2.

1 Forces and Free-Body Diagrams

Forces We define Force as any type of push or pull on an object (e.g. pushing a cart or pulling on a rope). Forces cause things to move, but they do not always give rise to motion. (e.g. Exerting force on a heavy, immovable desk). When a force is exerted on an object, the object changes shape, even on the smallest scale. Some sort of deformation has occurred. Force has a magnitude and a direction and is therefore a vector quantity. Force is measured in newtons (N), and is equivalent to the force required to impart acceleration of 1m/s2 to a mass of 1 kg.

Look at the forces listed on pages 72 and 73 in your text. Free-Body Diagrams diagram of a single object showing all of the forces acting on an object.

Sample problems 1, 2 and 3. Try # 7 on page 73 Sample problems 4 and 5 Homework p. 76 # 2, 3, 4, 6

2.2 Equilibrium and Newtons First Law of Motion: Inertia

The net force acting on an object, Fnet, is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the object.

Sample 1 A young child exerts a force of 10 N to the right on a large sofa which has a mass of 100 kg. Static friction does not allow the sofa to move. Draw a FBD to illustrate the above situation.

By calculating the vector sum of all of the forces, we will see that the net force acting on the sofa is zero. The horizontal forces balance each other out, as do the vertical forces. The object is said to be in a state of static equilibrium, since it has a net force of zero and it is completely still, relative to the surface it is resting on. Sample 2 An airplane with a mass of 1.6 x 104 kg is traveling with a constant velocity of 800 km/h [E] while maintaining a constant altitude. Draw a FBD to illustrate the above situation.

In this case, the plane is in motion, but we see that the net force is still equal to zero. The plane is said to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Since the velocity is constant, there is no acceleration. In fact, any object in equilibrium experiences zero acceleration.

In any case, Fnet ( F = 0). Fx = 0, Fy = 0, and Fz = 0.

That is,

Inertia is a property of matter that causes a body to resist changes in its state of motion; it is directly proportional to mass. Newtons First Law: If the net force acting on an object is zero, the object will maintain its state of rest or constant velocity

Objects at rest remain at rest unless acted upon by a net force Objects in motion remain in motion unless acted upon by a net force If the velocity of an object is constant, the net external force acting on it must be zero If the velocity of an object is changing either in magnitude, direction, or both, the change must be caused by a net external force on the object.

Seatwork p. 80-81 # 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 Newtons Second Law of Motion Suppose you have two small carts, with the respective masses m1 and m2; where m2 has twice the mass of m1. To each cart, you attach a small fan which exerts equivalent amounts of force to drive its cart forward. Which cart do you expect to accelerate away faster? Why? Since m2 has twice the mass, it accelerates twice as slow as m1. Newtons 2nd law illustrates how mass, force and acceleration are related. Newtons 2nd Law:If the external net force on an object is not zero, the object accelerates in the direction of the force. The acceleration is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the objects mass. This law is represented by the equation: Fnet = ma Force is measured in newtons (N), where 1 N is the force required to accelerate 1-kg by a magnitude of 1m/s2. 1N = 1 kg (1m/s2), or 1 N = 1 kg m/s2 Remember that force is a vector quantity and has direction and its own respective components!

Fx = max and Fy = may How does this relationship relate to Newtons 1st Law?

If acceleration is zero, the 2nd law implies that the net force should be zero also. The first law is a special case of the 2nd law, where the net force is zero. Example Question A box with a mass of 100 kg is pushed over a level surface to the right with an applied force of 50 N [20 below the horizontal]. Kinetic friction is 20 N to the left.

a) Determine the magnitude of the normal force, FN b) What is the acceleration of the box?
c) What is the coefficient of kinetic friction? Seatwork p. 83 # 10, 12, 14 Weight: is the force of gravity (Fg) acting on an object. It is also a vector quantity measured in newtons. g represents the acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m/s2

Weight = Fg = mg Seatwork p. 84 # 16-19

Newtons Third Law of Motion

Is sometimes referred to as the action-reaction law Involves forces that act in pairs on two objects at a time. (example, helicopter blades spin quickly, exerting an action force downward on the air. The air exerts a reaction force upward on the blades, sending the helicopter in a direction opposite to the motion of the air.)

2.4 Exploring Frictional Forces

Recall that friction is a contact force that resists the motion of an object and is perpendicular to the normal force acting on the object. Friction is defined by the Ff = FN expression

Static frictional forces from the interlocking of the irregularities of two surfaces will increase to prevent any relative motion up until some limit where motion occurs. It is the threshold of motion which is characterized by the coefficient of static friction. The coefficient of static friction is typically larger than the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Fluid Friction and Bernoullis Principle A fluid is a substance that flows and takes the shape of its container. It can be either a liquid or a solid. Newtons laws of motion can be applied to analyze relative fluid motion. This helps us understand the factors that affect air resistance, minimize turbulence and control the motion of objects moving through fluids (aerodynamics and hydrodynamics). As a fluid flows, there are attractive forces that hold the molecules together. These cohesive forces cause internal friction or viscosity. Honey has a high viscosity, because its cohesive internal forces do not promote easy flow. Likewise, water has a low viscosity, as it flows quite readily. Lets look at the flow of water through a pipe

As the water flows through the pipe, the water closest to the pipe walls encounters the most friction, and is the slowest. Water in the center of the pipe flows the fastest, as it experiences the least resistance. This is an example of a laminar flow stable flow of a viscous fluid where adjacent layers of a fluid slide smoothly over one another. This type of flow can also occur when a fluid passes around a smooth object (like airflow over the nose of a plane) occurs when that fluid has to make its way around a nonefficiently shaped object (i.e. a box), causing a high external resistance, or when the fluid is highly viscous.

Laminar Flow

Turbulent Flow-

Drag- Is the forces that act against an objects motion through a fluid

With respect to energy efficiency, turbulence (or drag) is not a good thing, as kinetic energy is lost due to heat created by the friction

To combat turbulence, engineers started streamlining their respective designs. Tools used to accomplish this are large wind tunnels in which models are placed to observe airflow around vehicles or other objects. A wind tunnel creates an artificial and controlled environment in which detailed observations can be made. Homework p. 106-107 # 1-7 Streamlining is the process of reducing the turbulence experienced by an object moving rapidly relative to a fluid.

Nature, over time, has allowed animals to evolve into more streamlined creatures. Fish and birds are shaped the way they are so that they could move quickly through their environment without expending any extra energy.

One might think that the smoothest surface would create the least drag. This isnt always the case. Sometimes the fluid sticks better to a smooth surface. This stickiness actually increases drag and decreases efficiency. A shark may look like a smooth, torpedo bolting through the water. Up close, however, the sharks skin is rough.

The roughness of a sharks skin causes tiny eddies that add a little barrier between the surface of the shark and the water in which it is swimming. This allows for the water to quickly flow around the body of the shark.

You might have seen this property applied to the surface of golf-balls. The golf-ball is dimpled in order to decrease the drag as it travels through the air.

Bernoulli's principle states that a rise in pressure in a flowing fluid must always be accompanied by a decrease in the speed. Conversely an increase in the speed of the fluid results in a decrease in the fluids pressure. An example is provided by the functioning of a perfume bottle: squeezing the bulb over the fluid creates a low pressure area due to the higher speed of the air, which subsequently draws the fluid up. This is illustrated in the following figure.

Venturi Tube Label on the diagram below the areas of high and low velocity and the corresponding areas of high and low pressure.

Bernoullis principle also tells us why windows tend to explode, rather than implode in hurricanes: the very high speed of the air just outside the window causes the pressure just outside to be much less than the pressure inside, where the air is still. The difference in force pushes the windows outward, and hence explodes. If you know that a hurricane is coming it is therefore better to open as many windows as possible, to equalize the pressure inside and out. http://home.earthlink.net/~mmc1919/venturi.html

2.5 Inertial and Non-inertial Frames of Reference

Inertial Frame of Reference: A frame in which the law of inertia is valid. e.g. A ball resting on the floor of a moving bus. Relative to the bus moving at a constant velocity, the ball stays at rest, as if is there is no net force acting on it. (Newtons first law: Resting bodies will remain at rest unless a net force acts upon it). Non-inertial Frame of Reference: a frame in which the law of inertia is not valid.

e.g. When the brakes are applied, the bus decelerates, but the ball continues moving at a constant velocity, relative to the ground. Relative to the bus, it appears that the ball is accelerating forward. It appears as if there is a net force acting on the ball, Newtons 3rd Law: when there is none. For every force, there is a reaction force equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.