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Research Methods

Topics covered include: Basic concepts and definitions of relevance Writing a research proposal Formulation of research problem Questionnaire design Sampling: probability and non-probability methods Data collection through measurement and/or observation Data management. Data analysis Dissemination of research findings Basic Concepts and Definitions Definition of Research Research is defined as scientific and systematic investigation to find out or revise facts or add to knowledge about a specific topic, test models and develop theories about a natural aspect. In its most general sense research is simply a search for knowledge or truth. The search process itself involves collecting information about a subject from a variety of sources including books, journals and the Internet or by carrying out surveys or experiments or talking to people and analysis of this information. Objectives of Research Research generally attempts to find answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. More specifically research aims at: 1. portraying accurately the characteristics of a particular individual objects, a situation or a group. 2. determining the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else. 3. presenting a hypothesis about causal relationship between variables What is Research Methodology? Research Methodology is defined as a highly intellectual human activity used in the investigation of nature and matter and deals specifically with the manner in which data is collected, analyzed and interpreted. Types of Research Methods Four types of research methods: 1. Qualitative, 2. Quantitative, 3. Mixed (qualitative and quantitative) ,and 4. Critical and action oriented.
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What Constitutes a Research Topic? A Research Topic is an unanswered question, an unsolved question, a Concern, a Query, or a Statement of inquiry. How to Choose a Research Topic? A Topic is chosen for research either because of Personal interest, Social problem, Testing theory, or Program evaluation. Types of Research: 1. Descriptive research: It describes the state of affairs as it exists at present. 2. Analytical research: It analyses facts or information already available to make a critical evaluation of the material. 3. Applied research: It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society. 4. Quantitative research It is based on the measurement of quantity. 5. Qualitative research: It aims at discovering the underlying motives of human behavior. 6. Empirical research: It relies on experience or observation alone. 7. One-time research: It is confined to a single time period 8. Longitudinal research: The research is carried out over several time periods

[ Research Proposals ]
Having decided on the research topic and defined a clear research question or set of questions, together with appropriate methods of seeking answers, you now need to convey your plan of research clearly in a research proposal. This precedes the design and implementation of a research. A research proposal is a formal plan encompassing the purpose and the methodology of the study. It briefly contains the following elements: 1. An introduction: This is a brief overview of the related conceptual issues and/or historical developments of some aspects of relevance to the research topic. 2. A precise statement of research problem or question. 3. Reasons for undertaking the research (significance). 4. Statement of research Objectives. 5. Specification of Parameters (indicators) of the study and/or hypotheses to be tested. 6. Specification of elements and Target population (or universe). 7. Specification of main study variables; i.e. characteristics of elements of interest, and their types.

8. Specification of the appropriate data collection mode. Generally there are three modes: i. Experimentation, ii. Surveying, and iii. Continuous registration system. 9. Specification of appropriate Sample or Experimental Design. Consequently the appropriate sample size and its allocation should be specified. 10. Specification of data collection method. 11. Data Management/Processing ,tabulation, and analysis plans. 12. Time schedule. 13. Budgets. 14. References cited. Remark: To be able to formulate the research problem, prepare a research proposal, and conduct a research scientifically , literature of relevance should be thoroughly and critically reviewed. What is Literature Review? A Literature review is a Systematic review of available resources, Theoretical and conceptual concepts, Identification of independent and dependent variables, Measurement and operational definitions, Selection of appropriate research technique, Sampling strategy, Statistical technique, Findings and conclusions of similar already executed studies of relevance. Usually, Sources of Information for Literature Review are Books, Journals, Internet, Data bases, Archives, Interviews, Observations, Reports, and Records. Why Developing a Research Proposal? Research proposals serve the following purposes: 1. They convince others that your research is worth undertaking. 2. They enable you to demonstrate expertise and competency in your particular area of study. 3. They may serve as a contract between the researcher and his/her funders. 4. They serve as a planning tool for the researcher. Main Phases of Research 1. Formulation of Research Problem: This includes: Checking the existence of a problem that needs to, and can, be studied. A Research problem/topic is an unanswered question, an unsolved question, a Concern, a Query, or a Statement of inquiry. A problem/topic is chosen for research either because of personal interest, social problem, testing theory, or program evaluation.

Formulating and delimiting that problem. Is it relevant and executable? Checking the adequacy of resources (namely; time, personnel, and money) available for the research. Can we do it in a timely manner? Are resources available? Will it be accurate enough to be useful? Is the information worth the cost of the study? 2. Statement of Research Objectives: This includes the specification of: Parameters of interest and the hypotheses (if any) to be tested; Study variables (i.e. variables of relevance to the stated objectives); Statistical techniques to be used at the analysis stage (at least tentatively) ; and Elements and target population (these usually differ from one study to another depending on the study objectives). The nature of the study (i.e. whether descriptive or analytic) may now be specified. 3. Review Existing Sources of Data: Is the information required already available? At this stage one needs to check if any adequate data of relevance exist in any accessible source(s). Generally, there are two sources of data: primary and secondary. As such data may either be primary or secondary. (what about tertiary sources?) Data and their Sources [ Primary and Secondary Data ] Definition: Data which are collected at first hand either by the researcher or by someone else for the purpose of the research are known as primary data. Definition: Any data which have been gathered earlier for some other purpose are secondary data in the hands of the researcher. As a researcher one should be fully aware of the advantages and limitations of each type of data. Emphasis will be on Secondary data. Advantages of Secondary Data 1. A major advantage of SD is that it is far more economical ,as the cost of collecting original data is saved. 2. It saves much of the researchers time. This leads to prompt completion of the research. 3. Search for SD is helpful in gaining familiarity with such data and thereby pinpointing to its deficiencies and gaps. As such, the researcher can make his primary data collection more specific and more relevant to his research.
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4. As a researcher explores the availability of SD of relevance to his research, s/he finds, in the process, that her/his understanding of the problem has improved. S/He may even have to change some of her/his earlier ideas in the light of the secondary data. 5. SD can be used as a basis for comparison with the primary data the researcher has just collected. Disadvantages of Secondary Data 1. SD seldom fit perfectly, in a number of factors, into the framework of the current research. These factors are: - the units of analysis used in secondary data may not be the same as required in the current research.e.g., the size of a firm can be expressed as the number of employees, paidup capital employed, gross sales, gross or net profit,etc. It is just possible that the unit of measurement used in SD is different from the one needed in the current research. In this case, SD can not be used. Even if the units are the same as those required by the current research,class boundaries may be different from those required. 2. One does not always know how accurate the SD are. In case the degree of inaccuracy is high, the use of this data will undermine the utility of the current research results. 3. A severe limitation in the use of SD is that they be somewhat out of date. For, the utility of SD declines progressively as time goes by, and they are finally useful only for historical purpose. Evaluating Secondary Data It is always advisable to explore the possibility of using SD in any research because it is cheaper.In this connection there are four requirements to be met: 1. Availability: SD, when they exist, must be available for use. When SD are either not available or inaccessible, there is no alternative but to take recourse to the collection of primary data. 2. Relevance: Relevance of SD refers to the fact that the data available must fit the requirements of the research problem in terms of units of measurement and data should not be obsolete. 3. Accuracy: Here one should consult the original source to know the context in which data have been collected, and the procedure followed, as well as the extent of care exercised in their collection. 4. Sufficiency: It refers to the adequacy of SD. If SD are inadequate, the compliance with the preceding requirements will be in vain. One may seek answers to questions regarding the sample design, the questionnaire, and the extent of nonresponse and how it was handled.
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Generally, a thorough evaluation of SD and understanding of their potential limitations involves the applicability to the research objectives, cost of acquisition, and data accuracy. Main Phases of Research (contd) 4. Consider the Suitable Data Collection Mode: The appropriate mode of data collection follows from the specified study objectives and the nature of population members. Basically there are three modes of data collection: Surveying: A survey is the measurement and/or observation of the characteristics of members of the population as they exist and without exercising any control over the factors which may affect them. Experimentation Administrative (continuous) registration. 5. Questionnaire Design A questionnaire is the first data collection tool. Its design refers to the writing of simple worded direct and/or probing topical questions using nontechnical phrases and systematically grouping them thematically avoiding leading questions. 6. Choose to conduct full or partial coverage or a combination of both 1. A partial coverage involves measuring and/ or observing the characteristics of a limited number of members of the target population (i.e. a sample). 2. A complete coverage measures and/or observes the characteristics of all members of the target population. Advantages of Partial over Complete Coverage

Which to use? Because of these and some other reasons partial coverage of the target population members is the appropriate approach to undertake in many applied researches. However, when the frame required for selecting a random sample is lacking or difficult to obtain, then conducting a complete coverage becomes inevitable. Sometimes, both partial and complete coverage are used concurrently in the same investigation.

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