Respiration!

Oxidation Energy is locked up in food molecules such as glucose. Living organisms release their energy by breaking down the molecules Oxidation is the reaction in which a molecule gains oxygen and or loses hydrogen. Respiration is the oxidation of food substances with the release of energy in living cells.

1. Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration is the oxidation of food substances in the presence of oxygen with the release of large amount of energy. Carbon dioxide and water is released as waste products.

6C6H12O6 +6O2

6CO2+6H20+A LOT OF ENERGY!

Examples of energy-consuming processes Synthesis of protein from the amino acids Building up of protoplasm for growth Cell division Muscular contractions such as heartbeats and respiratory movements Active transport in the absorption of food substances by the small intestines Transmission of nerve pulses or messages Released as heat which circulates around the body and keep us warm

2. Anaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration is breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration releases less energy than aerobic respiration. Yeast! Without oxygen it carries out anaerobic respiration Releases lesser energy Little amount of energy released is enough for it to survive but not active under those conditions. Alcohol Fermentation

GLUCOSE

ETHANOL+CO2+SMALL AMOUNT OF ENERGY!

o Glucose molecule only partially broken down o Ethanol produced still contain large amounts of energy o Small amount of energy set free

Muscles! Only respire anaerobically for a short period of time During vigorous exercise Muscle cell start to respire aerobically Pant to take in more O2 and to remove CO2 Heart beat faster Limit to the rate of breathing and heartbeats When muscular contractions are so vigorous that maximum aerobic respiration is unable to produce energy fast enough meet the demand. Extra energy had to be produced Muscle cells carry out anaerobic respiration to produce extra energy Lactic acid formed in process

C6H12O6

2C3H6O3+SMALL AMOUNT OF ENERGY!

o Small amount of energy is sufficient to keep the muscles contracting

When there is insufficient oxygen to meet the demands of the muscle contractions it is known as oxygen debt. Lactic acid that builds up may cause fatigue and muscular pain. Body rest and recover Breathing rate continues to be fast to provide sufficient oxygen to repay the oxygen debt. Lactic acid is removed and transported to liver Lactic acid in the liver is oxidized to produce energy Energy is used o convert ha remaining lactic acid into glucose Lactic acid used up, oxygen debt is repaid Glucose transported back to muscles

Gaseous Exchange
Gaseous exchange is the exchange of gases between a organism and the environment. Tissue respiration Aerobic respiration involves tissue respiration Tissue respiration is the oxidation of organic food substances releasing carbon dioxide energy and water within the cell or tissues of an organisms Unicellular aquatic organisms Large surface area to volume ration Do not require any gas exchange system Oxygen and carbon dioxide can be efficiently exchanged between organism and surrounding water by diffusion through cell surface membrane. Large animals Small Surface area to volume ratio External surface area are thickened for protection and to prevent water lost Not suitable for gaseous exchange Lungs or gills as their gas exchange system Enlarged surface area and thin coverings More oxygen can be absorbed and more carbon dioxide removed from the body per unit time. Special breathing movements Rapid exchange of gases Breathing Mechanisms The taking in of air is called inspiration(inhalation) The giving out of air is called expiration(exhalation)

Gaseous exchange system

The nose Air enters the body by the 2 external nostrils(external nares) Has walls that bear a fringe of hair Lead to 2 nasal passages that are lined with a moist mucous membrane Advantages Dust and foreign particles and bacteria in the air are trapped by the hairs in then nostril and the mucus on the mucous membrane As air passes through the nasal passages it is warmed and moisten before it enters the lungs Harmful chemicals may be detected by the small sensory cells in the mucous membrane Air in your nasal passages enter the pharynx From the pharynx, it passes through into the larynx and then into the trachea- through opening (glottis)

Trachea and bronchi Trachea lies in front of the oesophagus Extends downwards from the larynx into the chest cavity Lower end of the trachea divides into 2 tubesbronchi, one to each lung Each bronchus divides repeatedly and end up in fine bronchioles Which end in a cluster of air sacs Walls are lined by epithelium bearing cilia Cilia help to sweep these particles up the bronchi and trachea into the pharynx Then they are swallowed into the oesophagus Gland cells in the epithelium secrete mucus to trap dust and bacteria

Adaptations Trachea is supported by c-shaped ring of cartilage which ensures that the trachea is always kept open. Gland cells in the epithelium secrete mucus to trap dust and bacteria Cilia help to sweep these particles up the bronchi and trachea into the pharynx Lungs Pleural Cavity Each lungs lie the pleural cavity, within which the lungs expands It is lined with 2 transparent elastic membrane called the pleura/pleural membranes The inner pleuron covers the lung The outer pleuron is in contact with the walls of the thorax and the diaphragm A thin layer of lubricating fluid between the pleura allows membrane to glide over each other easily when the lungs expand and contract during breathing. Divide repeatedly Bronchioles (smaller tubes) Not supported by cartilage Ends in a cluster of air sacs/alveoli

Bronchial tubes

Alveoli Thousands found in the lungs, provide a large area for gaseous exchange Well-supplied with blood capillaries for gaseous exchange Adaptations for alveoli Numerous alveoli in the lungs provide a large surface area Wall of the alveolus is only one cell thick--- ensures a faster rate of diffusion of gases Thin film of moisture covers the inner surface of the alveolusallows oxygen to dissolve in it Walls of the alveoli are richly supplied with blood capillaries. Flow of blood maintains the concentration gradient of gases

Chest Cavity Chest wall supported by ribs Ribs are attached ventrally to the chest bone or the sternum 12 ribs, 10 ribs attached to sternum, remaining is not 2 sets of musclesthe external and internal intercostal muscles found between the ribs Antagonistic muscles When external intercostal muscles contract, internal intercostal muscles relax

Thorax separated from the abdomen by the diaphragm Diaphragm contract, it flattens downwards Diaphragm relaxes, arches upwards ** Intercostal muscles and diaphragm changes volume in the thoracic cavity Inspiration 1. Diaphragm contracts and flattens 2. External intercostal muscles contract while your internal intercostals muscles relax 3. Ribs move upwards and out 4. Sternum moves up and forward 5. Volume of thoracic cavity increases 6. Air pressure in your lungs cause them to expand to fill up the enlarged space in your thorax 7. Expansion of the lungs caused the air pressure inside them to decrease 8. Atmospheric pressure is now higher than the pressure in your lungs. 9. This would cause air to rush into your lung *There is a short pause between exhalation which allows gaseous exchange to occur between alveolar air and blood Expiration 1. Diaphragm relaxes and arches upwards 2. Internal intercostal muscles contract while your external intercostals muscles relax 3. Ribs move downwards and inwards 4. Sternum moves down its original position 5. Volume of thoracic cavity decreases 6. Lungs are compressed and air pressure inside them increases as volume decreases 7. Air pressure within the lungs is now higher than atmospheric pressure 8. The air is forced out of your lungs to the exterior Gaseous exchange in the alveoli By diffusion Concentration Gradient Blood entering the lungs has a lower concentration of oxygen but a higher concentration of carbon dioxide than atmospheric air entering the alveoli in the lungs. Concentration gradient between blood and alveoli air Oxygen diffuses from the alveolar air into the blood capillaries Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction

Oxygen absorbed in the lungs One cell-thick membrane separating the blood capillaries from the alveolar air is permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide. As alveolar air contains a higher concentration of oxygen than the blood, oxygen dissolves in the moisture lining the alveolar walls and then diffuses into the blood capillaries. Oxygen combines with haemoglobin in the RBC to form oxyhaemoglobin Reaction is reversible In the lungs where the oxygen concentration is high, oxyhaemoglobin is formed When blood passes through oxygen-poor tissues, oxygen is released It then diffuses into the walls of the blood capillaries into the cells Haemoglobin (Purplished-red) +O2 - O2 Oxyhaemoglobin ( bright red)

Carbon dioxide that is removed from your body Tissue cells produce a great deal of carbon dioxide as a result of aerobic respiration As blood capillaries pass through these tissues, carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood and enters the red blood cells Carbonic dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid in RBC Reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase present in the RBC Carbonic acid is then converted to hydrogencarbonate ions which diffuses out of the RBC Most of carbonic acid is carried as hygrondencarbonate ions in the blood plasma Small amount of carbon dioxide is also carried and dissolved in blood In the lungs, hydrogencarbonate ions diffuse back into the RBC where they are converted into carbonic acid and then into water and carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide then diffuses out of the blood capillaries into the alveoli and then expelled when breath out.

CO2+H2O

H2CO3 Carbonic Anhydrase (Carbonic acid)

H+ +HCO3-

Concentration gradient maintained by: A continuous flow of blood through the blood capillaries Breathing air in and out of the alveoli

Component Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Nitrogen Water Vapor Temperature Dust particles

Inspired air 21% 0.03% 78% Rarely saturated Variable Rarely present

Expired air 16.4% 4.0% 78% Saturated -when exhale, some water evaporates from the surface of the alveoli Body Temperature -Some heat escapes from the blood into the alveolar air Little -removed by nose hair, cilia or mucous

Stimulus for breathing High concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood or alveolar air, lack of oxygen No breathing movements occur when there is too little carbon dioxide in the lungs, Danger of overbreathing Therefore the higher the concentration of carbon dioxide, the higher the breathing rate. Irritants in the air harmful to you Dangerous when there is too many irritant particles enter lungs and respiratory tubes Breathe through your nose, they are filtered of by the hairs in the nose or trapped in mucus When irritant particles enter your respiratory passages enter your respiratory passages, it would cause automatic violent coughing or sneezing reaction to expel them. Long exposure to irritant particles would cause serious lung damage. Chemicals in tobacco smoke Nicotine Properties of the chemical Addictive drug Cause release of hormone adrenaline make blood clot easily -combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin which would reduce the efficiency of red blood cells increase the rate of fatty deposit on the inner arterial walls damage the lining of the blood vessels Contain of cancer causing chemicals which induced uncontrolled cell division of the epithelium Effects on the body increase in heartbeat and blood pressure increase risk of blood clots in the blood vessel Death if the concentration in the air are increased by 1% Increased risk of atherosclerosis Increase blood clotting in the atries Blockage in the air sacs and reduction in gas exchange efficiency Dust particles trapped in the

Carbon monoxide

Tar

Irritants

Paralyses the cilia lining in the passage way Paralyses the cilia lining in the passage way

mucus lining the airway cannot be removed Increased risk of chronic bronchitis and emphysema

CHRONIC BRONCHITIS The epithelium lining in the airway(bronchi) may be inflamed Excessive mucous is secreted by the epithelium Cilia are paralysed. Mucous and dust cannot be removed Airway becomes blocked, making breathing difficult Have to cough persistently to clear his airway in order to breathe Increases the risk of lung cancer EMPHYSEMA Violent coughing breaks the partition between the air sacs The surface area for gaseous exchange decreases Lungs become inflated with air Lungs lose their elasticity Breathing becomes difficult Person wheezes and suffers breathlessness *If the person has chronic bronchitis and emphysema it is said to have chronic obstructive lung diseases Lung cancer Cancer is an uncontrolled division of cells producing outgrowths or lungs of tissues Smoking also increases the risk of cancers of the throat, mouth, pancreas, kidney and urinary bladder.

Gaseous exchange in green plants

Leaves of the plant have a large surface are to volume ratio, so simple diffusion of gases is sufficient to meet their needs Stomata of leaves Oxygen from the surrounding atmosphere diffuses into the intercellular air spaces of the leaves and stems Oxygen dissolves into the moisture lining the cell walls and then diffuses into the cells Oxygen diffuses from cell to cell to reach those cells that are not directly exposed to air In roots oxygen dissolves in the cell solution diffuses in the root hair and inner cells of the root. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the root through the surfaces of the root hairs

Carbon dioxide produced by tissue respiration diffuses out of the cell into the intercellular spaces and then the atmosphere via stomata In old woody stems, a layer of waterproof cork tissue develops below the epidermis Opening called lenticels are formed at the cork layer for gaseous exchange