy.The estimators Table 1 are in median Ixi - xjI; j = 1,. .., n}. Thisyields numbers, the of{ n in MAD,, Sn, theestimator (whichwillbe described Q, themedianofwhichgivesour final estimate (The factor Section 3), and the sample standarddeviation S,n. SD,. Each c is again forconsistency, itsdefault and value is 1.1926,as table entry the averagescale estimate 10,000batches is on we will see later.)In our implementation (2.1) the outer ofGaussian observations. see that behavesbetter of We than S, medianis a low median,whichis theorderstatistic rank of Crouxand Rousseeuw Moreover, MAD, in thisexperiment. [(n + 1)/2], and theinnermedianis a highmedian,which (1992b) have derivedfinite-sample correction factors that is the orderstatistic rankh = [n/2] + 1. The estimator render of unbiased. MAD,, S", and Q, almostexactly Sn can be seenas an analogofGini's average difference (Gini In the following theorem provethatthe finite we sample 1912), whichone wouldobtainwhenreplacing medians breakdown the point of Sn is the highest possible.We use the in byaverages (2.1). Notethat(2.1) is very similar formula replacement to version thebreakdown of point:For anysample (1.2) forthe MAD, the onlydifference beingthatthe medj X = { xl, . .. , x, }, thebreakdown pointofS, is defined by operationwas moved outsidethe absolutevalue. The idea to applymedians was repeatedly introduced Tukey( 1977) en(Sn, X) = min{4 (S", X), en(Sn, X)}, by (2.2) forestimation two-way in tables and by Siegel (1982) for where estimating regression coefficients. Rousseeuw and Bassett (1990) usedrecursive mediansfor estimating in location large en(Sn, X) = min,{-; sup Sn(X') = oo xf data sets. n Note that(2.1) is an explicit formula; henceSn is always We uniquelydefined. also see immediately S, does bethat and e-(Sn, X) = min{-; infSn(X') = 0} n xf have like a scale estimator, the sense thattransforming in the observations to axi + b will multiply by Ia 1.We Sn xi and X' is obtainedby replacing of any m observations X by willrefer thisproperty affine to as equivariance. values.The quantities and e- are called theexarbitrary 4" Like the MAD, the new estimator is a simplecombiSn plosion breakdownpoint and the implosion breakdown nation of mediansand absolute values. Insteadof the absolute values, we could also use squares and then take a point. square rootat theend, whichwould yieldexactly same the Theorem1. At any sampleX = {xl, . .. , xn} in which estimate. we would replacethe mediansby averagesin no two pointscoincide,we have (If thatformula, would recover standard we the deviation.) X) = [(n + 1)12]/n and e-(Sn, X) = [n/2]/n. On the otherhand,Sn is unlikethe MAD in thatit does 4c+(Sn, not need any locationestimate thedata. Insteadof mea- The breakdown of pointofthescale estimator thusis given Sn howfar are suring awaytheobservations from central a by value, Sn looks at a typical distancebetweenobservations, which en(Sn, X) = [n/2]/n, is stillvalid at asymmetric distributions. A straightforward algorithm computing for possiblevalue foranyaffine (2.1) would whichis thehighest equivariant need0(n2) computation However, time. Croux Rous- scale estimator. and (The proofis givenin theAppendix.) We now turnto theasymptotic seeuw (1992b) have constructed 0( n log n)-time algoversion our estimator. of an rithm Sn. Itssourcecode can be obtained for stochastic from authors Let X and Y be independent variableswithdisthe

Rousseeuw and Croux: Alternatives to the MAD

1275

functions was (A more general"chain rule" forinfluence givenby Rousseeuwand Croux 1992.) Let us considerthe special case where F = 4). We will use the notation q (2.3) S(G) = c med gG(X) that = 4)1 (3/4). From the proofof Theorem2, it follows x we Because have = -q, q2 = q, and g'(q) = -g'(-q). distribution q If is the desiredfunctional. G, is the empirical 4?(x + gj)(x)) - 4?(x- gj(x)) = .5 thenS(Gn) = S, function, modelF,,( x) = F((x - 0)/ forall x, it follows Let us consider location-scale a that We a), whereF is called the model distribution. wantour whichmeansthatS(Fo,,) estimator be Fisher-consistent, to (q - c-l) - 4)(q + c-1) g' (q g(D ) (q + c-l) + 4(q - c-l)l = ar all 0 and all a > 0. It is easilyverified S is Fisherthat for if consistent we take This yieldstheexpression c= 1/(medgF(X)), (2.4) Ig 1 x xl - q q) )=clg(q)sgn(I| S, ~ IF(x;(X;S4)) = accordingto the model distribution whereX is distributed givesthevalue ofc in case F = 4), theorem F. The following +sgn(lq -xl - C') + sgn(I -q -xl -c-')' function. Gaussian distribution where4)(x) is thestandard 4(4fi(q + c-l) + 4)(q - c-l)) the c Theorem 2. For F = 4),theconstant satisfies equa(2.7) tion of The influence function S is plottedin Figure 1. We 'see 4)(4)-(3/4) + c-1) - 4)(4)-'(3/4) - c') = 1/2. values(whichare that thatitis a stepfunction takeson four Equivalently, is the square root of the median of the symmetric c-1 about 0), unlikeIF(x; MAD, 4)), whichtakes of the senwith distribution 1 degree freedom on onlytwo values.Let us also consider gross-error chi-squared noncentral and noncentrality parameter4)-'(3/4). Numericalcalcu- sitivity lationyieldsc = 1.1926. (If we wantto workwithanother (2.8) y*(S, 4)) = sup IIF(x;S, 4))I = 1.625, we c, model distribution, must take a different as in the x examplesin Sec. 4.) against that small,indicating S is quiterobust S function the functional at the distri- whichis rather of The influence In oy*(SD,4)) = oo, whereas y*(MAD,4)) outliers. contrast, butionF is defind by = 1.167 is thesmallest valuethatwe can obtainfor anyscale estimator theGaussian distribution. at + eAx)-S(F) ) IF(x; S, F) = lim S((,-)F deviation of The influence function theclassicalstandard 6 40 is givenby IF(x; SD, 4)) = (x2 - 1)/2. Note thatIF(x; 5, whereA?x all its mass in x (Hampel 1974). Theorem3 has 4)) looks more like that U-shaped curve than does IF(x; of givestheexpression IF(x; S, F). than MAD, 4)), indicating thatS willbe moreefficient the varianceof Sn is givenby hold: MAD. Indeed,theasymptotic conditions 3. Assumethatthefollowing Theorem
=

then

function Ifwe denote G. tribution gG(x)

medyI x

Y,

on 1. There existsan xo such that gF(x) is increasing on [xo, oo[ and decreasing ]-oo, xo]. AssumethatF has a density in neighborhoods f of q, and q2, withf(q) > 0 andf(q2)> 0. Assumefurther that gF has a strictly positive derivativein a neighborin derivative a neighborhood hood ofq2and a strictly negative of q,. of 3. f existsin neighborhoods the pointsq, ? c' and
= gF(q2).
q2 ? C .

V(S5,4)

which exist < xoandq2> xofor 2. There gF(ql) q,

IF(x;S,

4))2

d4)(x) = .8573. (2.9)

c-

IF(x;Q,T)

function S is givenby of Then theinfluence IF(x; S, F) = c{F(q2)F(ql)

-

o~~~~ I
< q2)

x IF(x;S,T) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

I(q, < x

f(q2)sgn(Iq2-_xl - c-')
2(f(q2 + C') +f(ql)sgn(I -f(q2 q -xl -c-1)I
-

- C l))

L
-4

x
IF(x;MAD,I-l
--

+2(f(q, + c-1)-f(q,
Xl{gF(q2)

c-'))

J
(2.6)

-2

2 .......

) gFt(ql

S, of Figure Influence 1. Functions theMAD,theEstimator and the Distribution is Gaussian. Estimator When Model Q the

1276

Journal of the American Statistical Association, December

1993

of Table2. Standardized Variance MADn, Qn, Sn, andSDnat Gaussian Data variance Standardized n
10 20 40 60 80 100 200 oo

whereg+ is defined implicitly by F(x + g+(x))

SDn
.584 .532 .513 .515 .511 .507 .499 .500 -

F(x

g+(x))

2(1-)

(2.12)

MADn
1.361 1.368 1.338 1.381 1.342 1.377 1.361 1.361

Sn
1.125 .984 .890 .893 .878 .869 .873 .857

Qn
.910 .773 .701 .679 .652 .650 .636 .608

The implosionbias curveis givenby B-(e, F) = cg} F(4(1 whereg- is defined implicitly by F(x + g-(x))
-

c))),

(2.13)

F(x

g-(x)) = I

(2.14)

NOTE: Based on 10,000 samples foreach n.

bothbias curvesat F = 4). We see thatthe Figure2 displays explosionbias curve of S is nearlyas good as that of the of (The asymptotic normality S, was proved in Hossjer, MAD, and for e close to the breakdownpoint it is even of Croux, and Rousseeuw 1993.) This yieldsan efficiency better.For the implosionbias curve the MAD performs is to relative theMAD slightly 58.23%,which a marked improvement better thanS overall.Note that[aB+(e, 4b)/ae] e=O at is whoseefficiency Gaussiandistributions 36.74%.We pay = y*(S5 and [aB-(e, 4?)/ae] ,e=o -y*(S5 4)). Moreover, 4)) and atthebreakdown increasein thegross-error forthisby a slight sensitivity B+(e, 4b) oo and (e point 2) wefind in therequired computation time. 0. Be, 4)) O) We carriedout a simulation verify efficiency to this gain at finite samples.For each n in Table 2, we computedthe Sn variancevarmSn) ofthescale estimator overm = 10,000 ( variances samples.Table 2 liststhe standardized
(n

n varm(Sn)/(avem(Sn))2,

(2.10)

value as givenin whereavem (Sn) is the averageestimated Table 1. (It was arguedby Bickeland Lehmann(1976) that thedenominator (2. 10) is neededto obtaina natural meaof showthat The sureofaccuracyforscale estimators.) results a for theasymptotic varianceprovides good approximation (not too small) finite samples,and thatSn is moreefficient thanMAD, even forsmall n. Whereasthe influence function describeshow the estimatorreactsto a singleoutlier, bias curvetellsus how the much the estimator change(in the worstcase) whena can e Bias werebriefly fractionofthedatais contaminated. curves mentioned Hampel et al. (1986, p. 177), but theirfull by was not realizeduntiltheworkof Martinand Zapotential mar (1989, 1991), Martin,Yohai and Zamar (1989), and He and Simpson(1993). In thecase of scale estimators, distinguish we between an increaseof the estimate (explosion)and a decrease(implosion). For e > 0, we define = { G; G = (1 - e)F + eH}, Then the explosion whereH rangesover all distributions. of as bias curve S is defined
Se

MAD
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

epsilon
(a)
0

B+(e, F) = sup S(G)

Q
0

of bias curve of as (plotted a function e), and the implosion S is givenby B-(e, F)= inf S(G).
Ge Cl

F Theorem 4. For a distribution that is symmetric positive around the origin, unimodal,and has a strictly is density, have we

0.0

0.1

0.2 (b)

0.3

0.4

0.5

epsilon
of Fraction 2. of MAD, andQ as a Function the S, Figure BiasCurves the (a) (b) Implosion. ofContamination:for Explosion; for

B+(e, F)

cg?(F-1(4f72

)))'

(2.11)

Rousseeuw and Croux: Alternatives to the MAD

1277

We first show thatthe finite sample breakdown Note thatthe influence function and the bias curveare pointof asymptotic concepts.For finite we samples, haveconfirmed Q, attainstheoptimalvalue. theabove results computing corresponding the by sensitivity Theorem AtanysampleX= {x,...,x,,} 5. in which no curvesand empirical bias curves.

is A drawback MAD, and S,,is thattheir of influence funcen (Qn, X) = [n/2]/n. In tions have discontinuities. the location framework, the We nowgivetheasymptotic unliketheHodgessample medianhas thesame drawback, version our estimator. of Let Lehmann(1963) estimator X and Y be independent randomvariables withdistribution G. Then we define +xj <j medX (3.1) 2j with HG=.L(IX-YI). Q(G) = dHC() (3.4) whichpossessesa smoothinfluence function (see, forexample,Hampel et al. 1986,p. 112). Therefore, Hodgesthe Lehmannestimator might viewedas a "smoothversion" be ofthemedian. An analogous scale estimator, mentionedby Shamos (1976, p. 260) and Bickel and Lehmann (1979, p. 38), is obtainedbyreplacing pairwise the averages pairwise by distances,yielding med{Ixi - xjl; i <}. (3.2) Note thatQ(Gn) is not exactlythe same as Qn(wherewe take an orderstatistic among (n ) elementsinsteadof n2), butasymptotically makesno difference. this Representation (3.4) belongsto theclass ofgeneralized L-statistics, introas duced by Serfling (1984). Because X - Y is symmetric, we could also write

3. THEESTIMATOR Qn

twopoints coincide, have4+(Q,,X) = [(n + 1)12]/n we anden(Qn, X) = n/2]/n;thusthebreakdown pointof Qn I

Q(G) = dKc'( )

with KG = L(X - Y)

(3.5)

Thisresembles definition ofSn,where (2.1) separate medians weretakenoveri andj, whereas (3.2) usesan overallmedian over (2) pairs.We proposeto multiply (3.2) by 1.0483 to achieveconsistency theparameter of Gaussian distrifor a butions.Like theHodges-Lehmann estimator, scale esthis timator onlya 29% breakdown has point,but a rather high Gaussian efficiency (about 86%). But we wantan estimator witha 50% breakdown point like the MAD. We foundthat,somewhat surprisingly, this goal can be attainedby replacing median in (3.2) by a the different order statistic. Therefore, proposetheestimator we

insteadof (3.4). Finally, obtain we {s Q(G) = inf > 0;

G(t + d-'s) dG(t) 2 5/8}.

(3.6)

In the parametric model F0,0(x)= F((x - 0)/a), the functional is Fisher-consistent a ifwe choosetheconfor Q stantd according to

d = 1/lHF' (I)

I K

(3.7)

For symmetric this reducesto d = I/((F*2)-I(5/8)), F where F*2 denotestheconvolution F. In thecase F = ?, F* Qn=d{lxi Xjl;i<j}(k), (3.3) we obtain KF = ?(X - Y) = ?(X + Y) = I(VXX); hence whered is a constantfactor and k = (h) (2)/4, whereh = [n/2] + 1 is roughly halfthe numberof observations. d = l/( 4 -'(5/8)) = 2.2219. That is, we takethe kthorderstatistic the (') interpoint of Q,, distances. This bears some resemblance S, because the In Table 1 we see thatwiththisconstantthe estimator to has a considerablesmall-sample bias, but we can use the double medianoftheinterpoint is distances at leastas large correction factors derived Crouxand Rousseeuw 992b). by (1 as their.25 quantile. calculations usingexpresBy meansofsome standard (or The estimator sharestheattractive of Q,, properties Sn:a for1984), one obtainsthefollowing a that simpleand explicit formula, definition is equallysuit- sion (2.12) in Serfling mula fortheinfluence function. and able forasymmetric distributions, a 50% breakdown is point.In addition,we will see thatits influence function 6. If KF has a positive Theorem derivative 1/d, then at at is smooth,and thatits efficiency Gaussian distributions veryhigh(about 82%). At first theseadvantagesare sight, 4 offset a larger by becausethenacomputational complexity, (dd =d (1) . (3.8) IF(x; Q,F) ive algorithm all (whichbeginsby computing and storing (') pairwise distances)needs 0(n2) space and 0(n2) time. KF d But Croux and Rousseeuw(1992b) have constructed alan for gorithm computing with0(n) space and 0(n log n) Q,, IfF has a density then(3.8) becomes f,

time.Due to theavailability fast of algorithms Sn, for and a company nowusing is these estimators on Qn, financial a dailybasisin analyses thebehavior stocks, of of with n 8000.

4 FX IF(X; Q,F) =d

dl)+

F(X -d-l)

rffV+d-l)ffv)

(3.9

1278

Journal of the American Statistical Association, December

1993

In Figure 1 we plottedthe function Table 3. Simulation Results forCauchy Data, IF(x; Q, f). It turns Based on 10,000 Samples forEach n outthatthegross-error sensitivity Q, f) = 2.069 is larger oy*( thanthatoftheMAD and S. Note thatthisinfluence funcAverage value Standardizedvariance tion is unbalanced:The influence an inlierat the center of MADn Sn Qn MADn of the distribution smaller(in absolute value) than the n Sn is Qn influence an outlier infinity. of at 10 1.097 1.126 1.629 3.150 3.194 3.363 With the aid of numericalintegration, 20 1.045 1.044 1.284 Equations (2.9) 2.819 2.554 2.606 40 1.025 1.021 1.136 2.569 2.280 2.299 and (3.9) yieldV(Q, f) = .6077. By applying Theorem3.1 60 1.014 1.010 1.085 2.571 2.202 2.172 in Serfling (1984), we obtaina rigorous proofoftheasymp- 80 1.009 1.007 1.062 2.586 2.240 2.215 toticsof Q, underthe same conditions in our Theorem 100 1.011 as 1.010 1.055 2.497 2.164 2.119 1.005 1.004 1.027 2.454 2.130 2.058 6. The resulting Gaussianefficiency 82.27% is surprisingly 200 of 00 1.000 1.000 1.000 2.467 2.106 2.044 high. In Table 2 we see thatQ, is considerably more efficient than eitherMAD, or S,. For instance,Q40 has about the sameprecision MAD80.ButQ, loosessomeofitsefficiency as 4. ROBUSTNESS NON-GAUSSIAN AT MODELS at smallsamplesizes. Quite often one uses a parametric model F0,,( = F((x x) Theorem7. If F is symmetric about 0 and possessesa - 0)/a) in which the model distribution is itselfnonF then density, Gaussian. In thissectionwe investigate behaviorof Sn the and Q, fora heavy-tailed model distribution and foran model distribution. B+(e, F) = d(F* 2)- 58(1 - )2 (3.10) asymmetric Let us first considertheCauchydistribution and theimplosion is given thesolution theequation bias by of arctan(x) 1 + F(x) = (1 - e)2F*2(d-1B-(e, F)) + 2e(1 - e)F(B-(e, F)) + C2 7r 2

= 5/8. (3.11) Figure2 displaysthe bias curvesof Q (at F = f) along with thoseoftheMAD and S. Note thattheMAD is slightly more robustthan Q regarding theirexplosionbias curves, whereasQ is morerobust thanMAD forimplosionbias. It is also interesting note(see thederivation theAppendix) to in thatthe supremum bias of Q does not correspond conto tamination a point mass movingto infinity, rather by but to a contaminating distribution whichbothlocationand of scale tend to infinity. This explainswhythe slope of the explosionbias curveat e = 0 is not equal to thesupremum oftheinfluence in function thiscase.

C\J

IF(x;Q,F)

At thisheavy-tailed distribution, samplestandard the deviationis nota useful estimator a becausethesecondmoment of of F0,,does not exist.But we can stilluse MAD,, S", and factors Qn,whoseconsistency become b = 1,c = .7071,and d = 1.2071in thismodel.Figure3 showstheinfluence functions of these threeestimators, which were computedin the roughly same wayas in theGaussian model.The shape of these functions quite similarto Figure 1, except for is IF(x; Q,F), whichis morebalanced thanin theGaussian case. The gross-error sensitivity Q,F) = 2.2214is attained oy*( for goingto infinity, IF(x; Q,F) approaches x but thislimit veryslowly. For the asymptotic variances we obtain V(MAD, F) = 2.4674, V(S, F) = 2.1060, and V(Q, F) = 2.0438. These shouldbe comparedto thetheoretical lowerbound (i.e., the inverseof the Fisherinformation) whichequals 2 in this case. Therefore, absoluteasymptotic the efficiencies become heavy-tailed distribution, three all robust estimators more are efficient at theGaussian distribution. than Table 3 summarizes simulation a (analogousto Tables 1 and 2) confirming MAD, and Sn approximately that are unbiased forfinite samples.For nottoo smalln, thevariability of the estimatorsis described reasonablywell by their asymptotic variance. NotethatSn performs somewhat better thanQ, at small samples. As an exampleof an asymmetric model distribution, we takethenegative exponential F(x)
=

e(MAD)

= 81%, e(S)

= 95%, and

e(Q) = 98%. At this

IF(x; F) S,

IF(x;MAD,F)1_

r~) _ -5

(1 1-exp(-x)

)I(x ? 0),

-3

-1

Figure Influence 3. Functions theMAD, and Q at theCauchy of S, Distribution.

whichgenerates location-scale the family

F0,,,(x)
=

(1 -exp(-(x

)/of))I(x

? 0),

Rousseeuw and Croux: Alternatives to the MAD

1279

Data, Distributed ResultsforExponentially Table 4. Simulation model.Note that exponential whichwe willcall the shifted Based on 10,000 Samples forEach n 0 the locationparameter is not at the centerof the distribution,but ratherat its leftboundary.To estimatea- by Standardizedvariance Average value MADn,Sn, or Qn, we need to set b = 2.0781, c = 1.6982, Qn Sn n MADn Qn MADn Sn of functions the and d = 3.4760. Figure4 displays influence were 1.677 2.121 functions at 2.152 1.536 1.002 theseestimators F. Note thattheinfluence 0.925 10 1.521 2.065 2.182 1.246 0.981 0.959 20 F x also computedat negative although has no mass there, 1.481 2.006 1.120 2.167 0.991 0.983 40 of can occurto theleft theunknown0. because outliers 1.420 1.989 2.172 1.078 0.993 0.986 60 of function the MAD looks verydifferent 80 The influence 1.395 1.924 2.153 1.056 0.993 0.988 1.373 1.911 2.122 1.046 0.996 0.993 100 fromthose in Figures 1 and 3, because thistime F is not 1.381 1.919 2.173 1.024 0.998 0.996 200 x Note thatIF(x; MAD, F) = 0 fornegative symmetric. 1.343 1.822 2.135 1.000 1.000 1.000 so of effect the outlierat x on the (due to the compensating x jumps forpositive locationmedian) and thatit has three (at ln(2) - b', at ln(2), and at ln(2) + b '). The influence U-shaped,as in Figures1 V( a, F) = 1. But theextreme of functions S and Q are roughly by of efficiency O,is offset its of sensitivity S is smaller extreme the and 3. Surprisingly, gross-error for to sensitivity any outlier < 0. One possibility xi thanthatof theMAD. Indeed, of a constructing morerobustestimator 0 would be to use

l*(S, F) = 1.8447 < y*(MAD, F) = 1.8587.

that stating theMAD a Thiswouldseemto disprove theorem such as MADn, Sn, is (see sensitivity Hampel et where a,, a robustscale estimator has thelowestpossiblegross-error because that or Qn. al. 1986,p. 142), but thereis no contradiction F. was forsymmetric theorem 5. DISCUSSION we variances have obtainedV(MAD, For theasymptotic F) = 2.1352, V(S, F) = 1.8217,and V(Q, F) = 1.3433. Let us compareSn and Qnto anotherexplicitscale estiAs in the Gaussian and the Cauchy models,we again see point,whichis based on the matorwitha 50% breakdown is than thatQ is moreefficient S, whichin turn moreefficient half of length the shortest sample: samples,as conthanthe MAD. (This also holds forfinite for firmed Table 4.) Note thattheFisherinformation this by (5.1) LMSn = c' min I X(i+h1) - X()I, of model does not exist,so the absoluteefficiency the estii efBut we can stillcomputerelative matorsis not defined. x(n)are them,suchas ARE(MAD, Q) = 1.3433/ whereagain h = [n/2] + 1 and x(l) < x(2) < ... ficiencies between is always length data. (Note thatthe minimum the ordered 2.1351 = 63%. is (MLE) of a-in this unique, even if the half sample itself not.) The default The maximumlikelihoodestimator at = model is -n = avei xi - n where0,n minjxj is theMLE of value ofc' is .7413, whichachievesconsistency Gaussian as occurred thescale The (5.1) first O(see Johnson and Kotz 1970,p. 211). It turnsout that0,n distributions. estimator estimator of con- part theleastmedianofsquares(LMS) regression fastrateof n-', whereas8-n at converges theunusually variance (Rousseeuw 1984) in the special case of one-dimensional rateofn-'1/2withasymptotic at verges thestandard (5.1), theestimator data. As we can see from LMSn is simple, has the optimal breakdownpoint, and needs only Its timeand 0(n) storage. influence 0(n log n) computation r~) MAD (Rousseeuw and is function the same as thatof the equals thatof the MAD as Leroy 1988), and its efficiency than well (Grubel 1988). Therefore, LMSn is less efficient IF(x;S,F) either or Qn. Note thatifwe use thep-subsetalgorithm Sn of Rousseeuwand Leroy(1987), we obtaintheestimator oU IF(x;MAD,F)

On= medixi

a,ln 2,

c' minmed lxi - xjl,

i

_--

(5.2)

Distribution.

equivalentto LMSn and also has a whichis asymptotically 50% breakdown point. The estimators MADn, LMSn,and Sn are all based on half half the samples.MADn looks for shortest thatis symmetric about the location median, whereasLMSn looks forthe such a constraint half (hence LMSn can be shortest without as Sn distributions well). Similarly, can used at asymmetric 4 0 3 2 1 -1 of the be said to reflect "typical"length halfsamplesin the showsthatMAD", LMS", theorem S, of 4. Functions theMAD, and Q at theExponential data set.The following Figure Influence

interrelated. andSn arestrongly

1280

Journal of the American Statistical Association, December

1993

8. Theorem Atevery data set { xl,... , xl }, itholdsthat b

MADn <-Sn

6. EXTENSIONS AND OUTLOOK

Our estimators and Q, are specialcases (v = 2) ofthe S, formulas: following
5nv)
-

<

MADn LMSn.

cvmedj1(medi2(..

. medi,SD(xi,,

xi2

*, Xi)

LMSn < -Sn <

(6.1)
. .

and If we definethe collectionof interpoint distancesby D iV}(h), (6.2) = {I xi -xj I; 1 < i, j < n}, thenSnis the remedianwith Qnv)= d {SD(xi,, * , xi,); i1 < i2 < . . .< base n (see Rousseeuw and Bassett1990) of the set D, aswhereSD(xi,, . .., xiv)denotesthe standarddeviationof sumingthatthe elementsof D are read row by row. This thev observations {xi,, . . ., xiv} and h = [n/2] + 1. These impliesthatSn corresponds an elementbetweenthe .25 to estimators have 50% breakdown all points.We expectthe and .75 quantilesofD. On theotherhand,Qnis asymptotto efficiency increasewiththe orderv. But the estimators icallyequivalent the.25 quantileofD. Roughly to speaking, (6.1) and (6.2) demand a highcomputational effort. Also, and ignoring constants the it that involved, follows Snis larger forincreasing their v gross-error sensitivity becomearmay thanQn.(Note thatSn = Qnforn < 4.) bitrarily large.Therefore, using(6.1) or (6.2) witha largev We have seenthatSn and Qnhave a better than efficiency is not recommended. and samples,while MADn, both asymptotically forfinite If we also allow scale estimators thatmeasuredispersion theirgross-error sensitivities bias curvesare almostas and arounda locationestimate, possiblealternatives would be good. Another advantageis thattheydo not presupposea model distribution, can be consideredas symmetric but j - medxk) medi(med( Xi (6.3) nonparametric measuresof spread. (The estimator LMSn sharesthisadvantage,but is less efficient.) only price The we pay is a small increaseof the computation time,which and is 0(n log n) for and Qnas comparedto 0(n) forMADn, Sn (6.4) but today'scomputers easilyafford can 2 - medkxk; i this. One could also compareSn and Qnwiththe class of Mestimators. latter The can be moreefficient, their and com- whichalso have a 50% breakdown point.At symmetric disputational is complexity similar evenlower, we restrict tributions, if (or (6.3) and (6.4) are asymptotically equivalentto their to algorithm a fixed of number iteration steps).But M- Snand Qn;however, simulations haveindicated thatat finite estimators definedimplicitly, are whereasSn and Qnhave samplestheseestimators not perform do thanSn and better an explicit whichguarantees formula, uniquenessofthees- Qn,so we see no reasonto switch either to (6.3) or (6.4). A timateand is moreintuitive. thereis no need to possibleapplicationof (6.3) would be to divideit by Sn to Moreover, selecta function or to choose tuning X constants. obtaina testfor symmetry (analogously, (6.4) can be divided Another classis thatofone-step M-estimators, whichhave by Qn). This is similarto a proposalof Boos (1982) using an explicit formula and can also attaina highefficiency and Gini's averagedeviation. a highbreakdown point.Butlikefully iterated M-estimators, Recently, Rousseeuwand Croux(1992) proposedseveral because theyneed an ancillary otherexplicitscale estimators theyare not location-free withhighbreakdown point. locationestimator. And,also likefully iterated M-estimators, A promising estimator is their an computation requires initialhigh-breakdown scale l h estimator suchas MADn, Sn,or Qnin thefirst place. Finally, Tn= 1.3800 z2 {medIxi -Xjl}(k). (6.5) it shouldbe notedthatalthough k-step M-estimators inherit *i1 hk= I thebreakdown pointoftheinitial it estimator, turns that out point,a contintheiractual contamination bias does increase(Rousseeuw It was provedthatTnhas a 50% breakdown uous influence an of function, efficiency 52%, and a grossand Croux 1993). of sensitivity 1.4688. ChoosingbetweenSn and Qncomes down to a tradeoff error In cluster analysisone oftenneeds a measureof dissimibetween thatare hardto compare.Although advantages Qn betweentwo groupsA and B, whichis based on the is more efficient, most applicationswe would prefer in Sn larity dissimilarities. a discussion suchmeasures interobject (For of because it is veryrobust, witnessed itslow gross-error as by see Kaufmanand Rousseeuw1990,sec. 5.5.) Our estimators Anotheradvantageof Sn is that its simplicity sensitivity. to makesit easierto compute. Snand Qncan be extended thissituation, yielding We expect application the of potential thenewrobust scale j)} ds(A, B) = medieAf{medjeBd(i, (6.6) estimators be mainlyin the following to threeuses: (1) as a data analytic tool by itself; as an ancillary (2) scale estimate and to make M-estimators affine equivariantand as a starting dQ(A, B) = { d(i, j); i&EA, j&EB}(k), (6.7) value for iterative the computation M-estimators; (3) of and as an objectivefunction regression for analysis,as will be wherek is approximately )(#B)/4. (Both measures (#A are described thenextsection. in equivariantformonotonetransformations the d( i, j); on

Rousseeuw and Croux: Alternatives to the MAD

1281

are = c lomedihimed,Ix, - x,. We firstshow that en ? [n/2]/n. hence theycan stillbe applied whenthe dissimilarities the sampleX' byreplacing observations a in on an ordinalscale.) Note thatdQis symmetric thesense Construct contaminated 0 X[n/2]+l by xl. Then we have himed,Ixi - x,= thatdQ(A, B) = dQ(B, A), whereasds is not,but thiscan x2, x', for[n/2] + 1 observations hence Sn(X') = 0. Moreover,ewith d'8(A, B) = min{ ds(A, B), be repairedby working than [n/2] 2 [n/2]/n. Indeed, take any sample X' wherefewer ds(B, A)}. are replaced. Because X was in general position, observations methexisting Both d'8and dQcan be seenas robustifying himed,Ixi - x I 2 mini<,Ix, - x I/2 = 6 > 0 for all i; hence by ods. Indeed,ifthemediansin (6.6) werereplaced averages, in or ifthe orderstatistic (6.7) was replacedby an average, a e+ Further, < [(n + 1)/2]/n. Construct sampleX' by replacaveragelinkagecri- ing xl by X(n) + L, x2 by X(n) + 2L, the thenwe would recover well-known and X[(n+1)/2]by X(n) the hand,replacing mediansbyminima + [(n + 1)/2]L, withL > 0. Then himedgI - xI 2 L forall i. On terion. theother x' k will setting in (6.7) equal to 1) producesthe LettingL tend to infinity then inflatethe estimator be(or equivalently, Sn hand,e+ > [(n + 1)/2]/n.Take any the replacing mediansby yondall bounds.On theother Moreover, criterion. linkage single are 2] than[(n + 1)/ observations replaced. k maxima(or setting = (#A)(#B) in (6.7)) yieldscomplete sampleX' wherefewer If x' belongs to the original sample, then himed, x' - x,I I linkage.We can thus thinkof d' and dQ as intermediate X we < x(n) - x(l) I. Because thisholds forat least halfthe points, whichare often linkage, and complete linkage between single thatSn(X') < c Ix(n)-x(l)I < 00. find the criteria For to considered be too extreme. instance, latter Remark. This proofalso impliesthatif we replacethe outer the limit (becauseusually smallest do nothavean asymptotic of medianby an orderstatistic rankk < h = [n/2] + 1, thenthe tends dissimilarity dissimilarity to 0 as n oo, and thelargest points. will estimator keep thesame breakdown tendsto oo), whereas(6.6) and (6.7) do. equivariant The factthate*(Sn, X) ? [n/2]/n forany affine The approach put Anotherapplicationis to regression. was scale estimator provedby Croux and Rousseeuw(1992a). affine equiin forward (Rousseeuw 1984) was to construct 3. by estimates minimizing Proofof Theorem We use the notations regression high-breakdown variant r,, of scale a high-breakdown estimate theresiduals . . ., r,. and g2 =((gF) [x0.[) g= ((gF))l]-_,Ox0])' the (5.1) yields the minimizing scale estimator For instance, are In estimator. the same vein, S-estimators Condition 1 ensuresthat these functions well defined.With LMS regression GF(U) = P(gF(Y) ? u), we have S(F) = cG-'(1/2) = 1, using by (Rousseeuwand Yohai 1984)wereobtained minimization the p. (2.3). Let us denote F, = (1 - e)F + eIx. Differentiating expresof of an M-estimator scale based on a smoothfunction sion GF,(c-'S(F,)) = 1/2 yields in introduced thisarscale estimators The high-breakdown ticle could be used in the same way. It seems that Q, is aGF,(c-') influence becauseofitssmooth to preferable Snin thisregard, _ )_C _= aS(Fc) = (Al ) IF(x; S,F) = estiwe function. Therefore, may considerthe regression C.'(c mator
Sn(X ) > Cb.

0,7 argmin0Q,(r,, . . , rn). . =

(6.8)

of Using Conditions1 and 2, we obtain foru in a neighborhood c-' that GF(U) = P(gl (u) Y? g2(u)) = F(g2(u))-F(g,
f

(LQD) to We will refer 0,,as the least quartiledifference classofgeneralized to The estimator. LQD belongs thelarger S-estimators (Croux, Rousseeuw,and H6ssjer 1993). The of efficiency the LQD turnsout to be 67.1%, asymptotic thanthatof S-estimators. whichis much higher in A finalextension to scale estimation a linearmodel. is are dispersion based on the estimators the error of Existing fit. residualsfrom some regression But it is possibleto genestimators and Q, to scale estiSn eralizethe location-free in the do thatare regression-free, sensethatthey not mators of paramedependon any previousestimate the regression ters.In the simplelinearmodel,we may considertriangles formedby data points and compute theirverticalheight (Rousseeuw h( i, j, k). This leads to severalscale estimators mequantilesor repeated and Hubert1993), obtainedfrom to is diansoftheh( i,j, k). Whenattention restricted adjacent this triangles, also yieldsa testforlinearity.

(u)).

Condition2 yieldsg,(c-l') = q, and g2(c-G')= q2; hence

G '( -

f f(q2 ) '(q2)

( q l) f'(ql)

(A .2)

from Condition3 allowsus to assumethatx is different thepoints will function notbe c-? and q2 ? c' (in whichtheinfluence + q, small,we maywrite defined).For e sufficiently

GF,(u)=

Fj(g2,c(u))

Fc(gi,,(u))

(A.3)

of all for u in a smallneighborhood c'. We choosea neighborhood in of decreasing a neighborhood q, and increasing suchthatgF. stays nearq2. We mayalso assume thatgj,,(c-6') and g2,.(c-') are lying of Differentiation (A.3) yields in thatneighborhood.

aGF,(u) f(g2,Ku) dGr'(l{)| =f(g2(u)) ae

aFjg2(U)) ae Ic=o

-f(g,(u)) in Evaluating c' gives Id=e_f ) gd2c)

C

ae

ae

APPENDIX: PROOFS
have and someproofs computations been Due to lackofspace, and (Rousseeuw Croux report to and omitted referred a technical 1991).

F(q2) + I(x < q2)

anddenote En

position in 1. of Proof Theorem Let X be a sample general

=

4+(S5, X)

andEn-

en-(Sn, X),

where Sn~

dc |0+F(q,)-I(x

< q).

(A.4)

1282 By definition gF., we have of

(1- e){F(c' + g2,,(c'))
- F(g2,(c -

of Journal the AmericanStatistical Association,December 1993 Whenx < gG0(x), Equation (A.9) entailsgG0(x)= g-(x). Thereon and fore, gG0(x)is symmetric increasing thepositive numbers. This impliesthat B-(e, F) = S(Go)
gGo
=

-c
-x(g2,c

)
-')c')} 1/2.

+ e{z\A(c'

+ g2,j(c'))

Differentiating yields
{f(g2,(c-') + c-') -f(g2,(c-') -{F(c'
+ {I(x ? c'

cgG0(medYI) I

- C-')}
-

ag2,(c-') -c
? 92,c(C-')

== C~O(F F-1

4(1 1-e
-

-))) ))
3e)/[2(1 -

(A. I10)
e)]}/2,

+ g2,j(c'))
+ g2,c(c')) -

F(g2c
-

)}
= 0.

where Y is distributed accordingto Go. Because F-1 { (3 - 4e)/

[4(1 -

I(x

Usingtherelation F(q2 + c-')

F(q2- c-') = 1/2,we obtain (A'))

Equations (2.13) and (2.14) provide an implicitdetermination of B-(e, F). Proof Theorem Let themodeldistribution symmetric of 7. Fbe about 0 and have a density. G = (1 - e)F + eH, thefunctional At Q(G) is thesmallest positivesolutionof

e)]}

is smaller than F-' {(2

ag2,(C-') sgn(Iq2-xl -c') ac C=O 2(f(q2 + C ') -f(q2 Analogously, also find we
_g_c(c_')

where is theconstant d defined (3.7). IfX is distributed by according Combining(A.1), (A.2), (A.4), (A.5), and (A.6) givesthe desired to F and Y1, Y2according G, thenwe can rewrite I 1) as to (A. equation(2.6). Proofof Theorem4. Let e be any value in ]O, 2 [. We obtain B+(e, F) as the limitof S(Gn), whereG, = (1 - e)F + cAx,and Let accordingto G,. Then x, goes to infinity. Y be distributed is thesmallest positivevalue forwhich gG,(x) Gn(x + gGn(x)) (1 e){F(x +
+ e

ac

|=o

sgn(Iq, - xl -c-') 2(f(q, + c') -f(q, - c'))

G(y + d-'Q(G)) dG(y) 2 5/8,

(A.1 1)

(1

C)2F*2(d-lQ(G))

+e(1 -e){1

+P(IX-

Y'I

d-'Q(G))}
?

+e2P((Y1-Y2)
2

d-'Q(G))

5/8. (A.12)

G,(x

gGn(x)) + P(Y

gG,(x)) ? .5.

Note thateach termin (A. 12) is increasing Q(G). To maximize in Q(G), we have to minimize P(I X - Y,I < d-'Q(G)) and (O and 2) whenbothlocationand scale of H tendto infinity. (For instance, consider sequenceofGaussiandistributions location a with n and standard deviation Therefore, 12)yields n.) (A. formula (3.10). For theimplosion bias curve, have to maximizeP( IX we I < d-'Q(G)) and P((YI - Y2) < d-'Q(G)). When we choose H = AO,we attainthe maximalvalues 2F(Q(G)) - 1 and 1. Combiningthiswith(A. 12), we obtain Equation (3.11), whichdeterminesB-(e, F). 1991. June [Received September Revised 1992.]
P((Yi
-

Substituting yields Gn
gGn(x))
{ L\xn(X
+

Y2) < d-'Q(G)).

These termsapproach theirlower bounds

F(x
gGn (X)

gGn(x))}
-

,,, (X

gGn(X))

}
2

+ eI(x - gGn(x) = xn)

.5.

Because e < .5, foreach M > 0 we can choose nosuch thatforall

n>

nO
SUp (X + gG,(X)) Ixi <M < Xn

(A.7)

and
IxI M

inf gG,(x) ? sup

IxI<M

gG(x),

(A.8)

REFERENCES
Andrews, F., Bickel,P. J.,Hampel, F. R., Huber,P. J.,Rogers, H., D. W.

of making use of the properties F. Using (A.7) yields g+(x) = gG,(x) for all I xl < M and forall n > no. If we choose M such that
medlIYlI
=

F-(

e ) <M,

vances,Princeton, Princeton NJ: University Press. Bickel,P. J.,and Lehmann,E. L. (1976), "Descriptive Statistics Nonfor parametric Models III: Dispersion,"The Annals ofStatistics, 11394, 1158. (1979), "DescriptiveStatisticsfor Nonparametric Models IV: Jureckova, Prague:Academia,pp. 33-40. Boos, D. (1982), "A Test forAsymmetry AssociatedWith the Hodges77, 647-651.

andTukey, W. (1972),Robust J. Estimates Location: and of Survey Ad-

and then,using(A.8) and the symmetry monotonicity gG"(x) of on ]-M, M[ (from Eq. (2.12)), we obtain
S(G,) = cgG"(med I Y I),

in Spread," Contributions toStatistics, HdjekMemorial Volume, J. ed.

Lehmann Journal theAmerican Estimator," of Statistical Association,

whichdoes not depend on n (providedthatn > no). Therefore, Croux, C., and Rousseeuw,P. J. (1992a), "A Class of High-Breakdown Scale Estimators Based on Subranges,"Communications Statistics, in Equations(2.11) and (2.12) together determine B+(e, F). and Methods, Theory 21, 1935-1951. For the implosionbias curve,we have B-(e, F) = S(GO), with (1992b), "Time-Efficient Algorithms Two HighlyRobustEstifor matorsof Scale," in Computational Statistics, Volume1, eds. Y. Dodge Now gG0(x) is the smallest positive solution Go = (1 - )F + eLA0. and J.Whittaker, Heidelberg: Physika-Verlag, 411-428. of (1
-

e){F(x + gG0(x))
+ e

F(x

gG.(x))}
-

{ AO (X

+ gGo(x))

AO (X -

gGo(x))

+ RI(x

gG0(x) = 0) ?

.5. (7.9)

Croux, C., Rousseeuw, P. J., and H6ssjer, 0. (1993), "Generalized SEstimators," technical report 93-03,Universitaire Instelling Antwerpen, Belgium. contributo studiodelle disallo Gini, C. (1912), "Variabilitae mutabilita, tribuzioni dellerelazioni e StudiEconomico-Giuridicidella statistiche,"

It follows thatx ? gG0(x) and that

X =gG0(X)

iffx?F1l(

21

3' )/2.

Grubel,R. (1988), "The Lengthof the Shorth,"The AnnalsofStatistics, 16, 619-628. Curveand its Role in RobustEstiHampel, F. R. (1974), "The Influence

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